2nd Language Acquisition Theories: Discussion
Names: Group: 9
Hayil Gil Guerrero
Vanessa Edith de la Cruz Soberano
Anahí Peñate Izquierdo
Natalia Contreras Domínguez
The behaviorist perspective
How does a learner acquire a second language?
According to the behaviorist perspective, a learner acquires a second language through a
process based on imitation, practice, reinforcement, and habit formation. This means that
students learn by repeating words and linguistic structures, memorizing dialogues and sentence
patterns until they become automatic habits.
What are the conditions to learn?
According to behaviorist theory, the conditions for learning a second language include:
Imitation: Repeating words and structures from the new language.
Practice: Using the language repeatedly to reinforce learning.
Reinforcement: Receiving feedback (positive or negative) to correct mistakes.
Habit formation: Internalizing second-language structures until they become automatic.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
It does not explain all learner errors. It was assumed that second-language errors came
from the first language, but many errors cannot be predicted through simple language
comparison.
Language learning is not just memorization. Behaviorist theory focused on repetition
and habit formation, but research has shown that learning is a more complex cognitive
process involving analysis and adaptation.
It does not consider learner creativity. Students do not just repeat what they hear; they
also create new structures and adapt what they learn.
The innatist perspectives
How does a learner acquire a second language?
According to the innatist perspective, a learner acquires a second language through
Universal Grammar (UG), an innate system that allows humans to learn languages.
Noam Chomsky proposed that all children are born with innate knowledge of
UG, which helps them acquire their first language naturally.
Some researchers, like Lydia White (2003), argue that UG also plays a role in
second language acquisition.
What are the conditions to learn?
According to this theory, learners acquire a second language under the following conditions:
Exposure to natural language input → Learners need interaction with native
speakers or exposure to the language in real contexts.
Engagement in meaningful communication → Learners acquire grammar
naturally while using the language in real situations.
Explicit instruction and feedback (optional) → Some researchers, like Lydia
White (1991), suggest that explicit teaching can help second language learners
correct structures that do not exist in the target language but are assumed due to
their first language.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
o Does UG apply equally to first and second language acquisition? Some
researchers argue that UG is fully available only for first language acquisition,
and that second language learners rely on different cognitive mechanisms.
o The critical period hypothesis: If UG is only available during childhood, adult
learners may not be able to acquire a second language in the same way as
children.
o Formal instruction and feedback: There is debate about whether explicit
teaching and feedback are useful or if they only improve performance without
changing deep knowledge.
o Focus on advanced learners: Research on UG in second language acquisition
mainly studies advanced learners, not beginners, which limits its application to
all stages of learning.
Second Language applications: Krashen’s Monitor Model
How does a learner acquire a second language?
According to Krashen’s Monitor Model, a learner acquires a second language primarily
through exposure to comprehensible input, meaning language that is slightly beyond their
current level (i + 1).
Language is acquired naturally, without conscious effort, similar to how children learn
their first language.
Language can also be learned through conscious study of rules and grammar, but
Krashen believes acquisition is far more important than learning.
The process unfolds in a predictable order (Natural Order Hypothesis), meaning
learners acquire structures in a sequence that is not necessarily based on grammatical
complexity.
What are the conditions to learn?
According to this model to have a successful second language acquisition, the following
conditions must be met:
Exposure to comprehensible input → Learners must hear or read language that is
understandable but slightly above their current level (i + 1).
A low affective filter → Learners should feel comfortable, motivated, and relaxed.
Anxiety, boredom, or lack of motivation can create an "affective filter" that blocks
language acquisition.
Opportunities for spontaneous communication → Learner’s use acquired knowledge
when communicating naturally. Learned rules serve as a "monitor", helping them refine
their speech or writing when they have time and focus.
Access to guided instruction → Although exposure to comprehensible input is key,
some learners stop progressing at a certain point unless they receive explicit instruction
on specific aspects of the language.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
Lack of empirical evidence → Some researchers, like McLaughlin (1987) and White
(1987), argue that Krashen's hypotheses cannot be scientifically tested or that he
misinterpreted research findings.
Overemphasis on input → While comprehensible input is crucial, studies show that
some learners stop progressing without explicit instruction and practice, contradicting
Krashen’s view that input alone is enough.
Unclear role of learning (Monitor Hypothesis) → Krashen suggests that conscious
learning (studying rules) only helps as a monitor, but some researchers argue that
explicit instruction plays a larger role in developing language proficiency.
Affective Filter Hypothesis is hard to measure → While motivation and anxiety impact
learning, there is no clear way to measure the "affective filter" scientifically.
The cognitive perspective
According to the cognitive perspective, a learner acquires a second language through general
cognitive processes such as perception, memory, categorization, and generalization.
Information processing
How does a learner acquire a second language?
A learner acquires a second language by gradually building knowledge that becomes automatic
through practice. At first, they focus on key words rather than grammar, but with experience,
processing becomes faster. Fluent speakers rely on predictable patterns, and word recognition
becomes automatic, allowing them to focus on overall meaning rather than individual words.
What are the conditions to learn?
Attention and cognitive resources: Learners must pay attention to linguistic features,
but they can only process a limited amount of information at once.
Practice and automatization: Learning begins with declarative knowledge (explicit
rules), which, through practice, becomes procedural (usable) knowledge and eventually
automatic.
Restructuring: Learning is not always gradual; sometimes, learners experience sudden
progress or setbacks due to qualitative changes in their knowledge.
Transfer-appropriate processing (TAP): Information is best retrieved in contexts
similar to where it was learned. For example, if a student learns grammar through drills,
they may struggle to use it in communication, whereas learning through meaningful
interactions enhances retrieval in real-life situations.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
Limited attention capacity: Learners can only focus on a small amount of information
at once, which slows down language acquisition.
Overgeneralization and backsliding: Learners may apply rules too broadly, leading to
errors such as saying "I seed" instead of "I saw."
Retrieval difficulties due to learning context: If learning occurs in artificial conditions
(e.g., drills), knowledge may not transfer well to real communication.
Lack of a fully explanatory model: While information processing explains some aspects
of second language acquisition, it does not account for all variations in learning speed
and success.
Usage-based learning
How does a learner acquire a second language?
Learners acquire a second language through repeated exposure to linguistic patterns in
meaningful contexts. They develop associations between words, phrases, and situations,
gradually using language naturally without relying on explicit grammar rules.
What are the conditions to learn?
Learning requires frequent exposure to language in real-life situations. Strong associations form
when words and structures appear together often, helping learners internalize patterns and use
them fluently.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
A key limitation is that it may not fully explain the acquisition of complex or rare structures.
Learners might overgeneralize rules and struggle with exceptions that require explicit learning.
The competition model
How does a learner acquire a second language?
According to the competition model, second language acquisition occurs through exposure to
linguistic cues that signal meaning, function, and sentence structure. Learners gradually learn to
interpret these cues based on their frequency and relevance in the target language. Each language
prioritizes different cues such as word order, grammatical markers, or animacy—to indicate
relationships between words.
What are the conditions to learn?
Learning under the competition model requires extensive exposure to the target language in
various contexts. Learners must engage with linguistic input that highlights the patterns and cues
specific to the second language. They also need to process and internalize the differences in cue
weighting between their first and second languages. Since learning depends on experience,
interaction with native speakers, reading, listening, and using the language actively helps
reinforce the correct prioritization of cues. Cognitive abilities, such as pattern recognition and the
ability to shift attention to new linguistic structures, are also essential for successful acquisition.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
One limitation of the competition model is that learners may struggle to suppress the cue
priorities from their first language, which can lead to misinterpretations and errors in sentence
processing. For example, an English speaker learning Italian may incorrectly rely on word order
rather than recognizing grammatical markers that indicate subject-object relationships. This
interference can slow down the acquisition process, making it harder for learners to adjust to a
different language structure.
Language and the brain
How does a learner acquire a second language?
According to research on language and the brain, second language acquisition involves both
shared and distinct neural mechanisms compared to first language acquisition. Brain imaging
studies show that both hemispheres of the brain are involved in processing languages, but the
activation patterns differ depending on the learner's age and proficiency level.
What are the conditions to learn?
Second language acquisition through brain processing depends on several factors, including the
learner’s age, frequency of exposure, and level of proficiency. Younger learners are more likely
to process L2 in the same brain areas as L1, whereas adults may require additional neural
resources, making acquisition potentially more effortful. Increased exposure and practice in the
second language help learners develop more efficient neural pathways, allowing them to process
L2 more similarly to L1 over time. Higher proficiency levels correlate with greater neurological
similarities between L1 and L2 processing, especially in understanding meaning and grammar.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
One limitation of this perspective is that research on language and the brain is still in its early
stages, and findings remain inconclusive. While studies have shown differences in brain
activation patterns, there is still debate on how these differences affect language learning
outcomes. Additionally, the implications of brain research for second language teaching are not
yet fully understood, meaning that educators cannot directly apply these findings to improve
teaching methods.
Second language applications: Interacting, noticing, processing, and
practicing
The interaction hypothesis
How does a learner acquire a second language?
According to the interaction hypothesis, learners acquire a second language through
conversational interaction. Engaging with other speakers allows them to negotiate meaning,
receive modified input, and make language more comprehensible. Interaction provides learners
with opportunities to clarify misunderstandings, request explanations, and receive corrective
feedback, which helps them refine their linguistic skills. Additionally, Merrill Swain’s
comprehensible output hypothesis suggests that producing language helps learners recognize
their linguistic limitations and improve their communication skills.
What are the conditions to learn?
Second language acquisition requires interaction with more proficient speakers who modify their
speech to facilitate comprehension. These modifications can include elaboration, paraphrasing,
comprehension checks, clarification requests, and gestures. Learners must actively participate in
conversations where meaning is negotiated, and they should have opportunities to produce
comprehensible output. Receiving feedback on their errors also helps learners notice gaps in their
language knowledge and refine their skills.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
A limitation of the interaction hypothesis is that interaction alone may not be sufficient for
language acquisition. While it facilitates comprehension and provides learning opportunities, it
does not guarantee that learners will acquire complex grammatical structures. Additionally, not
all learners have equal access to interactive settings, and individual differences (such as
personality or anxiety) may affect their willingness to engage in conversations. Moreover,
interaction-based learning may not be as effective in environments with limited opportunities for
real-time communication.
The noticing hypothesis
How does a learner acquire a second language?
According to the noticing hypothesis, learners acquire a second language by consciously noticing
linguistic features in the input. Simply being exposed to comprehensible input is not enough;
learners must actively become aware of specific elements of the language. This awareness can
arise through classroom instruction, real-life experiences, or personal reflection. Once a learner
notices a feature, it becomes available for processing and eventual acquisition.
What are the conditions to learn?
Learning requires that the learner notices specific linguistic features in the input. Factors that
enhance noticing include explicit instruction, feedback, and increased exposure to language
patterns. Additionally, cognitive processing theories suggest that even unconscious attention to
linguistic input can contribute to learning. Frequency of exposure also plays a role, as more
commonly encountered features are more likely to be noticed and acquired.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
One limitation of the noticing hypothesis is the ongoing debate about whether conscious
awareness is necessary for acquisition. Some research suggests that learners can acquire
language features without explicitly noticing them. Additionally, the theory does not fully
explain how deeply noticed features are processed or retained over time. Another challenge is
measuring what learners notice, as some aspects of input might be internalized without being
explicitly reported.
Input processing
How does a learner acquire a second language?
According to the input processing theory, learners acquire a second language by processing
linguistic input in a way that prioritizes meaning over form. Because learners have limited
cognitive capacity, they focus first on understanding the message rather than analyzing
grammatical structures.
What are the conditions to learn?
Learning requires exposure to input that pushes learners to focus on both meaning and form.
Since learners naturally prioritize meaning, instructional strategies should encourage them to
notice and process grammatical structures as well. This can be done through tasks that make
learners interpret meaning correctly by paying attention to specific language forms, helping them
internalize those features.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
A limitation of this theory is that it does not fully explain how learners eventually balance their
attention between meaning and form. It also does not account for individual differences in
cognitive processing ability, which can affect how learners manage linguistic input. Additionally,
while focusing on input processing is useful, it may not be sufficient to explain how learners
develop productive language skills such as speaking and writing.
Processability theory
How does a learner acquire a second language?
According to processability theory, learners acquire a second language by following a
predictable sequence based on how easily different linguistic features can be processed. Easier-
to-process structures, such as those at the beginning or end of a sentence, are acquired first, while
more complex structures in the middle of sentences take longer to learn. Learners develop their
processing capacity step by step, gradually incorporating more complex grammatical structures
into their language production.
What are the conditions to learn?
Learning occurs as learners gradually increase their ability to process linguistic features. While
first-language influence plays a role, learners cannot immediately transfer structures from their
first language; they must first develop sufficient processing ability in the second language. The
process occurs in a structured sequence, meaning that instruction should align with these natural
developmental stages to be effective.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
One limitation is that processability theory focuses primarily on language production rather than
comprehension, leaving questions about how input and interaction contribute to acquisition.
Additionally, while it explains the sequence of grammatical development, it does not fully
account for why learners progress at different rates. The theory also does not address external
factors like motivation, social interaction, or instructional methods that may influence second
language learning.
The role of practice
How does a learner acquire a second language?
According to the role of practice in second language acquisition, learners acquire a language by
engaging in meaningful and interactive practice that gradually converts declarative knowledge
(explicit knowledge about language rules) into procedural knowledge (the ability to use language
automatically). This process allows learners to develop fluency, as repeated exposure and use of
language forms in genuine communicative contexts lead to automaticity in language production
and comprehension.
What are the conditions to learn?
Interactivity: Learners must engage in meaningful exchanges rather than isolated drills.
Meaningful practice: Language use should be connected to real communication rather
than mechanical repetition.
Focus on task-essential forms: Practice should include forms that are essential for
communication within a given task, ensuring that learners internalize structures in a
functional way.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
While this theory emphasizes the importance of practice, it does not fully explain how
learners acquire new language structures that they have not yet been exposed to.
It focuses more on fluency and automaticity rather than on the initial stages of acquiring
new grammatical or lexical items.
Some learners may require explicit instruction alongside practice to fully internalize
certain language forms.
The theory does not account for individual differences in learning styles, motivation, or
cognitive abilities, which can influence how effectively practice leads to acquisition.
The sociocultural perspective
How does a learner acquire a second language?
According to the sociocultural perspective, a learner acquires a second language through social
interactions, particularly within their zone of proximal development (ZPD). This means that
learning occurs when an individual engages in communication with a more knowledgeable
interlocutor who provides scaffolding (support) to help the learner perform at a higher level than
they could alone. Over time, the learner internalizes this knowledge, leading to cognitive and
linguistic development. Language learning is thus seen as a collaborative process where
interaction plays a crucial role in shaping thought and speech.
What are the conditions to learn?
Social interaction: Learners must engage in meaningful conversations with more
knowledgeable individuals.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Learning occurs when a learner is supported to
perform beyond their current ability with the help of a teacher, peer, or more proficient
speaker.
Scaffolding: Assistance provided by the interlocutor helps the learner process and
internalize new language structures.
Mediation through speech: Speaking and writing help learners organize and develop
their cognitive processes, making language learning an interactive and dynamic process.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
The theory places heavy emphasis on social interaction, which may not fully account for
individual cognitive processes that occur independently of interaction.
Unlike other cognitive-based theories, it does not provide a clear explanation of how
linguistic structures are internalized beyond the social context.
The role of input and practice is not as explicitly addressed as in theories like Krashen’s
Input Hypothesis or Processability Theory.
The concept of ZPD is difficult to measure objectively, making it challenging to
determine the exact level of support each learner needs.
Second language applications: Learning by talking
How does a learner acquire a second language?
According to this perspective, learners acquire a second language through collaborative dialogue
interacting with others to construct linguistic knowledge. By engaging in conversation, learners
test hypotheses about language forms, discuss them, and refine their understanding. This aligns
with Swain’s comprehensible output hypothesis, which suggests that producing language (not
just understanding it) forces learners to focus on language structure and meaning, leading to
learning. Sociocultural theorists argue that these cognitive processes begin externally (through
social interaction) and become internalized over time.
What are the conditions to learn?
Interaction with others: Learning happens when learners engage in meaningful
conversations, either with more knowledgeable speakers or peers.
Collaborative dialogue: Learners construct linguistic knowledge together by discussing
and negotiating language use.
Opportunities for output: Learners must produce language (speaking or writing) to
notice gaps in their knowledge and refine their skills.
Social mediation: Learning is supported through social interactions, where language use
helps mediate language learning.
Are there any limitations in this theory? Which one(s)?
The theory relies heavily on social interaction, which may not account for individual
learning processes that happen outside conversations.
While it emphasizes output, it does not fully address how learners acquire new language
structures beyond what they already know.
The effectiveness of novice-novice interactions is unclear without a knowledgeable
speaker, learners might reinforce errors rather than correct them.
The theory does not give a clear role to input, which other theories (e.g., Krashen’s Input
Hypothesis) consider crucial for learning.
