History of Second Language - Theories and Approach

Behavioristic Approach
• In the 1950s and 1960s, in the behaviorist view, language learning is seen as the
formation of habits, based on the notions of stimulus and response.
• Through repeated reinforcement, a certain stimulus will elicit the same response
time and again, which will then become a habit.

Learning Process

• Involves replacing those habits by a set of new ones.

• The complication is that the old L1 habits interfere with this process, either helping
or inhibiting it.

Teaching Point of View

• Imitation and repeated process - (it was strongly believed that practice makes
perfect).
• Contrastive Analysis (CA) - teaching focuses on differences of 2 languages.

Behaviorist learning theory

• A habit was formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a
particular response
• In L1 acquisition children were said to master their mother tongue by imitating
utterances produced by adults and having their efforts at using language either
rewarded or corrected. It was also believed that SLA could proceed in a similar way.

Why the L2 learner made errors:

• Old habits get in the way of learning new habits.

• Transfer will be positive when the first and second language habits are the same.
Thus, differences between the first and second language create learning difficulty
which results in errors.
•

• Second Language Learning: When learning a new language (L2), you are trying to
replace old language habits from your first language (L1) with new ones. If the new
language is similar to your first language, learning is easier. If not, it’s harder.
 • Imitation and Repetition: Practice and repeat the same language structures over and
over. The idea was that this would help you learn the new language.
• Habits and Stimuli: Language learning was thought to be about forming habits
through stimulus (like hearing words) and response (like speaking). In first language
(L1) learning, children imitate adults and are rewarded or corrected.
• Similar Approach for L2: It was believed that second language (L2) learning could
also be done through imitation and reinforcement.
• Criticisms:
• Creativity: Children don’t just repeat sentences they’ve heard. They create new
sentences by understanding language rules, not just imitating phrases.
• Errors and Interference: Errors happen because old habits from L1 interfere with
learning L2. If L1 and L2 are different, errors are more likely. This idea is known as
"interference."

Krashen’s Monitor Model

• Krashen’s Monitor Model evolved in the late 1970s in a series of articles (Krashen
1977, 1978)
• It was elaborated and expanded in a number of books (Krashen 1981, 1982, 1985;
Krashen and Terrell 1983).

5 Central Hypotheses which constitute by Krashen's Theory:

• The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

• The Monitor Hypothesis
• The Natural Order Hypothesis
• The Input Hypothesis
• The Affective Filter Hypothesis

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

• Acquisition - a subconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system of a
language, not unlike the process used by a child to “pick up” a language.
• Learning - a conscious “learning” process in which learners attend to form, figure
out rules, and are generally aware of their own process.
 • According to Krashen, what is consciously learned – does not become the basis of
acquisition of the target language. In simple words, Learning does not “turn into”
acquisition.

• Example: You learn language when you study it and learn the rules, but you
can acquire language outside of the classroom (like how a baby acquires its first
language).

The Monitor Hypothesis

• The “Monitor” is a “device” for “watchdogging” one’s output, for editing and making
alterations or corrections as they are consciously perceived.
• Acquisition is how we naturally learn and use a language. When you speak or write in
a language you’ve acquired, it comes naturally and fluently.
• The Monitor is like a grammar checker. It helps you correct your language use, but it
doesn’t start the conversation. It only steps in to fix things if needed.
• Conscious knowledge of rules does not help acquisition, but only enables the learner
to “polish up” what has been acquired through communication.

• Example: When you speak freely in a conversation, you use the words and phrases
from your acquired language. But, just before speaking, you use ‘the monitor’ to
review what you are going to say. And, just after speaking, you use ‘the monitor’
once again to check that what you just said was correct.

The Natural Order Hypothesis

• We acquire the rules of language in a predictable order, some rules tending to come
early and others late (Krashen 1985).
• This order is thought to come from our natural, subconscious learning (acquisition)
rather than from deliberate grammar rules (Monitor).
• The principal source of evidence for the Natural Order Hypothesis comes from the so-
called “morpheme’ studies
•

• Morphemes are small parts of words that carry meaning, like "s" for plurals (cats),
"ed" for past tense (walked), or "ing" for ongoing action (running).
 • According to the Natural Order Hypothesis, we don’t learn all morphemes at once.
Instead, we typically learn some morphemes before others in a specific order.
• Example: English learners might first pick up the plural “s” before learning more
complex morphemes like “ed” for past tense.

The Input Hypothesis

• We acquire language in only one way – by understanding messages, or by receiving
‘comprehensible input.
• According to Krashen, speaking will start naturally after we have had enough time to
understand and process the input.
• Silent Period: During the early stages, learners might not speak much. This “silent
period” is when they are absorbing and understanding the language.
• Criticism: It’s hard to define exactly what makes input “comprehensible.” Also,
learners often use set phrases or "formulaic expressions" to communicate before they
fully master the language.

• formulaic expressions are phrases like “How are you?” or “Thank you very much”
• Krashen argued that the best way to learn a second language is to approach the
language as children do when they are acquiring their first language.

The Affective Filter Hypothesis

• Comprehensible input may not be utilized by a second-language acquirers if there is
a ‘mental block’ that prevents them from fully profiting from it (Krashen 1985).
• It says that learners may not fully benefit from understandable language input if
they have a mental block. This block is called the "affective filter."
• Filter Down: When learners are relaxed, confident, and motivated, their affective
filter is "down." This means they can easily take in and learn from the language they
hear or read.
• Filter Up: When learners are anxious, unmotivated, or lack confidence, their
affective filter is "up." This blocks the input, making it hard for them to learn from
it, even if they understand it.

• Krashen believed that to learn a language effectively, learners need to be in a

positive and supportive environment. The goal is to lower the affective filter so that
they can better absorb and use the language.
 • Many researchers agree that emotional factors play a big role in language learning
and that teaching should focus more on communication than just grammar.

Criticism of Monitor Model

• Critics argue that Krashen's model lacks clarity in distinguishing between types of
learning, undervalues explicit instruction, and doesn’t address how to help learners
who don’t progress as expected.

• McLaughlin and others believe that teaching explicit language rules can actually
help learners become more effective in using a second language. This suggests that
conscious learning can contribute to language competence.
• Krashen’s theory emphasizes that just receiving comprehensible input (language you
can understand) is enough for language learning. However, critics point out that not
all input becomes intake (the part of input that is actually learned and remembered).
Only a small portion of the input we receive turns into intake.
• Defining i+1: The concept of “i+1” (where “i” is the learner’s current level and “i+1”
is the next level) is criticized because it’s difficult to define exactly what the current
level and the next level are. This makes it challenging to apply the theory in
practice.

The Rationalism/ Cognitive Approach

• This approach tries to understand human behavior by using logic and reason. It
focuses on how we think and learn, including how we acquire language.
• Cognitive psychologists and Noam Chomsky believe that we are born with an inborn
ability to learn language, called the Language Acquisition Device (LAD).
• This means we have a natural, built-in system for learning languages.
• Chomsky argued that all languages share common rules, known as Universal
Grammar. This set of principles helps guide how we understand and produce
language.

• Learning Process: Instead of just mimicking what they hear, children use these innate
principles to make educated guesses about language rules. As they learn, they test
and adjust their understanding based on new information.
Constructivism: (the 1980s-2000)
• Constructivists argue that all human beings construct their own vision of reality, and
therefore multiple contrasting ways knowing and describing are equally legitimate.

Cognitive Factors of Second Language Acquisition Intelligence

• There is clear evidence that L2 students who are above average on formal measures
of intelligence tend to do well in L2 learning.

Gardner (1983) described eight different forms and these are as follows:
• linguistic

• logical-mathematical abilities (IQ)

• spatial intelligence (to find your way around an environment)

• musical intelligence (to perceive and create pitch and rhythmic patterns)

• bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (athletic prowess)

• interpersonal intelligence (to understand others, how they feel, how they interact
with one another)
• intrapersonal intelligence (the ability to see oneself, to develop a sense of self-
identity)
• naturalist intelligence.

Affective Domain of Second Language Acquisition

• Affect refers to emotion or feeling. The affective factors are the emotional side of
human behavior in the second language learning process.

Specific affective factors are discussed as follows:

Anxiety

• It is associated with feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt, apprehension, or

worry.

Three components of foreign language anxiety have been identified:

• communication apprehension
• fear of negative social evaluation; and
• test anxiety, or apprehension over academic evaluation
 Empathy
• It is usually described as the projection of one’s own personality into the personality
of another in order to understand him or her better.
Motivation
• It is commonly thought of as an inner drive, impulse, emotion, or desire that moves
one to a particular action.

Instrumental motivation
• To learn an L2 for some functional reason- to pass an examination, to get a better
job, reading technical material, translation, and so forth.
Integrative motivation
• Learners wish to integrate themselves within the culture of the second language
group, to identify themselves with and become a part of that society.
Resultative motivation
• This motivation is the result of learning. Learners who experience success in learning
may become more, or in some contexts, less motivated to learn.
Intrinsic motivation
• It is s when you do something simply because you find it interesting or satisfying, not
because you’re expecting a reward.

• Factors: Your motivation can change based on your personal interests and how
involved you feel in what you’re doing. For example, you might be more motivated to
learn a new skill if it’s something you’re passionate about.
• Internal Rewards: The main rewards are feelings of accomplishment and control.
When you’re intrinsically motivated, you feel good about your progress and enjoy the
activity itself.

Extrinsic motivation

• It means you do something because you expect to get a reward or avoid a punishment
from outside yourself.
• Common extrinsic rewards include money, prizes, grades, and praise from others.
• In most cases, both intrinsic (inner satisfaction) and extrinsic (external rewards)
motivations are present. They often work together rather than being completely
separate.
 • Research Findings: Studies suggest that while extrinsic motivation is effective,
intrinsic motivation (doing things for personal satisfaction) is generally better for
long-term learning and retention.
• Extrinsic motivation involves doing things for rewards or recognition from outside
sources, but combining it with intrinsic motivation can be more effective for lasting
learning and engagement.

Sociocultural Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition

• Culture is the way of life for a group of people. It includes their ideas, customs,
skills, arts, and tools. It's the backdrop against which we live, think, feel, and
interact with others.
• “It is a system of integrated patterns, most of which remain below the threshold of
consciousness, yet all of which govern human behavior” (Condon, 1973).
• A language is a part of a culture and a culture is a part of a language.
• The acquisition of a second language is also the acquisition of a second culture

• Culture isn't just a collection of things. It’s a complex system of behaviors and
patterns that usually operate below our conscious awareness but influence how we
act.
• Learning a new language means also learning about the culture that goes with it. A
language is deeply connected to its culture, and understanding one helps you
understand the other.
• When you learn a second language, you're also immersing yourself in a new culture,
making culture a crucial part of language learning.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

• It refers to the idea that language shapes (rather than reflect) one’s world view.
• It can be summed up as follows: the background linguistic system of each language is
not merely a reproducing instrument for voicing ideas but rather is itself the shaper
of ideas

• Linguistic System and Ideas: The way each language is structured doesn't just help
us express our ideas; it actually influences how we think and shape those ideas.
 • Shaping Thoughts: Each language has its own unique way of organizing and
presenting information, which can affect the way its speakers perceive and interpret
the world.

Criticisms of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?

• Critics say Whorf’s idea that language completely shapes thought isn’t supported by
evidence, and translation shows that languages share similarities.

• The Hopi are a Native American people who live in Arizona, USA

Schumann’s Acculturation Model

Acculturation

• ‘The process of becoming adapted to a new culture.’ (Brown, 1980)

• Linton (1963) described the general process of acculturation as involving modification
in attitude, knowledge, and behavior.

John Schumann (1978) characterized the relationship between acculturation and

second-language acquisition in the following way:
• Acculturation and Language Learning: It is how well you learn a new language
depends on how much you adapt to the culture of that language.
• Social and Psychological Distance: The ease of learning a language depends on how
close or distant a learner feels from the target culture.
• Social Distance: Less interaction with the target culture means less exposure to the
language.
• Psychological Distance: If learners are not open to the new language and culture,
they won’t use the language effectively, even if they are exposed to it.

• If there’s a lot of social or psychological distance, it’s harder for the learner to fit
into and engage with the target culture.
• In summary, how well someone learns a second language depends on how much they
adapt to and engage with the culture of that language. If they feel distant from the
culture, their language learning will be more difficult.
The psychological factors are affective in nature. They include;
(1) language shock;
(2) culture shock;
(3) motivation; and
(4) ego boundaries.

Interlanguage
• This is the unique version of a language that a learner creates while learning a
second language (L2). It’s a mix of their first language (L1) and the new language
they’re trying to learn.
• Sounds: How they pronounce words
• Grammar: How they build sentences.
• Words: The vocabulary they use.
• Usage: How they use language in different situations.
•

• In short, interlanguage is the mix of their old and new language as they learn.
• They might use some rules from their first language.
• They may make mistakes by applying new language rules incorrectly.
• They might create new ways of using the language as they learn.

Fossilization
• Fossilization is the ‘freezing’ of the transition between the native language and the
target language.
• It occurs when a L2 learner is capable of conveying message with current language
knowledge and the learner fossilizes the form instead of correcting it.

• This happens when a language learner’s mistakes become fixed and unchanging,
even though they can communicate their message. The learner stops correcting
these mistakes, and they become permanent.
Reasons for this phenomenon may be due to:
• Complacency
• Inability to overcome the obstacles to acquiring native proficiency in the target language

• Complacency: The learner might feel satisfied with their current level of proficiency and
doesn’t see the need to improve further.
• Overcoming Challenges: The learner might struggle to reach native-like proficiency due to
various obstacles, leading to a sticking point where improvement stops.

Learning Styles and Strategies

Learning Styles
• Learning styles might be thought of as cognitive, affective, and physiological
traits that relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and
respond to the learning environment (Keefe, 1979).

Reflectivity and impulsivity

• Reflective Learners: They take their time and make fewer mistakes, but they
may need more patience from teachers as they work through answers.
• Impulsive Learners: They make decisions quickly, which can lead to more
mistakes, but they might be more willing to take risks with their answers.
Visual and Auditory Learning Styles:
• Visual Learners: They learn better from reading, charts, drawings, pictures and
other graphic information
• Auditory Learners: They prefer listening to lectures and audio recordings.
• Most people use both styles, but some may prefer one over the other.
Field independence and field dependence
• Field Independent: They focus on details and analyze parts separately but may
miss how these parts fit into the bigger picture.
• Field Dependent: They see the whole picture better but might struggle to focus
on individual details. They are often better at understanding social and
communicative aspects of language.
•
Ambiguity Tolerance
• This is about how well you handle confusing or contradictory information. In
language learning, it’s important to tolerate some confusion as you learn. However,
too much tolerance can make it hard to grasp and organize new information
effectively.

• In summary:
• Reflective learners take their time, while impulsive learners act quickly.
• Visual learners prefer seeing information, while auditory learners prefer hearing it.
• Field independent people focus on details, while field dependent people see the
whole picture.
• Ambiguity tolerance is about handling confusing information during learning.

Learning strategies
• Recently, language education has moved from focusing on how teachers teach to
focusing on how students learn. Researchers are now more interested in
understanding and improving how students learn languages.
• Learning strategies are defined by Oxford (1990) as “specific actions taken by the
learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more
effective, and more transferable to new situations”.

• Learning Strategies: These are methods or actions that students use to make
learning easier and more effective. Instead of relying solely on teachers, students
are encouraged to use these strategies to improve their own learning.

Oxford’s (1990) has developed a learning strategies system

• The first class refers to direct strategies that involve the language itself in a variety
of tasks and situations, and these include memory, cognitive, and compensation
strategies.
• The second class refers to indirect strategies that deal with the general
management of learning, including metacognitive, affective, and social strategies.
Direct Strategies:
• Cognitive Strategies involve manipulation or transformation of learning materials
or tasks in order to enhance comprehension. Examples include practicing,
analyzing, reasoning, or reorganizing information.
• Memory strategies are devices that help learners link new information with
something already known, such as creating mental linkages, using imagery or
physical responses.
• Compensation strategies help learners make up for inadequate knowledge in the
target language through guessing or using gestures or a circumlocution.
Indirect Startegies
• Metacognitive strategies refer to higher order executive skills that involve
planning, monitoring and evaluating of the language learning process and
production.
• Affective strategies enable learners to control over their personal emotions,
attitudes, motivations, and values that relate to language learning, including
identifying one’s feelings, using a language learning diary, or lowering learning
anxiety.
• Social strategies facilitate learning with other people and help learners develop
cultural understanding. Examples are asking questions for clarification,
cooperating with peers or more proficient learners, or empathizing with others.

• Most research findings indicate that successful learners tend to use appropriate
strategies leading to improvement, tend to use more and better strategies than
poorer learners do and are able to combine effective strategies to meet the
requirements of the language task.

• Memory Strategies: Techniques for remembering language information.

• Cognitive Strategies Methods for understanding and processing language, like
practicing or analyzing.
• Compensation Strategies: Ways to overcome gaps in knowledge by using context or
guessing.
• Metacognitive Strategies: Planning and reflecting on learning.
• Affective Strategies: Managing emotions and motivation.
• Social Strategies: Interacting with others to enhance learning.
• In short, the focus in language education is now more on how students can
effectively learn on their own using various strategies, rather than just relying on
their teachers.