LANGUAGE AND HUMANS

Language, Culture, and Society

Eng Ed 112

NORQUEZ MANGANSAKAN – MANGINDRA, EdD

Subject Professor / Compiler
At the end of this module the students are expected to:
1. Recognize the features that distinguish human and animal languages;
2. Identify the functions of language distinct to humans;
3. Discuss and present how animals communicate with humans and other animals
with or without consciousness.

Non-human communication
Animals communicate differently to others by the use of their body parts or by
making sounds. Male whales communicate with the females using songs. Peacocks
maneuver their tails during courting rituals. Their manner of communication affects the
behavior of the receiver and the sender of the message.

Types of animal communication

Animals generally communicate using four methods: visual, auditory,

tactile and chemical. Some species rely more on one form of communication
over another; however, they all various methods to show affection, ward off
threats or attract a mate.
1. Visual communication for animals comes in two forms: badges and displays.
Badges, the color and shape of the animal, are structural adaptations, such as the
bright yellow feathers of the male American goldfinch. The bright colors tell a
prospective mate that the male is a suitable choice. Displays are the behaviors
animals’ exhibit, such as the glow of a firefly to attract mates or when a dog wags
his tail to let you know he's happy. Visual communication is the least effective since
the animals must be close enough to see one another.

2. Auditory Communication. Barking, growling, hissing and purring all are

considered animal auditory communication. Sounds can be used to attract mates,
ward off threats and express happiness or pain. For example, dogs bark when
approached by a stranger. Red squirrels use a series of rattles, screeches and
yips to warn intruders to stay away. And dolphins use auditory communication to
set themselves apart from others -- a unique whistle that also helps them locate
food.

3. Tactile Communication. Like humans, animals can rely on tactile

communication -- touch -- to convey messages. Most animals use this
form of communication to show affection, comfort or fear, or even to
establish dominance. For instance, horses will kick each other to ward off
threats or when competing for a mate. As kittens, cats will nuzzle their
mothers to show affection. Many species of primates will clean each other
to bond and show affection.
 4. Chemical Communication. For some species of animals, communication is about
pheromones or chemical markings. They will leave their own scents to mark their
territories, ward off predators or attract a mate. The most well-known example is
that of skunks "spraying" their signature scents when threatened. Cats will rub
against objects to make their territories, leaving scent markers from their mouths.

The Lana Project

A research in the 1970s which aimed to train a 2 year old female chimpanzee
named Lana on a computer-based language system. She was introduced to a lexigram
keyboard designed by Duane Rumbaugh. LANA was also an acronym for “Language
ANAlogue,” because Rumbaugh felt the animals might only learn an approximation
— or analogue — of true language.
Rumbaugh and his collaborators developed a series of 25 symbols, or
lexigrams, each of which stood for a specific word or phrase: “want,” “piece-of,”
“banana.” Rather than remaining in fixed positions, like keys on a typewriter, the
lexigrams would be moved around regularly so that the primate would have to
recognize the symbol itself, not just its physical location. A computer would monitor
and record the subject’s keyboard activity, which Rumbaugh and his team could then
analyze.
Although many of Lana’s stock sentences were formulaic requests, she also
made remarkable progress. Lana also displayed language skills for which she had
no training. Without any instruction, she learned to “read” the strings of lexigrams
projected onto the blank panel, which allowed the experimenters to ask her
questions.

The Washoe Project

The University of Nevada spearheaded the Washoe Project Experimenting with

chimpanzees on communication. A female chimpanzee named Washoe was considered
the first non-human animal to learn to communicate by using the sign language and to
show emotional connection.
The experiment took place on June 21, 1966 and was directed by Drs. Allen
Gardner and Beatrix Gardner. They taught Washoe American Sign Language or ASL, the
same taught to humans with hearing and speaking impairments.
Washoe learned the signs through repetition. Soon enough she was able to
communicate with the humans using the sign language.

The Koko Project

Koko, a year old gorilla, was taught sign language same as Washoe. However,
Koko was also taught vocal sounds.
Research and work with Koko, and other gorillas, has revealed that great apes
have language skills similar to small children. Koko’s progress was so fast that every
month she would learn a new set of signs and in the span of four years, the researchers
have recorded a total of 200 signs.
In addition to language, Koko's behavior also revealed emotions similar to those
of humans. Amongst the many human-like traits that made Koko special was she
seemed to have a sense of humor, and even a bit of playful mischievousness.

Features of Human Language by Hockett

A set of rules, chosen by Charles F. Hockett, which defines human communication and sets it
apart from animal communication. In other words, the features help us differentiate between human
language and animal communication.
1. Vocal-auditory channel. The human language usually occurs as a vocal type communication,
which is perceived by hearing. The basic mode of communication by the vast majority makes
use of sounds, secondary to which is writing. An exception are the people who use sign
language in communication which makes use of the manual – visual channel.

2. Broadcast transmission and directional reception. When one is speaking, the sounds he
produces are being transmitted to all directions. However, listeners perceive the sounds from
the direction the sounds come from. We can see it with signs too. When one is signing, he
signs to anyone within the line of sight, and they can all see him signing.

3. Transitoriness (Rapid fading) Once we speak, the sound doesn’t exist anymore. The sound
waves we create while speaking vanish quickly after we stop using speech language. How
sound fades:

4. Interchangeability Humans are not limited to a certain type of signal. They can send and
perceive identical linguistic signals. For example: Tom and Perry are having a little talk. Tom
says, “I’m a very funny man”. Perry can also say, “I’m a very funny man”.

5. Total feedback A speaker can control, modify and feel what he says, as he says it. It goes for
signals as well.

6. Specialization Human sign each other in order to communicate, not to perform a biological
task. An example: A dog pants sometimes to communicate with its owner, however dog pants
in order to cool itself, so he has a biological purpose.

7. Semanticity Specific signals that match specific meanings. An example: ‘er’ at the end of a
word is usually a sign for a man with a certain proffesion, such as: painter, writer, photographer.

8. Arbitrariness Mostly there is no connection between the sign and it’s meaning. In other words,
the words we use don’t match the objucts they represent.

9. Discreetness There are basic units of speech, which can be categorized. The words are
perceived categorizingly, and not continuously.

10. Displacement Humans can talk about things that are not currently happening, such as future,
past and objects. The human speech is not limited to here and now. An example: “The singer
will visit Dublin on May 2019, last time he visited was last June.”

11. Productivity Through speech language a speaker is able to form a new sentence.
 12. Traditional transmission Although language capabilities is innate, language is learned by
social settings. Children learn to speak through interacting with language speaker.

13. Duality of patterning Meaningful words are combined of small meaningful units that are
combined of small meaningless units.

14. Prevarication The ability to lie and deceive using speech language.

15. Reflexiveness Humans can use speech language in order to talk about language. Example:
The whole field of researching Linguistics is reflexive.

16. Learnability Language is both teachable, and learnable. It can be taught, and it could be
learned.

Summary Table
FEATURE: Explanation:
Vocal-auditory channel Communicator speaks; receiving individual hears.
Broadcast Message goes out in all directions;
transmission; receiver can tell what direction message comes from.
directional reception (Sign language uses line-of-sight transmission instead.)
Rapid fading Message is transitory and does not persist.
Transmitters can become receivers, and vice versa;
Interchangeability
we can each repeat any message.
Total feedback We hear all that we say.
We communicate just for the purpose of communicating
Specialization (not incidentally to some other primary function).
Direct energy consequences are unimportant.
Symbols used (phonemes, morphemes) have particular
Semanticity
meanings.
Symbols are arbitrary: the work "loud" can be spoken softly;
Arbitrariness "whale" is a smaller word than "microorganism";
"dog", "perro", "chien", "hund", "canis" all mean the same.
Symbols are made by combining smaller symbols
Discreteness
that differ discontinuously (e.g., "bin", "pin").
The smaller symbols ("p", "t") have no meaning of their own,
Duality of patterning
and can be combined in various ways ("pit", "tip").
Hockett originally thought that the remaining features were exclusively human.
You can talk about something not immediately present
Displacement
(at a distance, or in the past).
Prevarication We can say things that are false or hypothetical.
Productivity Novel utterances can be made and understood.
Traditional transmission Languages are socially learned (not genetic),
(culturally) and are passed down through generations.
Learnability We can learn new languages (easier in childhood).
We can use language to talk about language
Reflexiveness
(e.g., "noun", "adjective", "sentence")

Halliday’s Language Functions

1. The Regulatory Function of language is language used to influence the behavior

of others. Concerned with persuading/commanding/requesting other people to do

things you want. For example: Could you like to give some money?
2. The Interactional Function of language is language used to develop social

relationship and ease the process of interaction, concerned with the phobic

dimension of talk. For example, I love you and I want to live with you forever.
3. The Personal Function of language is language used to express the personal

preferences, identity, feelings, emotions, personality, opinion and reaction of the

speaker. Sometimes referred to as the “Here I am” function announcing oneself to

the world. For example, Toba Lake is a good place to get refreshing.
4. The Representational Function of language is language used to exchange

information. Concerned with relay or requesting information. For example, Europe

Island is a place that makes us to find out our dream.

5. The Heuristic Function of language is used to learn and explore the environment.

Child uses language to learn, this may be question and answers, or the kind of

running commentary that frequently accompanies children’s play. For example,

what the tractor doing?

6. The Imaginative Function of language is language used to explore the

imagination or to create imaginary system or ideas and also to tell stories, and

jokes, telling fairy tales. May also accompany play as children crate imaginary
 worlds, or may arise from storytelling. For example, a good player can make a

successful in this drama.

7. The Instrumental Function of language is language uses to express what the

peoples need. For example, I want to buy a car to make me easy for everything.

Furthermore, to make it more clear, according to Halliday’s there are five types of

language function that taken from can be seen in the following table:

Table.1 Types of Language Functions

No The Language Definitions
Function
1 Regulatory To control behavior of others. Example: “Do
this”
2 Interactional To relate to others, to interact. Example: “Me
and You”
3 Personal To express self. Example, “watch me”
4 Representational To convey facts and information. Example,
“I’ve got something to tell you”
5 Heuristic To explore and gain knowledge of the
environment. Example: “what’s that?, how to
solve it?”
6 Imaginative To use language imaginatively and telling fairy
tales. Example: “let’s pretend”
7 Instrumental To obtain good and services. Example: I want”

Table.2 Language Functions Model in the Classroom

No Language Function Example Classroom Experience
1 Regulatory. “Use “Do as I tell Making rules in games,
language to control” you…”, “You giving instructions teaching.
need…”
2 Interactional. “Use “You and me…” I’ll Structured play dialogues
language to interact be the cashier …” and discussions. Talking in
and plan, develop, or groups and use language to
maintain a play or control.
group activity.
3 Personal. “Use “Here I am…” Making feelings public
language to express interacting with others.
individuality.
4 Representational. “I’ll tell you…” “I Conveying messages to tell
“Use language to know…” about the real world and
explain” expressing a proposition.
 5 Heuristic. “Use“Tell me why…”, Question and answer
language to find things“Why did you do routines inquiry and
out, wonder, orthat”, “What research metalanguage
hypothesize. for…?”
6 Imaginative. “Use“Let’s pretend…”, Stories and dramatizations
language to create, “I went to my rhyme, poems, and riddles
explore, and entertain.grandma’s last nonsense, and word play
night. and telling fairy tales .
7 Instrumental: “Use “I want to…” Problem solving gathering
language to materials role playing
communicate persuading.
preference, choices,
wants, or needs.

Tasks
1. Can animals communicate like humans? Why or why not?
2. Prepare a set of classroom experiences for every language function (Halliday’s).

References:
https://news.gsu.edu/research-magazine/spring2018/the-lana-legacy/
https://medium.com/age-of-awareness/the-fascinating-washoe-project-da76cb7b3126
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/gorillas-koko-sign-language-culture-
animals
http://abacus.bates.edu/acad/depts/biobook/Hockett.htm
https://sirmykel.files.wordpress.com/2018/10/functions-of-language-halliday.pdf
https://animals.mom.com/forms-animal-communication-8127.html
Hotnida I. Simanjuntak, Sondang Manik. Function of Language As Found In Economical News