TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

Definition
 The term philosophy is derived from two Greet terms ‘philein’ which means love’ and
‘sophia’ which means wisdom. Philosophy thus from an etymological point of view means
‘love of wisdom’.
Other definitions
 Intellectual attempt understanding, interpretation and unification of reality.
Philosophy as a process and product
 As a process philosophy is understood to be an activity that involves serious and critical
thinking about the basic issues of life. It is a thinking that does not take things for granted. It
thrives on constant questioning with a view of broadening and deepening understanding and
insight into issues.
 As a product, philosophy is an academic formal discipline which deals with certain issues in
the area of knowledge. These issues are broadly divided in four specialized areas of
metaphysics, Epistemology, Logic and Axiology.

1. Philosophy as a Process:
 Philosophy as a process is characterized by serious and critical thinking, involving
constant questioning and examination of fundamental aspects of life to broaden
understanding and insight. It is an intellectual activity that does not accept things at
face value, leading to a continuous exploration of ideas and concepts.
Philosophy as a Product:
 Philosophy, as a product, encompasses the formal academic discipline that addresses
various aspects of knowledge. It comprises four specialized areas: metaphysics
(exploring the nature of reality), epistemology (studying knowledge), logic
(examining valid reasoning), and axiology (evaluating values and ethics).
Philosophical products manifest as works, writings, and theories, contributing to the
accumulation of philosophical knowledge. These products offer structured insights
into intricate philosophical inquiries.

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 General and Technical Philosophy
 General philosophy in a society encompasses the collective world view and way of
life expressed through various mediums like oral and written traditions, folklore,
customs, and lifestyle.
Characteristics of General Philosophy
1. Ageless and Inclusive: General philosophy is timeless and has been practiced by people
from all eras, regions, and cultures throughout human history.
2. Universal Presence: It is a universal phenomenon, existing in every human community,
regardless of location or time.
3. Cultural Specificity: While universal, it also exhibits cultural specificity, with each
community having its unique worldview and philosophical perspectives.
4. Accessible to All: Philosophy is open to all individuals; it does not require specialists or
experts.
5. Authenticity: It is characterized by authenticity, as the philosophical content is original
and specific to each community's beliefs and values.
6. Engages in Questioning: Philosophy is an active process that involves questioning and
exploring the meaning of human nature, the human condition, and the experiences of
individuals.

Technical philosophy
 Technical philosophy encompasses philosophy as both an academic discipline and a
professional study. It constitutes a relatively small community, consisting of scholars,
professionals, and students of philosophy
Characteristics of Technical Philosophy
Technical philosophy is characterized by three factors, namely;
1. Formalization: It is highly formalized, meaning it is organized, structured, and
systematized in its content, concepts, and methods. It adheres to specific rules and
principles in its inquiry and analysis. Technical philosophy is typically taught and studied
in formal academic settings, primarily universities.
2. Specialization: Technical philosophy is a specialized field with a limited community of
practitioners. It is mainly comprised of trained philosophers, scholars, and philosophy

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 students. Those outside this specialized community are often referred to as "laymen" and
are not actively engaged in the field's discourse.
3. Westernization: Its origins are rooted in the Western world, particularly in ancient Greek
and European philosophical traditions. The historical and philosophical foundations of
technical philosophy can be traced back to Western philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and
later European thinkers. This Western influence is a defining characteristic of the field.
Branches/Areas of Technical Philosophy
 Metaphysics: The terms metaphysics is derived from the Greek terms ‘meta and physica’
meaning ‘beyond the physical’.
 Metaphysics is a philosophical branch that investigates the fundamental nature of reality,
including the existence of God, the nature of the self, time, causality, and the structure of the
universe. It delves into questions about the essence of being and the interplay between
physical and non-physical aspects of the world. Key aspects of metaphysics include:
a) Ontology
 Ontology is a subfield of metaphysics in philosophy that focuses on the study of being
and existence. It explores questions about what exists, the nature of existence, and the
categories or types of being.
 Ontology investigates the fundamental aspects of reality, addressing issues related to the
existence of abstract objects, properties, substances, and the classification of entities
based on their fundamental nature.
 It is a foundational area of inquiry within metaphysics, seeking to understand the nature
of being itself and the various modes of existence in the universe.

b) Cosmology
 Derived from two Greek words “Cosmos” which refers to the physical world and “logos”
meaning study. Etymologically, cosmology is defined as the philosophical study of the
physical reality
 Cosmology is a branch of metaphysics and astrophysics that deals with the study of the
origin, structure, evolution, and ultimate fate of the universe. It seeks to understand the
fundamental nature of the universe as a whole, including its large-scale structure, the

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 nature of space and time, the existence of dark matter and dark energy, and the cosmic
history of the universe from its inception through various epochs of its development.
 It is different from Geography and Physics (though they all study the same subject
matter) because cosmology studies the physical realities from the point of view of their
ultimate nature and first principles.

Theodicy
The term "theodicy" is derived from two Greek words: "theos," meaning "God," and
"dike," meaning "justice" or "righteousness." Therefore, theodicy is essentially concerned
with the justification or defense of God's goodness and justice in the face of the existence
of evil and suffering.
It explores questions such as why a compassionate God would allow suffering, whether
suffering has a greater purpose or meaning, and how human free will and moral
responsibility factor into the existence of evil.
While theodicy is a specialized subset of theology, theology encompasses a much broader
range of religious and spiritual inquiries beyond the problem of evil.
Here's a tabular comparison of theodicy and theology:
Aspect Theodicy Theology
Definition A branch of philosophy and The systematic study of religion,
theology that deals with the religious beliefs, spirituality, and
problem of evil and suffering in the divine.
the context of the existence of a
benevolent, all-powerful God.
Focus Addresses the problem of evil Encompasses a wide range of
and suffering, seeking to explain religious topics, doctrines,
how they can coexist with the beliefs, practices, and spirituality.
belief in a loving and just God.
Purpose To provide explanations, To understand, interpret, and
justifications, or defenses for explore various aspects of
God's goodness and justice religion and spirituality, fostering
despite the existence of evil. religious understanding and
spiritual growth.
Range of Topics Primarily concerned with the Encompasses a wide array of
problem of evil, divine topics, including the nature of
providence, human free will, God, religious ethics, sacred
and the greater purpose of texts, religious rituals, the

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 suffering. afterlife, and more.
Scope Narrow and specific, focusing Broad and diverse, covering a
on a single theological issue (the wide range of religious and
problem of evil). theological inquiries.
Application Primarily used to address Applied in various ways,
philosophical and moral including the development of
challenges posed by the religious doctrines, ethical
existence of evil. principles, and the interpretation
of sacred texts.
Philosophical psychology (philosophical anthropology.
Philosophical psychology, or philosophical anthropology, is a branch of philosophy examining
human nature, consciousness, and the mind. It explores fundamental questions about human
beings, cognition, emotions, and the philosophical implications of psychology

Epistemology
Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that deals with the study of knowledge. It seeks to
understand the nature, scope, sources, and limits of human knowledge. Epistemology explores
questions related to how we acquire knowledge, what counts as reliable knowledge, and the
criteria for distinguishing between justified beliefs and mere opinions

Axiology
Axiology is a branch of philosophy that deals with the study of values and value judgments. It
explores the nature, types, and ethics of values, as well as their role in human life and decision-
making
Axiology is divided into two primary subfields/types:
1. Ethics (Moral Philosophy): Ethics focuses on questions of morality and examines
concepts of right and wrong, good and evil, and the principles that guide human behavior.
It seeks to provide normative frameworks for ethical decision-making and explores
various ethical theories, including:
 Utilitarianism: This theory asserts that actions are morally right if they produce
the greatest overall happiness or utility.
 Deontology: Deontological ethics emphasizes the moral duty and inherent
rightness or wrongness of actions, regardless of their consequences.

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  Virtue Ethics: Virtue ethics places emphasis on cultivating virtuous character
traits and moral virtues as the foundation for ethical behavior.
 Ethical Relativism: This perspective suggests that ethical principles are context-
dependent and may vary across cultures or individuals.
2. Aesthetics: Aesthetics deals with the study of beauty, art, and the appreciation of
aesthetics. It explores questions about the nature of beauty, the criteria for evaluating art,
and the emotional and intellectual responses elicited by aesthetic experiences. Aesthetics
also examines topics such as the philosophy of art, the role of creativity in human
expression, and the connection between aesthetics and ethics.

Logic
Logic is the study of reasoning, argumentation, and the principles governing valid inference and
sound reasoning. Logic involves the examination of arguments and the assessment of their
soundness and validity.
Types of reasoning
There are two, namely deductive and inductive reasoning.
 Deductive reasoning: It proceeds by deriving particular principles (actions or rules) from
general ones. Example
All human beings are mortal.
John is a human being.
Therefore John is mortal.
 Inductive reasoning: Proceeds from examining particular cases or instances and thereby
a general principle (or law or rule). Example;
(Particular) x1 is mortal
(Observations) x2 is mortal
x3 is mortal
(General Law) xn are all mortal.
 If, for instance, x are all human beings, then we can correctly conclude that all human
beings are mortal. (give an example-Practical)

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TOPIC 3: PHILOSOPHICAL METHODS
a) The Analytical method (also called Logical or Rational).
The analytical method involves breaking down complex issues, concepts, and statements
into smaller parts for thorough examination and understanding. It emphasizes logical and
systematic thinking, dissecting ideas and assumptions to gain deeper insights. The goal is
to clarify the meanings of concepts and establish criteria for educational policies and
practices.
b) The Critical method (also called Socratic or prescriptive or Epistemological).
 The terms ‘critical’ come from a Greek verb ‘Krinein’ meaning to judge or to
evaluate. Critical method therefore is an approach that involves objective evaluation
of ideas, recommendation or prescription of what ought to happen in a particular case.
 It aims
i. Establishing better alternatives and at enriching the already existing
prescriptions through a careful reflection.
ii. Liberating us from dogmatism, fanaticism and hypocrisy through honesty of
thought in order to avoid fallacies such as generalization, association, attack
of the person instead of the argument and many others.
iii. It makes us open minded and tolerant to opposing ideas.
 In education, the critical method promotes creativity and critical thinking as well as
prescribing worthwhile behaviour.

c) The Speculative method (also called Metaphysical).

 This method involves thinking beyond the concrete terms of existence in search for
answers to the many ‘why?’ questions that men have.
 It is concerned with the framing of new and better alternatives views based on existing
philosophical problems and experiences.
 This method is characterized by rational guessing and serious imagination in order to fill
in gaps of issues that are otherwise difficult to comprehend.

d) The Phenomenological method (also called Existential).

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 The phenomenological method focuses on understanding reality and experiences from the
perspective of human experience. It interprets concepts, such as educational policies and
practices, through the lens of human experiences and interests. In this method, abstract
ideas are examined and interpreted in the context of concrete experiences that people
encounter. This approach acknowledges that the perception of an idea, like the value of
education, varies depending on individual experiences. Therefore, the phenomenological
method is subjective as it is rooted in the unique experiences of individuals, leading to
diverse interpretations of the same concept.

TOPIC: 4 THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

 The term education has its root in a Latin noun ‘education’ who’s verb form ‘Educare’ which
refer the physical process of rearing or bringing up children.

Meaning of education according to R. S Peters

 Education according to R.S Peters is defined as ‘initiation’. The word ‘initiate’ is rooted in
the Latin word ‘initium’ which means ‘beginning’; in this sense initiation means introducing
one into the value system of a particular society or introducing one into the life of the society.

R.S Peters Conditions/Criteria in definition of the term education

 R.S Peters in his book Ethics and Education (1969) proposed three conditions/Criteria that
he considered sufficient and necessary in a comprehensive.
i) The Normative (or value) criterion
 The normative definition of education emphasizes its role in promoting moral and ethical
values. It aims to shape individuals' character and guide them towards virtuous behavior.
Education goes beyond knowledge and skills, focusing on instilling societal values and
fostering responsible citizenship. It's about creating ethical individuals who contribute
positively to society.
ii) Cognitive aspect
 The cognitive definition of education centers on the intellectual aspects of the educational
process. It emphasizes the acquisition of knowledge, the development of thinking skills, and

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 the enhancement of cognitive abilities. In this definition, education is primarily concerned
with the intellectual growth and cognitive development of learners.

iii) Procedural criterion.

The procedural criterion of the definition of education emphasizes the processes and methods
involved in the educational experience. Instead of focusing on the content or outcomes of
education, this criterion highlights how education is delivered and the methods used to
facilitate learning. R.S Peters indicated that education should avoid authoritarian, coercive,
and punitive methods, instead emphasizing humane, fair, and socially acceptable teaching
and learning approaches.

Critic Conservative and Progressive model of education by R.S Peters.

Conservative model of education
1. Teacher-Centered and Rigid: The conservative model overly emphasizes the teacher,
textbooks, and established knowledge, neglecting student involvement and exploration.
2. Authoritarian and Conformist: It tends to be authoritarian, imposing adult ideas on
children and discouraging independent thinking. It promotes conformity rather than
encouraging critical thought.
3. Essentialist and Immutable: This model is often based on the acquisition of unchanging
facts and principles, neglecting the evolving nature of knowledge. It treats established facts
as immutable and unchallengeable.
4. Use of Coercion and Punishment: The conservative model may resort to punitive measures,
coercion, threats, and force to enforce compliance, which can be detrimental to the learning
experience.

Progressive model of education

1. Learner-Centered Emphasis: Peters criticized the progressive model for prioritizing
individual learner desires over societal goals.
2. Excessive Learner Freedom: He argued that the progressive model's emphasis on
learner freedom could lead to chaos and lack of structure.
3. Reduced Teacher Role: Peters noted the progressive model reduced teachers to
facilitators, limiting their guidance and structure in learning.

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 4. Inadequate Preparation for Real World: Progressive model's focus on child-centered
learning may not adequately prepare students for the realities and demands of the adult
world and workforce

MEANING OF EDUCATION ACCORDING TO NJOROGE AND BERNNEARS

 They developed a multi–dimensional definition of the concept education comprising four
dimensions, namely, normative, Cognitive, Creative and the Dialogical dimensions. As such
theory held that we cannot grasp the full or true meaning of the term ‘education; by
emphasizing one aspect; rather we must look at all aspects of the concept.

a) The Normative dimension of education

 Holds that an educational activity must involve the transmission of something worthwhile.
 Education in this sense is a moral enterprise meaning that educational theory and practice is
(and must be) governed by ethics and must satisfy definite moral standards.
 Education deal with moral and ethical issues, it defines our actions, decisions, and
judgements as either good (right) to be followed or as bad (evil) to be shun. Ultimately,
education will define and lead man (and woman) to the good life

b) The cognitive dimension of education

 States that a true educational activity involves the transmission of knowledge and
understanding.
 Questions on knowledge such as the source of knowledge, nature of knowledge and the
manner of acquisition and verification of knowledge are involved in education.

c) The creative dimension of education

 Refers to the role of education in empowering the learner to get the opportunity to
overcome his/her in innovative actions that bring positive to his environment.
 To create means to bring something into being, to modify, change or transform a thing
from a given mode to a new mode of existence.
 Through creativity man (and woman) gets solutions to challenges that face him, changes
his environment and makes life better and more comfortable.

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The dialogical dimension of education
 Deals with the role of education in helping the learners to develop an inter–subjective
communication with fellow human beings as equal partners.
 Dialogue implies conversation and communication. It is a conversation between two people
or more. It involves sharing of experiences, joy, frustrations and fears.
 Proper dialogue must involve an inter–subjective (subject to subject) communication. This
implies that the subjects must respect one another as equal partners, sharing the same and
equal dignity, and as sharing a common destiny.
 This is the social dimension of education that links an individual, the society and education.
As such, education must have a social dimension that involves an introduction of the learners
into the public modes or forms of experience.

 NOTE
 It is difficult to offer a specific meaning to the term ‘education’ for three reasons.
i) It is a general term; it refers to a whole range (or family) of meanings.
ii) It is a complex concept; it is not a simple concept and this does not possess only one
single meaning.
iii) The term education is a relational term; that is, it is used often times in relationship to
other terms, realities and experience such as discipline, performance,

TOPIC 5: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

 Philosophy of education employs philosophical principles, theories and concepts in the
issues of education.
 Aims at bringing about a clearer and a better understanding of the theory and practice of
education.
 It scrutinizes questions such as the following;
 Why education at all?
 Where should education be directed: - to intellectual excellence or to the holistic
formation of the human person?

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  How can education make man more human and at the same time make the world
a better place for human habitation?
 What role does education have in shaping man’s personality, and the destiny of
the society at large?
 Does education help man to face challenges of life – eg. to define the meaning of
human existence.
 To define the meaning and purpose of human values such as justice, peace, truth
etc.

Relevance of philosophy of education in teacher training programmes

 It helps educators to become acquainted with basic issues and problems about life and
education.
 Enables educators to evaluate the wide variety of suggestions offered as solutions to
educational problems
 Assists in clarifying the thinking about questions of life and education.
 It aims at developing a wider and broader understanding of the teaching profession.
 Creating creative students who are capable of initiating and innovating sound
educational practices and developments.
 Improving understanding of the structure and institutions of education as well as the
nature of society by developing an open mind for dealing with confrontations and
conflicts.
 Providing a wide span of working definitions assigned to the abstract concepts and
terms in education.
 Leads to a better understanding of the nature of man, society, curriculum and
educational goals.

TOPIC 6: AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

The three terms (aims, goals and objectives) are often though enormously used in educational
discourses. The three are distinct as explained here below.

i) AIMS

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 Aim’ refers to some actions or activities that are carried out by a person in view of achieving
a given end.
 The terms ‘aims of education refer to a broad statement or statement of intents (or standards)
to be referred to in the process of education i.e. in the theory and practice of education.
 They are the ends or desired targets that a society has set for its education system to operate
on and to achieve.
 For instance the education system in Kenya is assigned the duty to achieve the following
aims/ targets.
 To develop national unity and remove social inequalities.
 To develop those being educated into useful citizens.
 To promote the full development of talents and potentialities of individuals.
 To instill in the learners a positive attitude towards cooperative effort and mutual social;
responsibility.
 To promote national economic development.
 To promote international consciousness.
 To preserve the rich heritage of our culture.

Aspects of human life achieved through education

From the aims of education we can conclude that aims of education deals with all aspects of
human life, including.
 Intellectual development.
 Social and moral development.
 Aesthetic development.
 Physical development.
 Language and communication development.
 Spiritual and religions developments.
 Emotional and personal development.

ii) GOALS
 Goals of education are ends that are specified in the curriculum in measurable terms.

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 They are outlined in the syllabus per subject and are meant to be achieved within a given
relatively short period of time such as after the period of course (eight years for primary and
four for secondary education) within a year of learning a given subject a school term or after
a topic.
 Goals of educations are defined for the school by the needs priorities and ideologies of the
wider society.

Categories of goals of education

 There are three broad categories of goals of education namely
i) Instrumental Goals:
 These are basically utilitarian in character since they deal with economic values. They
are extrinsic in nature since they address values outside education.
 Examples are goals of the society and national development, development of
individual’s potentials
ii) Expressive goals
 These goals are generally geared towards the ideals of the society such as national
unity social cohesion equality common identity.
iii) Normative goals
 These goals are concerned with the development of acceptable moral and social
standards, social beliefs and patterns of behaviour. As such they are individual
oriented.

iv) OBJECTIVES
 These are statements of intent that state the targets expected to be achieved within a very
short period of time – in most cases within the classroom/subject lesson.
 These are enumerated by the teacher in the lesson plan and state that “By the end of the
lesson, the learner should be able to ………………..”
 They are expressed in measurable and observable terms such as
“Count 1 to 10”……..
“List 10 factors that……….”
“Draw the map of…………”

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 “Carry out an experiment…..”
 The terms “count”, “list”, “draw” “carry out” and “distinguish” are measurable since they
can be objectively verified or observed.

TOPIC 7: EDUCATION AND VALUES.

 Education is a process of transmission of values. Its aims, objectives, content and methods
are basically characterized by values.
 The aims of education for instance describe desirable standards or targets the society tries or
desires to achieve through education
 The procedures or methods used in education are often those that take into consideration
certain moral or ethical consideration.

Examples of values in education

i. Cognitive/intellectual values - include development of objectivity truth intellectual
honesty, consistency of thought, and accuracy.
ii. Religions values - include treasure for holiness reverence for supernatural authority,
humility, kindness, self-control and all the values prescribed in the holy books
(scriptures).
iii. Ethical values - include honesty, self-control, patience, truthfulness, courage,
benevolence.
iv. Civic values - include loyalty, patriotism, nationalism, accountability, and responsibility,
respect of rule of law, order, harmony and justice.
v. Aesthetic values - have to do with appreciation of beauty, order, harmony, coherence and
consistency in behaviour.

Nature of values
Values are generally understood in the following broad ways
a) Descriptive understanding of values:
 The descriptive understanding of a value refers to a statement of a fact about the
objective experience of the desirability of an object.

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  It describes or states that a given thing is an object of desire is worthwhile or desirable.

b) Prescriptive understanding of values:

 In the prescriptive manner value is used to mean a recommendation idea.
 It advices on what is valuable and as such ought to be pursued.
 It points to what is choice worthy and recommends for its choice.

Classification of values
i) Objective (or absolute) values
 They are those values that are always significant, unchallengeable, permanent and universal
values. They are applicable to everyone at all time.
 Examples include freedom, truth, and happiness.
ii) Subjective (or relative) values
 They are those values which depend on relative circumstances. They are not permanent but
depend on the context. As such an object could be valuable in one location but undesirable in
other
iii) Intrinsic values
 They are those values that possess the nature of goodness in themselves. They are inherently
good. Their desirability or worthwhileness is not dependent on something outside
themselves.
iv) Extrinsic (or instrumental) values
 They are vehicles for the realization of the good. Their worth or desirability is based on their
capability to help you reach a given good, rather they do not possess the goodness in
themselves.

TOPIC 8: ETHICS AND EDUCATION

Definition of ethics
 In philosophy the term ethics refers to the philosophical study of moral values.
 Etymologically, Ethics comes from a Greek word “Ethos” which means customs,
conventions or norms of a given community. As such, ethics can be defined as the study of
the norms and principles of human conduct.

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Types/classification of ethics
There are three ways in which we can study Ethics.

a) Descriptive Ethics
 Involves a descriptive or empirical study of ethics.
 It provides a descriptive account of human conduct based on empirical research on the
norms, customs and principles guiding the life of a given group.
 This is done by social scientists such as sociologists, social anthropologists and social
psychologists.
Examples of theories of moral development
i) The psycho-social theory of moral development by Eric-Erickson
ii) The cognitive theory of moral development by Jean Piaget
iii) The three level cognitive theory of moral development by Lawrence Kohlberg’s, and
iv) Theory of id ego- super ego patterns of morality by Sigmud Freud’s.

b) Meta-ethics
 This is the philosophical study of the language of morality.
 It is concerned with the meaning of ethical concepts, statements, principles and theories
as well as their justification.
 It surpasses the codes, theories and principles that guide human conduct by studying the
language of morality.
c) Normative Ethics
 Normative ethics studies evaluates and examines the process of moral conduct and
recommends prescribes them as either good to be done (or followed) or evil (to be
avoided (or shun).
 Normative Ethics involves reflection and intellectual enquiring into the reasons or
grounds of moral conduct.
 Normative ethics provides fundamental principles that underline moral obligations, moral
values and even non-moral values.

Theories of moral obligations

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 There are two broad types of theories of moral obligations, namely
 Teleological theories
 Deontological theories.

i) Teleological theories
 The term teleological is derived from a Greek term ‘teleos’ which means the end
(connoting aim goal or purpose)
 Thus teleological theories of moral obligation judge moral decision, judgment and actions
as right or wrong depending on the consequences.
 If they lead to good or desirable consequences that they are regarded as good but if the
consequences are evil the actions and decision are similarly taken to be evil.
 Teleological theories are further classified into
a) Ethical egoism or ethical particularism
 The theory of moral obligation that justifies the action, judgment or decision to be
good when the consequences are good only for an individual
 Ethical egoism thus hold that an individual person is justified to promote his own
greatest good.
b) Ethical utilitarianism
 This is a theory of moral obligation which holds that the ultimate end for the action,
decision or judgment to be regarded as morally good should be the greatest possible
general (or public) good.
 This theory promotes the greatest good for the greatest possible majority.
ii) Deontological theories.
 The term deontological comes from a Latin word “Deon” meaning ‘Duty’.
 Duty is placed at the centre of moral judgment, decision and actions.
 Deontological theories are further classified into
a) Rule deontological theories
 Rule deontological theories hold that the standard of right or wrong is defined by certain
rules which can be divine or eternal law, natural law, human law or the golden rule, e.g.
Emmanuel Kant’s categorical imperative which defines means as the means of ends.
b) Act’ deontological theories

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  Maintain that decision and judgments of moral obligation are all particular and relative
with reference to particular situation and cases.
 Each case should be treated on its own merit putting into consideration the prevailing
special circumstances.
 As such, a particular judgment supersedes any general rule.

TOPIC 9: THE CONCEPT OF KNOWLEDGE.

 The Latin word for knowledge is “scribe” which means to be conscious or aware of
something.
 To know therefore means to make something a content of one’s consciousness i.e. to be
aware of the existence of something.
 Schiffler Israel (1965) defines knowledge a justified true belief. This definition gives three
conditions of knowledge; there are Belief, justification and truth.
Conditions of knowledge
 Belief: is a mental conviction that something is true, that a statement represents a fact or
that a claim is indeed truth.
 Justification, also called ground verification or proof condition offers ground upon
which a truth claim is based. It provides proof to a truth claim.
 Truth on the other hand is explained/defined by the help of three theories
i) Correspondence theory of truth
 This theory is held by realists who hold that one can know things directly in and of
themselves
 According to this theory, truth is conformity between a claim and the real state of affairs.
 Truth therefore is the conformity (or agreement) between an idea (and concept) and the
real thing.
 In the school situation, education needs to have a constant touch with reality such as in
the use of teaching aids, models, fieldtrips etc.
ii) Coherence (constituency) theory of truth
 This theory is mainly held by the idealists who hold that an idea an idea is a copy of the
real thing.

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  Idea is true only if it agrees or is consistent with what is already known. New ideas thus
are accepted insofar as they agree with what is already known.
Weakness of coherence theory
 It advocate for permanence of knowledge. This may hinder
a) Development and of knowledge and of new discoveries.
b) It may discourage creativity and personal innovations
iii) The pragmatic theory of truth
 This theory is held by pragmatists who hold that idea is true if it works or offers practical
solutions to a problem.

TOPIC 10: PRAGMATIC FOUNDATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE

 Etymologically the word pragmatism is derived from the Greek word ‘pragma’ which
means activity or the work done. So the use of words likes ‘action’ or ‘practice’ or
‘activity’. Action gets priority over thought.
Tenets of pragmatism
 Truth is dynamic and not static.
 The test of truth of ideas is in their practical consequences.
 Truth does not exist but it happens
 An idea is true if it works or offers solutions to a problem

Aims of Education
Following are the some of the aim of pragmatism.
 To reform and reconstruct the society
 To enable the individual to adjust with the changing social environment
 To develop the child fully according to his interest, abilities and needs
 To create social efficacy in the child
 To develop democratic values and ideals in the child
 To provide educational opportunities to all citizens on equal footing
 To instil habit of experimentation in the children
 To remove social evils and make the society a good place for living
 To enable the child to discover the truth himself
 To make child self-reliant

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Pragmatism and Curriculum
i) Child's Ability and Interest: Curriculum should consider the child's abilities and
interests. Nothing should be imposed on them.
ii) Flexibility: Curriculum should adapt to changing societal needs. Vision is required for
lasting relevance.
iii) Usefulness: Curriculum should be useful to the child, teaching only what is practical for
them.
iv) Social Efficiency: Curriculum should foster social efficiency and democratic behavior,
helping students integrate into society.
v) Experimental: It should encourage self-experimentation and problem-solving through
activities.
vi) Life-Related: Subjects directly relevant to children's lives should be included, making
them self-reliant and productive members of society. Vocational subjects are preferred.
vii) Integration: Curriculum integrates subjects and activities, linking units to form a
comprehensive understanding in children.

Methods of Teaching
i) Learning by doing
 Child learns the best when he performs some action along with the theoretical knowledge of
a subject. Teacher guides the students for these activities by which child develops his own
natural abilities.
ii) Collective approach
 Children participate in these activities collectively. It develops in them social efficiency.
They are assigned various types of jobs by the teacher and they complete them collectively.
iii) Integrated approach
 A subject is taught only after integrating it with other subjects as well as life. In this way
knowledge becomes compact, useful and systematic.
iv) Individual approach

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 Each child is unique and different from his fellow flock. Teacher should regard individual
differences and teach a child according to his level of understanding and specific interest.
v) Purposive process of learning
 A child should try to achieve some aim or goal according to his natural interests, abilities and
experiences. Self-learning through self-effort is acknowledged.
Role of Teacher
The teacher works as friend, philosopher and guide to the students
i) He should have the capacity to know the interests of the students.
ii) He should understand the conditions and situation of changing society.
iii) He puts forth problems for the students to be solved according to their interests.
iv) He also creates situations to develop social interests, attitudes and habits for welfare of the
society.

The educational implications

1. Democratic Values: Modern education instills democratic values and social
responsibilities in students, promoting active citizenship.
2. Activity-Based Learning: Contemporary education values activity-based and self-
experience methods, fostering experiential learning.
3. Vocational Emphasis: Modern education prioritizes vocational and professional courses,
preparing students for practical careers.
4. Co-Curricular Activities: Schools encourage holistic development through co-curricular
activities like sports, arts, and clubs.
5. Curriculum Updates: Education systems regularly update curricula to stay relevant to
evolving societal needs.
6. Self-Discipline: Modern education fosters self-discipline, teaching students
responsibility.
7. Respect for Democracy: Schools promote respect for democratic values like freedom of
speech and equality.
8. Free and Compulsory Education: Many countries offer free and compulsory education,
ensuring access for all children.

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 9. Universal Elementary Education: Modern education strives for universal elementary
education, providing basic education to every child, regardless of location or
socioeconomic status.

TOPIC 10: IDEALISM/RATIONAL FOUNDATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE

 Idealism is the philosophical theory that maintains that the ultimate nature of reality is based
on mind or ideas. It holds that the so-called external or real world is inseparable from mind,
consciousness, or perception.
 This school of thought was held by philosophers (Proponents) like
 Plato
 Descartes
 Hegel
 Kant
Fundamental Philosophical Principles of rationalism
1. Reason Governs Nature: Rationalism emphasizes reason over sensory experiences due
to their potential for deception. It underscores the role of reason in understanding nature.
2. Innate Ideas: Rationalism asserts that individuals possess innate ideas, not dependent on
sensory experiences, forming the basis of understanding.
3. Apriori Knowledge: Rationalists uphold apriori knowledge, acquired through reason,
independent of empirical evidence.
4. Spiritual Self Development: Education in rationalism aims to develop the spiritual self
through intellectual growth and rational thinking.
5. Nature's Mind Dependence: Rationalism challenges nature's self-sufficiency, stating
that nature relies on the mind, highlighting reason's role in shaping our perception of the
world.
Idealism & Aim of Education
1. Self-Realization and Human Potential: Education aims to help individuals reach their
highest potential and nurture qualities like truth, beauty, and goodness.
2. Spiritual Growth: Education contributes to individuals' spiritual growth, encompassing
values, ethics, and a higher purpose.

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 3. Preserving Cultural Heritage: Education involves passing down and promoting a
society's cultural traditions and beliefs.
4. Moral Values: It instills moral values like honesty and empathy in individuals.
5. Creativity Development: Education unlocks creative talents and abilities.
6. Truth, Goodness, and Beauty: It leads individuals to a deeper understanding and
appreciation of truth, goodness, and beauty.
7. Character Shaping: Education shapes character by fostering qualities such as integrity
and responsibility.

Idealism and Curriculum

 It should lay stress on the nature of the learner.
 The curriculum should emphasize the higher values like truth, beauty and goodness.
 It provides humanities a place of prominence. Ethics, religion and arts find an important
place in the curriculum.
 It is to be structured to emphasize those subjects that will provide the learner’s intelligence
and understanding and enable him realize his spiritual potentialities.
Methods of Teaching by Idealism
 Idealism does not adopt any specific and definite method of teaching. Idealist think of
themselves as creators of methods and not a slave of any method of teaching.
 The teaching methods recommended by idealists emphasize both self-learning activity of the
learners and the positive influence of the teacher.
 They advocate proceeding from the simple to the complex and from concrete to abstract
learning approach using methods such as question-answer method, discussion method,
lecture method, project method, Socratic Method and simulation and role play are key
methods recommended in this Philosophy.

Implications of Idealism for Education

Idealism has the following contributions to education:
1. Moral Character Focus: Idealism prioritizes moral character in education, emphasizing
character development and often promoting religious education for this purpose.

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 2. Mental and Spiritual Priority: Idealism values the mental and spiritual aspects over the
physical world, aiming for the perfection of one's spiritual self through education.
3. Personality Development: Idealists stress personality development, impacting how
human relations are considered in teaching and renewing the focus on character and
values.
4. Universal Education Advocacy: Idealism advocates for universal education, believing
that education can perfect every individual's spiritual dimension.
5. Clear Educational Guidelines: Idealism offers structured guidelines for education,
covering aims, curricula, teacher roles, and teaching methods.
6. Values Emphasis: Idealism strongly emphasizes values like truth, beauty, and goodness,
making educational institutions places for teaching and upholding these values.
7. Historical and Philosophical Support: Idealism has historical and philosophical
backing, with many educational plans rooted in its principles, making it a significant
influence on education.
TOPIC 11: REALISM/EMPIRICAL FOUNDATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE
 It is a school of thought which states that the ultimate truth or reality is the one which comes to
us through experience more so our senses.

Basic Principles
1) Phenomenal world is real: There is nothing beyond this world. Realism accepts only the
reality of external world.
2) Senses are the gateways of learning: According to realism whatever sensation we get while
coming in contact with objects through our senses, is the only reality.
3) Man is only a part of material world: Man is only a part of material world. He becomes
conscious of this material world with the help of his senses
4) Realism emphasizes the importance of observation and experimentation. A philosophy of
education should be based on the realities of life and it can prove its worth by being practical.
5) Human mind contains nothing (“tabula rasa”) except for what experience has put there.

Aims of education
i) Preparing the child for a happy and successful life

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  Education should be such that the child is able to solve his problems of life successfully
and lead a happy life promoting the welfare of society as well.
ii) Preparing the child for a real life
 Realists believe in the reality of knowledge of external material world gained through
senses. Thus, they wish to prepare the child for the real life of material world.

iii) Developing the physical and mental powers of child

 Education is aimed at developing the physical and mental powers of the child so that with
the help of his developed intelligence, discrimination and judgement, he is able to solve
all the problems of life successfully.
iv) Developing and Training of senses
 Realists believe that education should fully develop the senses of the child to enable him
have full knowledge about the external world. Development and training of senses of the
child is through varied experiences.
v) Acquitting the child with nature and social environment
 Education should provide the child full knowledge of both the society and the external
nature so that he is able to strike a balance between external nature and the social
environment.
vi) Imparting vocational education
 According to Realism, education should be a practical utility to child. This is useful in
providing vocational education to the child.
Realism & Curriculum
 Only those subjects be included in the curriculum which are useful to the students and
prepare them to meet the challenges of time in their actual life.
 Nature study, physical sciences and vocational training are given primary importance in
the scheme of curriculum of realism.
 Mother-tongue is the foundation stone of the development of man and vocational training
helps one to earn one’s livelihood.
Realism & Methods of Teaching
 Realism gives more emphasis to sense training.
 Field trips.

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 Observation and experimentation.
 Inductive – Deductive method

TOPIC 12: THE UNIQUENESS OF HUMAN NATURE AND EDUCATION

The traditional perception of the human person
 Traditional philosophy perceived the human person as a complex combination of three
elements, namely;
i) mind,
ii) body and
iii) soul.
 In explaining this conception of human person Plato described the human body as a physical
entity that imprisoned the psyche (soul).
 According to Plato, the soul is pure, true and unchangeable.
 Through the soul the human person was capable of knowing the pure realities in the ideal
world.
 The soul was perceived to be in a constant struggle to release itself from the temporal prison
in order to join the world of forms in which it participated.

Modern understanding of the human person

Modern philosophy does not compartmentalize the human person into various elements or
characteristics.

Rather it defines human nature in terms of basic tendencies and potentialities that differentiate
human beings from other creatures such as animals. For this reason, the human person is a
unique being.

To call man a human being implies that he is incomplete and imperfect but in the process of
completion and perfection. This means that man is in an incomplete process of be-ing or
becoming.

Basic characteristics of the human being

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 i) One, he is a rational being to mean that he is capable of thinking, judging, discerning,
knowing, understanding, forming of concepts and all the other spiritual activities
associated with the mind.
ii) Two, he is a physical being. That is, he is a biological organism that is subject to the five
common senses as well as by other physiological needs. He is limited by the conditions
of time and space such that he can only be in one place at any give time.
iii) Three, the human person is a social being. He does not live in a vacuum, rather he is a
being-with-others. He needs other as others equally need him. The age-old adages say
that ‘no man is on island’ and ‘I am because we are’.
iv) Four, man is a cultural being, He is a creator and an actor who transforms and modifies
his physical environment to make his condition more comfortable. In so doing he
appends his signature on things in the world to change his environment into a human
environment, a human world, a world of culture.
v) Five, man is theoretical and practical. By virtue of his rationality, the human person can
reflect and meditate on his environment. He observes a lot of limitations and challenges
which he can overcome if he appropriately and responsibly acts on them. Six, he is a
cosmological /historical being limited by special temporal conditions e.g. time and
history.

TOPIC 13: HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS AND EDUCATION.

 The term "consciousness" originates from Latin words: 'con' meaning 'with,' and 'scire'
meaning 'to know.' Together, they imply 'with knowledge' or the ability to know.
 Human consciousness refers to the state of awareness and perception that individuals possess,
allowing them to experience and understand their surroundings, thoughts, emotions, and self.
 Consciousness distinguishes humans from other beings. It's not just mental activity but the
self's intellectual awareness of objects.
 Consciousness involves self-awareness (introspection) and awareness of external objects. It's
an internal state where the subject connects with either itself or external objects.

Levels of Human Consciousness

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1. Empirical Level: The empirical level is the foundational stage of human understanding
rooted in sensory perception, personal experiences, and direct observations of the tangible
world. It relies on the immediate environment and concrete, observable phenomena to form
knowledge and make decisions.
Intellectual Level: At the intellectual level, individuals’ exhibit advanced cognitive
development characterized by abstract thinking, critical analysis, problem-solving, and the
ability to connect diverse pieces of information. This level transcends immediate sensory
experiences, encompassing complex concepts and ideas.
2. Rational Level: The rational level signifies an advanced cognitive stage where individuals
employ logical and deductive reasoning. They excel in evaluating arguments, spotting
fallacies, and making decisions grounded in reason and evidence. Rational thinking entails a
profound grasp of cause-and-effect relationships and the capacity for critical information
assessment.
3. Responsible Level: The responsible level transcends cognition and includes ethical
judgment, responsibility, and empathy. Individuals at this stage make decisions with
consideration for the broader impact on society, guided by a strong ethical framework and a
sense of duty to others.

Freire further narrows the four levels of human consciousness to three types
1. Magical Consciousness: At this level, individuals experience the world without a full
understanding of what they're experiencing. They resort to magical thinking,
superstitions, witchcraft, and religion in an attempt to make sense of their experiences.
This type of consciousness reflects a lack of comprehension of the environment and
experiences.
2. Naïve Consciousness: Naïve consciousness encompasses both intellectual and rational
levels of awareness. Individuals at this stage possess knowledge and understanding of
their environment, but it remains abstract and theoretical. However, this knowledge often
fails to translate into practical action, leading to either inaction or partial efforts to
overcome limitations.
3. Critical Consciousness (Praxis): Critical consciousness represents the level of
responsible action. Here, individuals take meaningful and responsible actions to address

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 their limitations. This action is liberating and aimed at emancipation. It requires
discernment, insight, judgment, and decisive decision-making to effect positive change.

TOPIC 14: EDUCATION AND CREATIVITY

Meaning of creativity
Creativity is the ability to generate original and novel ideas, solutions, or expressions that are
valuable, meaningful, and often unexpected.

Development of concept of creativity

In traditional education, teachers aimed to mold children into ideal adults, considering them
passive "raw materials" for this purpose. Authoritarian methods were often used to instill societal
values. However, 20th-century philosophers like Froebel, Rousseau, and Dewey challenged this
view. They believed children were inherently good and that society influenced them negatively.
To foster creativity, teachers should involve children in their own development, encourage
problem-solving and hands-on learning. Education should create a curious environment, enabling

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students to unleash their potential and develop qualities like insight, judgment, imagination, and
invention, essential for creativity.

Characteristics of Creativity
Creativity can rightly be explained by use of the following five elements

a) Connectedness: Creativity combines previously unrelated thoughts, ideas, actions, and

elements to form new relationships and perspectives. It brings diverse elements like timber,
nails, and metal rods together to create something new, like a table.
b) Originality: Creativity results in something new and unique, distinct from anything else. It
often emerges spontaneously, without prior prediction or conditions. This surprises the
inventor and brings excitement, as seen in Archimedes' "Eureka" moment when he
discovered the principle of displacement.
c) Non-rationality: Some creative outcomes don't follow systematic reasoning and can't be
traced through logical steps. They may be attributed to non-rational factors like inspiration,
vision, or divergent thinking.
d) Openness: Creativity originates from a mind open to alternatives, unbound by traditional or
popular approaches. It seeks fresh perspectives and alternative problem-solving methods.
e) Self-actualization: Creativity not only transforms objects but also the person behind it. It
helps individuals realize their full potential, assert themselves, and engage in self-expression,
self-determination, and self-transformation.

Strategies that educators can employ to enhance creativity in young learners

1. Encourage Open-Ended Questions: Incorporate open-ended questions into lessons that

do not have a single correct answer. Encourage students to think critically and express
their unique perspectives. For instance, in a history class, ask students to speculate about
alternative historical outcomes.

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2. Project-Based Learning: Implement project-based learning activities where students
have the freedom to choose topics, explore ideas, and create something tangible. For
example, in science class, students could design their own experiments to investigate a
phenomenon.

3. Arts and Creative Expression: Integrate art, music, drama, and creative writing into the
curriculum. Allow students to express themselves through various artistic mediums,
fostering imagination and self-expression.

4. Collaborative Learning: Create opportunities for collaborative learning and group

projects. Encourage students to work together to solve problems, brainstorm ideas, and
learn from each other's diverse perspectives.

5. Real-World Problem Solving: Present students with real-world problems or challenges

that require creative solutions. This can relate to environmental issues, community
service projects, or entrepreneurial endeavors.

6. Flexible Classroom Spaces: Design classroom environments that promote creativity,

with flexible seating arrangements, spaces for group work, and areas for quiet reflection.
This allows students to choose the best setting for their creative tasks.

7. Diverse Reading Materials: Offer a wide range of reading materials, including fiction,
non-fiction, and literature from various cultures. Reading diverse texts encourages
creativity by exposing students to different viewpoints and ideas.

8. STEM and STEAM Education: Integrate STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering,

Mathematics) or STEAM (adding Arts) concepts into the curriculum, emphasizing hands-
on experimentation and innovation. Students can engage in coding, robotics, or
engineering projects.

9. Critical Thinking Exercises: Incorporate critical thinking exercises that challenge

students to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information. For example, in a social studies
class, have students critically examine historical documents and draw their own
conclusions.

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 10. Encourage Curiosity: Foster a classroom culture that values curiosity. Encourage
students to ask questions, explore topics of personal interest, and share their findings with
the class.

11. Embrace Failure as a Learning Opportunity: Teach students that making mistakes and
experiencing failures are part of the creative process. Encourage them to learn from
setbacks and try alternative approaches.

12. Reflection and Self-Assessment: Provide time for students to reflect on their own
creative processes. Ask them to assess their work, identify areas for improvement, and set
goals for their creative endeavors

TOPIC 15: EDUCATION AND DIALOGUE

In this chapter we shall endeavour to expound on the dialogical dimension of education. By the
end of the lecture you should be able to:

 define the term dialogue,

 explain why a conception of education which excludes the dialogical dimension is
incomplete,
 Identify at least three factors that promote dialogue and three that hinder dialogue in the
classroom setting.
Previously we have discussed the other three dimensions of education, namely normative,
cognitive and creative. We noted that where education over emphasizes socialization the learner
is turned into a secondary participant in education. The society comes first since the learner has
to receive the values, customs, cultures and traditions of the society. Such an understanding of
education emphasizes the teacher’s status and diminishes that of the learner. Education becomes
a process of moulding the learner according to the value system of the society. A true
understanding of education should recognize that both teacher and learner are subjects.

An education that emphasizes knowledge and understanding tends to be academic, abstract,

intellectual and speculative. It defines human life and living in terms of though and
consequently ignores the social aspect of education. Such a conception is narrow and

33
unsatisfying. Note that knowledge is social in origin and in character. As such acquisition of
knowledge and understanding ultimately depends on a social relationship – between the teacher
and the student. The two must be engaged in a genuinely active and interactive relationship.

The creative dimension of education overemphasizes individualistic development in terms of

self-actualization, self-determination, self-expression, and self-identity. This conception of
education is also narrow because it portrays education as a process of promoting individualism,
selfishness and self-centeredness. Such an education breeds people who are self-seeking, self-
admiring, mean and self -centered. These attitudes lack sharing, partnership, cooperation,
collectivism and association.

A true understanding of education should include aspects of sharing, togetherness, mutual

respect, mutual recognition and cooperation. This is because the human being, as we discussed
in the topic on Uniqueness of Human Nature in Chapter 13 is a social being, a being with others

The Dialogical Dimension of Education

The term dialogue is rooted in two Greek terms, namely; ‘dia’ meaning ‘two’ and ‘logos’ to
mean ‘word’ or ‘speech’. Dialogue, therefore, means two people speaking to each other. It
therefore refers to verbal communication between two or more people. It involves inter-
subjective conversation, recognition of the dignity and respect of other party or parties, and
sharing of experiences, ideas, thoughts, joys, sorrows and frustrations. Dialogue is thus a
humanizing experience that is carried out in a spirit of friendliness, care and concern.

Traditional models of education discourage dialogue since learners have little say in the process
of education. Instead, they are expected to take the words of the teacher without questions,
preserve their curiosity, creativity and desires.

In contradistinction, modern model of education encourages dialogue. The learner is at the

center of the learning experience. He has freedom to be heard, to ask questions and even to
criticize the position of the teacher. Punishments, threats, coercion and use of force are
discouraged since they create a gap between the learner and the teacher. Existentialist
philosophers such as Martin Bauber, distinguish three distinct levels of dialogue that correspond
to three types of relationships. The first is the I-THOU level which represents the relationship
that obtains between persons who relate to each other as subjects. The first recognizes himself as

34
an ‘I’ and the other equally as an ‘I’. None is seen as an object. This makes it possible for
expression of mutual respect, mutual recognition and mutual care. It is an ideal ground for
talking to each other and for being together.

The second relationship is the I - IT level where the ‘I’ is the subject while the ‘IT’ represents an
object. The ‘I’ perceives himself as a subject but presumes the other to be a passive object. This
kind of a relationship governs man’s relation to objects like stones.

The third level is the IT – IT relationship that obtains between object both of which are passive
to each other. They may only collide at the action of some mechanical force.

Factors that promote dialogue in school

The following factors promote dialogue in schools:

 use of heuristic (learner-centered) methods of teaching

 democratic style of leadership involving consultation and involvement of teachers and
students in decision making
 delegation of power
 promote sharing, togetherness, mutual respect, cooperation
 avoid threats, punishments and manipulation of subordinates
 use of proper communication strategies
 promote inter-personal and personal communication as opposed to notes, memos, sms etc

Factors to hinder dialogue

The following factors greatly hinder dialogue in schools:
1. Overuse of Expository Methods: Excessive reliance on teacher-centered instruction
methods can hinder dialogue in schools by limiting student engagement and participation.
2. Dictatorial Administration: Authoritarian administrative approaches, such as unilateral
decision-making and the use of force, can stifle open dialogue among staff and students.
3. Poor Communication Strategies: Ineffective communication strategies within
educational institutions can impede the flow of meaningful dialogue, leading to
misunderstandings and conflicts.

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 4. Strong Emotions: The presence of strong emotions like anger or fear can disrupt
constructive dialogue by clouding rational discussions and fostering hostility.
5. Language Barriers: Language differences pose a significant challenge to effective
communication and dialogue within diverse school communities.
6. Fear of Reprisals: The fear of negative consequences for expressing dissenting opinions
or questioning the status quo can discourage open dialogue among students and
educators.
7. Rigid Hierarchies: Hierarchical structures within schools may discourage open
communication and dialogues between students and teachers, limiting the exchange of
ideas and feedback.

TOPIC 16: DEMOCRACY AND EDUCATION

In this chapter we shall discuss the concept of democracy. By the end of the lecture, you should
be able to:

 define the term democracy

 outline the hallmarks of a democratic society
 enumerate the philosophical properties of the concept democracy
 explain the role of education in promoting the practice of democracy
The term democracy can be traced from two Greek words, namely, ‘demo’ which means people,
mob or mass, and ‘cracia’ meaning rule or governance. Thus the two combine to mean
rule/government of the people.

Democracy is a system where people have the power to make decisions and choose leaders
through elections. It values equality, inclusivity, freedom of expression, and individual rights to
ensure government accountability and representation.

The rule by the people was executed in various ways:

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 i) Rule by consent – This referred to the search for consensus – i.e. the common good for
all; this could be done either through a referendum in which people’s desires/wishes
could be established through a popular vote or through a legislative assembly – a college
elected by and representative of the people ___ parliament whatever these representatives
agreed upon was binding to the people since they were their representatives.
ii) Legal procedures in which people’s wishes and desires were collected and collated
such that a certain decision is reached for the common interest of all i.e. citizens were
consulted on the running (i.e. policies and actions) of their state.

As such the term democracy is common in political discourse. A democratic government is one
that is popularly elected and one that seeks and fulfills the desires of the majority. A democratic
election is one where people freely and fairly participate in expressing their will through the vote
and then respecting such expression and using it as a guide in making decision regarding the
losers and the winners.

Principles of a truly democratic society

a) Equality: This principle advocates for equal status, rights, and dignity for all members of
society, regardless of gender, culture, race, or religion. It entails the fair distribution of
opportunities across various social, economic, and political spheres.
b) Equity: Equity focuses on just and fair resource distribution, taking into account both
majority and minority groups. It aims to rectify situations that lead to inequalities and ensures
equal importance is placed on all individuals.
c) Justice and Fairness: This principle seeks to correct shortcomings in regulations, rules, and
laws that could be exploited by the majority or powerful members of society. It promotes
fairness and prevents abuse of power.
d) Respect for Human Rights and Dignity: Education should uphold and respect the
fundamental human rights and dignity of every individual, ensuring their well-being and
worth are protected.
e) Respect for the Rule of Law: Education should adhere to established laws and regulations,
promoting a society where rules are followed, and justice is upheld.
f) Meritocracy: Recruitment, appointments, and promotions should be based on merit rather
than favoritism, nepotism, or other non-meritocratic considerations.

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g) Liberty or Popular Freedoms: Education should foster and protect freedoms such as
freedom of expression, assembly, and worship, allowing individuals to exercise their rights
and participate in civic life.
h) Consultations: In decision-making processes, extensive consultations should be conducted
to ensure the common good is considered and diverse perspectives are taken into account.
i) Power Sharing: Power should not be concentrated in the hands of one person or a select
group but should be shared among various segments of society to prevent abuses of authority
and promote inclusivity.

DEMOCRACY IN EDUCATION
John Dewey, influenced by democratic ideals, applied democracy to education to challenge
authoritarian, teacher-centered traditions. He prioritized learner freedom, self-expression, and
self-actualization, balancing the needs of students, society, and teachers. Democracy in education
extends political principles of equality and justice to educational practice.

Ways of exercising democracy in the practice of education

In the practice of education democracy can be exercised in several ways. In Kenya, for instance,
education could be democratically distributed and organized in the following ways:

a) Equitable Distribution of Resources: Ensure fair allocation of educational resources,

facilities, equipment, and staff to avoid disparities.
b) Humane School Organization: Foster a school environment that promotes dialogue,
reduces bureaucracy, and treats individuals with dignity.
c) Guaranteeing Rights: Ensure the rights of all individuals within the educational system,
including students and teachers, are protected.
d) Fair Staff Management: Base staff transfers, postings, and promotions on meritocracy,
ensuring fairness in career progression.
e) Democratic Curriculum: Design the educational content to reflect democratic values
and principles.
f) Democratic Teaching and Discipline: Implement teaching methods and disciplinary
measures that align with democratic principles.
g) Student Consultation: Involve students in decision-making processes, such as choosing
dates, menu options, and selecting prefects.

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 h) Distribution of Power: Establish a system where power is shared among various
stakeholders, including Heads of Department (HOD), class teachers, and prefects.
i) Centralization vs. Decentralization: Consider whether institutions like the Teachers'
Service Commission (TSC) and university management should be centralized or
decentralized.
j) Fostering Human Qualities: Encourage the development of fundamental human
qualities like friendliness, compassion, fraternity, tolerance, and consideration of interests
within the educational community.

General principles

a) The general pattern of democratic procedures prevalent in a country obviously influences

the way in which education is administered.
b) Different educational institutions require different forms of control – a university is
organized and controlled differently from a kindergarten
c) The position of the teacher: is he an authority on ultimate values of community or
a hired person to train citizens on skills and for employment?
d) Centrally organized and controlled systems of education are not as favourable as
decentralized ones – probably more practical in developed world

Fundamental Philosophical Properties of the Concept of Democracy

a) Ontological Concept of Democracy: Democracy, in its ontological sense, involves
recognizing others as human beings and respecting their interests and needs. It fosters a
caring environment where people share in each other's joys and frustrations. It promotes a
sense of belonging, active participation, and commitment.
b) Epistemological Concept of Democracy: In the epistemological sense, democracy is related
to open-mindedness, tolerance of diverse views, and independent thinking. It pertains to
cognitive attitudes and beliefs that encourage objective thinking and independence of
thought.
c) Ethical Concept of Democracy: Democracy serves as a framework for ethical standards in
education. It upholds principles of justice, equality, freedom, and fairness in educational

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 settings. It aims to promote democratic attitudes and behaviors through education's content
and practices, particularly in diverse social groups.
d) Organizational Concept of Democracy: Democracy as an organizational concept involves
structuring institutions and societies to practice democratic ideals. It taps into a variety of
talents and ideas to enhance organizational efficiency and effectiveness. It contrasts with
autocracy and totalitarianism, emphasizing power distribution, decentralization, and
involvement in decision-making to achieve appropriate commitments.

TOPIC 17: EDUCATION, LEISURE AND WORK

WORK
 Work is derived from the Greek term "ascholia" which denotes both the process and
product of work. It is a process of actions people take to achieve something valuable and
also the outcome, such as a picture, song, or construction.
 Work, in a philosophical sense, is conscious human engagement with the world to
achieve meaningful outcomes.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Value of Work

The philosophical definition of work entails both an intrinsic and extrinsic value, upon which
a work ethic is based.
1. Intrinsic Value of Work: This perspective views work as having inherent worth and
significance beyond material gains. It emphasizes that work is a means of self-fulfillment,
self-actualization, self-discovery, and creative expression in one's life.
2. Extrinsic Value of Work: In contrast, the extrinsic value of work sees it as a means to an
external end. Here, work is primarily motivated by the desire for material or economic
rewards that are detached from the work itself. It involves treating one's labor as a
commodity to be sold in the marketplace.

Work becomes meaningful for four reasons;

1. Self-Satisfaction and Self-Actualization: Both men and women achieve self-satisfaction
and self-actualization through their work. Work is a means through which individuals
find fulfillment and reach their highest potential.

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2. Upholding Human Dignity: Work upholds the dignity of individuals, emphasizing their
status as subjective selves rather than objects. It recognizes the inherent worth and value
of each person.
3. Individuality and Differentiation: Work distinguishes each person as an individual self,
setting them apart from other entities. It highlights the uniqueness of individuals in their
contributions.
4. Exploiting Potential and Transformation: Through work, both men and women
harness their potential and, in doing so, contribute to the improvement of their world.
Work is a transformative force that enables individuals to make their surroundings better
and more meaningful.

Work has three basic philosophical elements, namely symbolic, axiological, and
epistemological.
1. Symbolism of Work: Work is symbolic because it not only eases human efforts through
inventions but also reflects the creativity and responsibility of individuals. It goes beyond
meeting basic needs and contributes to improving living conditions. Work encompasses
ethical and aesthetic dimensions.
2. Ethical Dimension: The ethical aspect of work emphasizes the importance of respecting
human dignity and serving individuals. It entails fair compensation, good working
conditions, and fair terms of employment. Work should be at the service of people, and
they should be treated justly.
3. Aesthetic Dimension: Work's aesthetic dimension involves making the environment
better and more conducive to human life. It contributes to creating a more humane living
environment and enhancing the quality of life.
4. Epistemological Aspect: Work also has epistemological aspects, implying that
meaningful engagement in work requires the necessary theoretical knowledge and
practical skills to carry out tasks effectively. Both knowledge and skills are essential for
meaningful work participation.
Work and labour

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1. Work: Work involves the use of both physical and mental energy to create something
valuable or worthwhile. It is typically associated with human activities and reflects the
application of human intelligence and effort.
2. Labour: Labour, in contrast, primarily involves the use of physical energy to achieve a
specific goal or purpose. It is often associated with more basic, physical tasks and is
likened to the activities of animals that rely on their physical strength for tasks.

Role of education in promoting the value of work.

1. Positive View of Work: Education should help people see work in a positive light,
challenging the notion that it's solely hard labor or a necessary evil. It should broaden
perspectives on work, making it both a means and an end.
2. Motivation for Positive Change: Education should motivate individuals to pursue goals
that improve society in sensitive, imaginative, and responsible ways. It should help them
set clear goals, plan activities, sustain efforts, and evaluate performance.
3. Professionalism and Work Ethic: Education should nurture professionalism and a
strong work ethic, making work enjoyable and balanced with leisure. This balance leads
to self-realization and imbues work with personal and social meaning, fostering
fulfillment in the work process.

LEISURE
 Leisure refers to the time we have at our disposal when no official activities are assigned.

Activities during leisure

1. Relaxation and Stress Relief: Leisure activities provide a chance to relax, release stress,
and unwind from work-related pressures.
2. Recharge Energy: Leisure helps rejuvenate physical and mental energy that may be
depleted from work.
3. Economically Beneficial: Some leisure activities can be economically productive or
financially rewarding.
4. Promote Creativity: Leisure allows individuals to explore and utilize their talents,
fostering creativity.

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5. Social Interaction: It provides opportunities for socializing with friends and family,
strengthening relationships.
6. Charitable Acts: Engaging in charity work during leisure time is a meaningful way to
contribute to the community and society.

Various ways in which leisure time can be abused

a) Substance Abuse: Using leisure time to excessively consume alcohol, drugs, or other
substances can lead to addiction, health problems, and social consequences.
b) Procrastination: Choosing leisure activities over responsibilities and tasks can lead to
deferment, missed deadlines, and increased stress.
c) Excessive Sleep: Oversleeping or napping excessively during leisure time can disrupt
daily routines and lead to fatigue.
d) Overspending: Engaging in excessive shopping or gambling during leisure time can lead
to financial problems and debt.
e) Engaging in Risky Behavior: Participating in dangerous or risky activities during
leisure, such as extreme sports without proper training, can lead to accidents and injuries.
f) Ignoring Self-Care: Failing to prioritize self-care and relaxation during leisure can lead
to physical and emotional burnout

Education should promote the value of leisure by:

1. Balanced Life: Education should promote life balance, including work, leisure, and
personal well-being, to prevent burnout and value leisure.
2. Stress Reduction: Education can teach stress management and highlight leisure's role in
reducing stress.
3. Health & Wellness: Schools should offer physical education emphasizing leisure's
benefits for physical health.
4. Cultural Enrichment: Education exposes students to cultural and artistic activities,
enriching leisure pursuits.
5. Time Management: Teaching time management, including allocating time for leisure,
maximizes leisure's value.

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 6. Creative Expression: Encourage creative expression through hobbies, crafts, and writing
for relaxation and self-expression.
7. Community Engagement: Promote community involvement and volunteering as
meaningful leisure activities.
8. Social Skills: Foster social skills and relationships, emphasizing leisure with loved ones.

TOPIC 18: HUMAN RIGHTS AND EDUCATION

Human Rights and Education

The concept of human rights is subsumed in the ideal of democracy. Democratic practices
provide the ideal environment for claiming and enjoying human rights. Inversely the respect for
human rights enhances democratic practices. The two concepts are thus interwoven.

Human rights are a set of rules/regulations of justice to which every human being is entitled
regardless of his/her status in society. In this sense human rights are seen as the core of
democratic principles. Indeed the true feature of a democracy is not the rule of the majority but
the fundamental rights it assures a minority. Human rights are based on the appreciation of the
sovereignty of individuals i.e. all people are one in humanity and are created equally free,
autonomous and basically, self-governing.

Individuals have total control over personal inherent entitlements of being basically human e.g.
their body, life, property and association e.g. a company is formed by mutual consent and
equality of those individuals concerned. This is called individual sovereignty. Such an
impersonal entity – even a state cannot make decisions, rather only the individuals concerned
have the right to. Certain structures and offices appointed and given authority by the people
make such decisions on behalf of the people. Sovereignty is thus an ideal based on the free will
of the human being.

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Institutions should therefore serve to guarantee individuals of peace, safety, happiness and
protection from harm, exploitation and oppression. Since education enterprise is a microcosm of
a macrocosm, thus:

 People involved in education should be accorded their rights to participate in

decision making for common good
 Have an inalienable right to alter, reform or abolish their institutions in a manner
deemed morally appropriate
 They are not, subjects to the institution

NB: The right to do what we please corresponds with a commensurate human duty to take
the consequences- which requires people to take responsibility for their actions. Thus our
rights should be guided by the general good of others.

We cannot adequately discuss the concept of Human Rights, without recourse to the twin
concepts of Freedoms and Citizenship. Freedom is the ability to make choices and act upon such
choices without being made to worry unduly. The following three freedoms are identified within
the context of human rights and democracy;

a) Political freedom

This is the autonomy to have one’s own views, express what one thinks and believes without
intimidation. In a school situation, teachers and learners should have liberty of expression. This
necessarily presupposes tolerance and respect for the view of others. Political freedom also
should include freedom of association this nurtures the practice of living with others as citizens.

b) Economic freedom
Includes among the others the freedom to own and use property. Here people are free to
generate wealth but not to encroach on others rights e.g. exploitation, forced labour, child labour
and slavery.

Here, children must learn to respect economic freedom by:

- respecting other people’s property e.g. no stealing

- appreciate the value of work and develop a work ethic

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c) Social freedom
This is generally a demand for fair and just treatment of all people within an atmosphere that
upholds human dignity. This excludes inhuman treatment that humiliates or embarrasses a
human person. Children should be initiated into the practice of social freedom to enhance their
self-esteem and confidence. Again human freedom is not absolute; it is limited by rights of
others and the common good.

The entitlements of a citizen include: to vote, equal rights before the law, equal access and
participation in education, participation in the public and civil life and protection against
infringement of civil liberties.

Citizenship therefore is a mode of being a free member of a state who is accorded all rights of
belonging on equal terms with everybody else and without discrimination. Thus governments
should guarantee an atmosphere of equality and social justice where all people are assured by
their human rights. However, as mentioned earlier, our freedoms must be exercised while taking
into account the rights of others. Citizenship requires responsibility.

All human rights are based on natural rights that bestow human beings a level of equality based
on no other reason than that they are human beings. As such any definition of rights that is based
on accidental factors such as colour, religions etc are superficial. This means that all human
beings are born with an internal and natural equality.

The U.N. member states have ratified several conventions in order to safeguard equal human
rights of all. Some of these conventions have direct implication on education. Examples include:

 December 1948 - Universal Declaration of Human Rights (education as a basic human right
 November 1959 - Declaration on the Rights of the Child (education as the right of the child
 Convention of the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (1981) and
 Convention on the Rights of the child September 1990
Various international conferences and regulatory agreements have assigned education a key role
in instituting and securing equal human rights. Examples include:

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 Political and civil rights (entail civic rights, personal freedoms and protection) – Education
is expected to nurture the observance these rights that underscore the right of life, personal
freedoms, protection from slavery, forced labour, inhuman treatment, political rights such
as freedom of conscience, expression, association etc.
 Economic, social and cultural rights – these seeks to uphold the right to work and reserve
fair pay, the right to health and education and the right to participate in cultural activities.
 Third generation rights seek to uphold the right of minority groups. Education should thus
help people to understand the basic tenets of human equality and put them into practice in
school and in their daily lives.
 The convention on the rights of the child (CRC) provides a framework for protection of the
child’s right to life, liberty, education and health care. It ensures children are protected
against armed conflict, discrimination, torture, cruel and inhuman treatment and
punishment.
Education has a moral duty to promote human rights, equality, justice and good citizenship
through the kind of curriculum content it offers as well as through its practices. It should ensure
that people learn about their rights and those of others, and to respect every person’s right
regardless of one’s station in life.

Summary
In this lecture the concept of human rights has been highlighted. The role of human rights in the
establishment of a truly democratic society has been articulated. The juxtaposition between
human rights, freedoms, and citizenship has also been explained and justified.

TOPIC 20: ETHICS OF CARE

Ethic of Care
 The ethics of care is a moral and ethical framework that emphasizes the significance of
interpersonal relationships, empathy, compassion, and responsiveness to the needs and
vulnerabilities of others.
Ethic of Justice

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  The ethics of justice, on the other hand, emphasizes fairness, equality, and the application
of universal principles or rules in ethical decision-making. It seeks to ensure that
individuals are treated equitably and their rights are respected.
Distinguish between ethic of justice and ethic of care
Aspect Ethics of Justice Ethics of Care
Prioritizes interpersonal
Emphasizes fairness, equality, and
relationships, empathy, compassion,
Meaning adherence to established principles
and responsiveness to the needs of
and rules in moral decision-making.
individuals.
Concerned with the distribution of Centers on nurturing and maintaining
resources, opportunities, and caring relationships, especially
Focus benefits to ensure equitable within the context of personal
treatment and protection of connections and caregiving
individual rights. professions.
Fairness, impartiality, equality, rule Empathy, compassion, attentiveness,
Principles of law, adherence to established nurturing relationships, contextual
moral and legal standards. and situational ethics.
Commonly applied in legal systems, Applied in caregiving professions
governance, policymaking, and (e.g., nursing, social work), personal
Application situations requiring equitable relationships, family dynamics, and
resource allocation and protection contexts emphasizing relational
of rights. ethics.
Subjective consideration of the
Objective application of universal unique needs, feelings, and well-
Emphasis
principles and rules. being of individuals within
relationships.
Values contextual and situational
Often follows established laws and
Approach ethics, considering specific
regulations.
circumstances and relationships.
Less directly associated with the
Legal Associated with the legal system legal system but may inform ethical
Framework and the enforcement of laws. practices within caregiving
professions.
Focus on Less emphasis on nurturing Central emphasis on nurturing and
Relationships personal relationships. maintaining personal relationships.
Protecting individual rights, Responding to the needs of others,
Key
ensuring equal treatment, upholding demonstrating empathy, and
Considerations
the rule of law. nurturing caring relationships.
Ethic of Care in Education
Ethics of care in education emphasizes the importance of caring relationships, empathy, and
compassion in the teaching and learning process. It recognizes that fostering a caring educational
environment is essential for the overall well-being and development of students

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Here are some key aspects of the ethics of care in education:

1. Emphasis on Relationships: The ethics of care underscores the significance of building

positive and supportive relationships within the educational community. Educators are
encouraged to establish trusting and empathetic connections with their students,
recognizing that a caring environment promotes learning and well-being.

2. Responsiveness to Student Needs: Care ethics encourages educators to be attentive to

the unique needs, feelings, and experiences of individual students. It involves actively
listening to students, addressing their concerns, and adapting teaching approaches to meet
their learning styles and preferences.

3. Compassionate Teaching: Educators are encouraged to approach their roles with a sense
of compassion and understanding. This means acknowledging that students may face
personal challenges, and educators should provide emotional support when needed.

4. Ethical Decision-Making: Care ethics in education guides educators in making ethical

decisions that prioritize the welfare and growth of students. Ethical dilemmas are often
resolved by considering what is in the best interest of the students and their overall well-
being.

5. Safe and Inclusive Environment: The ethics of care promotes creating a safe and
inclusive learning environment where students feel valued, respected, and included.
Bullying, discrimination, and exclusionary behaviors are actively discouraged.

6. Empathy and Moral Development: Care ethics fosters the development of empathy and
moral reasoning in students. By experiencing empathy from educators and peers, students
are more likely to develop a strong sense of ethics and compassion themselves.

7. Conflict Resolution: When conflicts arise among students or between students and
educators, care ethics encourages a constructive and restorative approach to conflict
resolution. It prioritizes healing, reconciliation, and the restoration of relationships.

8. Community Building: The ethics of care extends to the entire educational community,
including students, educators, staff, and parents. It seeks to build a sense of community
and interconnectedness where everyone plays a role in caring for one another.

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 9. Balancing Care and Justice: While care ethics is primarily concerned with nurturing
relationships, it does not exclude considerations of justice. In education, there may be
instances where a balance between caring for individual students and applying just and
fair principles is necessary.

10. Educational Outcomes: Research suggests that an educational environment

characterized by care ethics can lead to improved student engagement, motivation, and
academic achievement. It contributes to a holistic education that addresses not only
intellectual growth but also emotional and social development.

Gender plays a crucial role in directing the way that women and men position themselves as
educators. Men are expected to embrace an ethic of justice as defined in legal terms and based
on principle of impartiality, while women are expected to portray an ethic of care centered on
subjective responsibility, responsiveness and need to protect people and prevent harm befalling
them at very localized levels. This perhaps explains why women and girls are at the center of
caring for the going, age etc; that is, this perception portrays women as morally obliged to care
for others. This perception makes it hard for future women and men to grow up believing in
embracing the principle of equality of all human beings.

A true education must pursue and be located in true friendship based on love and trust. Education
thus becomes an enterprise of relationships between subjective who engage in personalized
endeavours that balance emotion with reason. Thus a true education based on interpersonal and
inter-subjective relationships should seek the harmony between the emotional and subjective, as
well as the rational and objective dimension of human nature. This, reason and emotions
complement each other, as such teachers and other adults will be attentive and sensitive to
meanings that children create and bring with them.

In a caring relationship the teacher should ask ‘what is the right thing to do’ under specific
circumstances, rather than ‘what is the objective expectation in this kind of circumstances’.
Though teachers may be guided by certain codes, they’ll be expected to treat each specific case
in its own merits owing to the prevailing circumstances and thereby personalizing his response.

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Since education is a moral enterprise, an ethic of care provides the teacher with an opportunity to
express empathy, and to nurture trust, confidence and feeling of being valued among the learners
– specifically the ones experiencing peculiar problems – e.g. exploitation, malnourishment,
disease.

On the global scale the Millennium Declaration perfectly articulates the ethic of care.
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are meant to guide development that will enhance
human dignity and equity through the various sectors, one among which is education.

World leaders restated their obligation to care for the world’s people – especially the most
vulnerable, and, in particular, the children of the world, to whom the future belongs.

The eight (8) MDGs articulated in 2000 aimed at:

a) Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger;

b) Achieving universal primary education;

c) Promoting gender equity and empowering women’

d) Reducing child mortality;

e) Improving maternal health

f) Combating HIV/AIDs, Malaria and other diseases

g) Ensuring environmental sustainability, and

h) Developing global partnerships for development

Achieving universal primary education and eradicating gender disparity – primary and secondary
education by 2005 and at all levels by 2015 – have a direct bearing on education. These 8 MDGs
direct to a model of human caring that is founded on an ethic of care.

An ethic of care is based on a sense of attachment with others (not detachment). For education
to offer peace, conflict resolution and dispute mediation – it must first offer modes of learning
how to co-exist with others.

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Man’s survival in the global village depends more on how attached they are – detachment leads
to war, famine, disease and other social evils. A sense of attachment helps man to be responsible
and caring:

i) For oneself

ii) for intimate others

iii) for distant others and strangers
iv) for animals
v) for plants and the living environment
vi) for human-made project, and
vii) caring for ideas
Our sense of self is built on our being with others who are like us. Man must therefore learn to
live-in-relation and in interdependence – a being with others.

Education must enable us to become ethically mature by exercising on ethic of care in this sense
education gets its true ethical meaning.

A teacher gives the care without expecting anything in return. This makes teaching profession
unique. Live a mother the teacher’s free-giving enterprise is rarely noticed. Teachers, apart
from being professionals – are true CARERS and GIVERS. Beyond the classroom activities the
teacher is ever eager to care and give. Teaching is thus a vocation though which teachers give
hope to the learner through the building of trust, enjoyment of protection, and experiencing
motivation for becoming better human beings.

Thus children should be encouraged to seek these free gifts of caring, guidance and help from
teachers and other adults. Equally teachers and adults should be equipped with skills to listen
and respond to their needs with empathy.

Most cultures and traditions have left this work of caring and empathizing with children to
women – but in education both men and women must participate as true carers of children and
young people – this means un-gendering the teaching profession at a fundamental way

Such adult care-givers provide guidance, care, support and protection to children some of whom
are faced by uncertainties, war, internal conflicts, disease, HIV/AIDs - once these adults they

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genuinely and empathetically give a listening ear to the children they cultivate trust, confidence
and a sense of belonging to the young ones.

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