Translanguaging in the Bilingual Classroom: A Pedagogy for Learning and Teaching?

Author(s): Angela Creese and Adrian Blackledge

Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 94, No. 1 (Spring, 2010), pp. 103-115
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers
Associations
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Translanguaging in the Bilingual
Classroom: A Pedagogy for Learning
and Teaching?
ANGELA CREESE ADRIAN BLACKLEDGE
University of Birmingham University of Birmingham
School of Education School of Education
MOSAIC Centre for Research on Multilingualism MOSAIC Centre for Research on Multilingualism
Edgbaston Edgbaston
Birmingham BI5 2TT Birmingham B15 2TT
United Kingdom United Kingdom
Email: a. creese@bham. ac. uk Email: a.j. blackledge@bham. ac. uk

This article reports on research that questions commonsense understandings of a bilingual

pedagogy predicated on what Cummins (2005, 2008) refers to as the "two solitudes" assump
tion (2008, p. 65). It sets out to describe a flexible bilingual approach to language teaching
and learning in Chinese and Gujarati community language schools in the United Kingdom. We
argue for a release from monolingual instructional approaches and advocate teaching bilin
gual children by means of bilingual instructional strategies, in which two or more languages
are used alongside each other. In developing this argument, the article takes a language ecol
ogy perspective and seeks to describe the interdependence of skills and knowledge across
languages.

CUMMINS (2008) DEFINED BILINGUAL EDU different education systems across the world. In
cation as "the use of two (or more) languages of this article, we describe one particular model com
instruction at some point in a student's school mon in many nations with linguistic and cultural
career" (p. xii). Garcia, Skutnabb-Kangas, and diversity, that of complementary schools, also known
Torres-Guzman (2006) referred to multilingual as heritage language schools, supplementary schools,
schools that "exert educational effort that takes and community language schools.1 These schools
into account and builds further on the diversity are invariably established by community mem
of languages and literacy practices that children bers and focus on language, culture, and heritage
and youth bring to school" (p. 14). This means go teaching. In the United Kingdom they are vol
ing beyond acceptance or tolerance of children's untarily run and outside the state sector of con
languages, to "cultivation" of languages through trol. Since 2002, we have researched complemen
their use for teaching and learning. Cummins re tary schools and have investigated the language
ferred to research (August 8c Shanahan, 2006; practices of their participants in Bengali, Chi
Genesee, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders, 8c Christian, nese, Gujarati, and Turkish schools in Birming
2006) that demonstrates that considerable confi ham, Manchester, Leicester, and London, respec
dence can be placed in the positive outcomes of tively (Creese, Barac, et al., 2008). The projects
bilingual education. have aimed to explore the social, cultural, and
Bilingual classroom contexts are hugely varied, linguistic significance of complementary schools
with multiple models and structures existing in both within their communities and in wider soci
ety and to investigate how linguistic practices of
The Modern Language Journal, 94, i, (2010) students and teachers in complementary schools
0026-7902/10/103-115 $1.50/0
are used to negotiate their multilingual and mul
?2010 The Modern Language Journal ticultural identities.

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 104 The Modern Language Journal 94 (2010)

Complementary schools are institutions that An ecological perspective on multilingualism is

endorse multilingualism as a usual and normative "essentially about opening up ideological and im
resource for identity performance (Creese, Bhatt, plementational space in the environment for as
Bhojani, & Martin, 2006; Martin, Bhatt, Bhojani, many languages as possible" (Hornberger, 2002,
8c Creese, 2006) and strive to influence identity p. 30). At its heart is the dialectic between the
and cultural socializations, extending the bilin local interactional and the social ideological. An
gualism of their students (Creese, Bhatt, Bhojani, ecological perspective also warns against too eas
8c Martin, 2008). Complementary schools' par ily reaching comprehensive, tidy findings. Kram
ticular concern with community values and the sch (2002) suggested that we use an ecological
nature of affiliation to and expertise in the com framework to voice the "contradictions, the un
munity language requires a pedagogy that re predictabilities, and paradoxes that underlie even
sponds to young people and teachers who have the most respectable research in language devel
experience of the diaspora in particular and dis opment" (p. 8; see also Kramsch & Steffensen,
tinct ways (Anderson, 2008; Cummins, 2005). In 2008).
the context of the classroom it is usually the case The language ecology metaphor offers a way
that the young people's bilingualism is English of studying the interactional order to explore
dominant, whereas their teachers are often com how social ideologies, particularly in relation to
munity language dominant. This article sets out multilingualism, are created and implemented.
to describe how teachers and students have devel The purpose of this article is to consider how
oped and co-constructed pedagogic practices for the multilingual orientation of complementary
participants in complementary schooling. We use schools frames bilingual pedagogy as an ideol
a language ecology perspective to describe the ide ogy and how teachers and students practise it
ological, interrelational, and interactional affor locally and interactionally. In the larger macro
dances of these linguistically diverse classrooms ideological order, which is increasingly hostile to
(Creese 8c Martin, 2003; van Lier, 2008). multilingualism and multiculturalism through its
insistence on monolingualism in society, and in
CLASSROOM LANGUAGE ECOLOGIES the United Kingdom in particular (Blackledge,
2005; Rassool, 2008), complementary schools po
An ecological approach considers the already tentially provide an alternative (Mirza & Reay,
established with the new. van Lier's (2008) eco 2000), safe (Garcia, 2005; Martin, Creese, Bhatt,
logical approach described the need to consider & Bhojani, 2004), and multilingual (Hornberger,
the development of new languages alongside the 2005) space for institutional bilingualism. We con
development of existing languages. He stressed sider the possibilities they present to challenge the
the importance of the interrelationship between monolingual macro-order.
teacher and learners in making this connection
salient. According to van Lier, the teacher en LANGUAGE SEPARATION AS BILINGUAL
gages the learner in pedagogic actions intended PEDAGOGY
to develop "a wide panoramic view of self (2008,
p. 54). From this teacher-learner engagement, Bilingual education has traditionally argued
new identity positions associated with language that languages should be kept separate in the
learning processes can emerge, with the teacher learning and teaching of languages. We see this
showing the learner the possibilities of these. explained in an early text on "language distribu
Creese and Martin (2003, 2008) described class tion in bilingual schooling" (Jacobson 8c Faltis,
rooms as ecological microsystems. They argued 1990):
for the importance of exploring ecological minu Bilingual educators have usually insisted on the sep
tiae of interactional practices in classrooms, link aration of the two languages, one of which is En
ing these to the ideologies that pervade language glish and the other, the child's vernacular. By strictly
choice and language policy. A similar point is separating the languages, the teacher avoids, it is ar
made byjaffe (2007), who described a need for gued, cross-contamination, thus making it easier for
"microecologies" (p. 225) of linguistic, social, po the child to acquire a new linguistic system as he/she
internalizes a given lesson-It was felt that the inap
litical, and pedagogical practice.
propriateness of the concurrent use was so self-evident
The study of language ecology is the study of that no research had to be conducted to prove this
diversity within specific sociopolitical settings in fact. (p. 4)
which the processes of language use create, re
flect, and challenge particular hierarchies and Keeping the languages separate, it is argued, helps
hegemonies, however transient these might be. the child. This discussion is brought up to date

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Angela Creese and Adrian Blackledge 105

in the rationale behind the two-way bilingual im The teacher in the Zentella (1981) study in
mersion programs of the United States, which are dicated her moral disapproval of "mixing" lan
described as "periods of instruction during which guages in the classroom. Shin (2005), in her study,
only one language is used (that is, there is no trans described attitudes toward codeswitching as neg
lation or language mixing)" (Lindholm-Leary, ative, noting that bilinguals themselves "may feel
2006, p. 89). According to Cummins (2005), an embarrassed about their code switching and at
explanation for this separateness is the continu tribute it to careless language habits" (p. 18).
ing prevalence of monolingual instructional ap Setati, Adler, Reed, and Bapoo (2002) made ref
proaches in our schools. He described the as erence to the "dilemma-filled" (p. 147, as cited
sumptions behind these approaches as follows: in Martin, 2005, p. 90) nature of codeswitching
in their study of South African classrooms. Mar
1. Instruction should be carried out exclusively
tin (2005), describing codeswitching in Malaysia,
in the target language without recourse to the shows how:
students' LI [first language].
2. Translation between LI and L2 [second lan the use of a local language alongside the "official"
guage] has no place in the teaching of language language of the lesson is a well-known phenomenon
or literacy. Encouragement of translation in L2 and yet, for a variety of reasons, it is often lambasted as
teaching is viewed as a reversion to the discred "bad practice," blamed on teachers' lack of English
ited grammar/translation method... or concur language competence... or put to one side and/or
rent translation method. swept under the carpet, (p. 88)

3. Within L2 immersion and bilingual/dual

These studies show that moving between lan
language programs, the two languages should be
guages has traditionally been frowned upon in
kept rigidly separate: They constitute "two soli
educational settings, with teachers and students
tudes." (p. 588)
often feeling guilty about its practice. Research
The "two solitudes" to which Cummins referred shows that codeswitching is rarely institutionally
here are similarly captured by others in the re endorsed or pedagogically underpinned. Rather,
search literature. Heller (1999) coined the term when it is used, it becomes a pragmatic response
parallel monolingualism, in which "each variety to the local classroom context. Lin (2005) de
must conform to certain prescriptive norms" (p. scribed student and teacher codeswitching prac
271). Heller argued that students learn to be tices as "local, pragmatic, coping tactics and
come bilingual in particular ways (and therefore responses to the socioeconomic dominance of En
not others) and that these constructions of bilin glish in Hong Kong, where many students from so
gualism advantage particular groups of students. cioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds with
Baker (2003), building on Fishman (1967), de limited access to English resources struggled to ac
scribed bilingualism with diglossia in which each quire an English-medium education for its socioe
language is used for distinct and separate social conomic value" (p. 46; see also Lin, 1996). Martin
functions; Swain (1983) used the phrase "bilin (2005) spoke of codeswitching as offering class
gualism through monolingualism" (p. 4); Creese room participants "creative, pragmatic and 'safe'
and Blackledge (2008) used the term "separate practices... between the official language of the
bilingualism" to describe language learning class lesson and a language which the classroom par
room contexts in complementary schools where ticipants have a greater access to" (p. 89). Arthur
teachers insist on the use of the target lan and Martin (2006) argued that codeswitching al
guage only. Each term describes the boundaries lows participants to better accomplish the lesson
put up around languages and represents a view and is a pragmatic response used to annotate texts
of the multilingual/bilingual student/teacher as and provide greater access.
"two monolinguals in one body" (Gravelle, 1996,
p. 11). TRANSLANGUAGING AS BILINGUAL
There are emotional implications for insistence PEDAGOGY
on separate bilingualism in educational contexts.
In 1981, Zentella recorded one of the teachers The educational issues around parallel mono
in her study saying, "When they don't understand lingualism have led practitioners and researchers
something in one language, they'll go to the other, to question the stricture of separate bilingualism.
which is easier for them... and like, then some Cummins (2005) challenged the squandering of
times I have to be bouncing from one language to bilingual resources in mainstream contexts. He
the other, which is wrong" (Puerto Rican teacher argued for a need to articulate bilingual instruc
participant). tional strategies that teach explicidy for two-way

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 106 The Modern Language Journal 94 (2010)

cross-language transfer. Anderson (2008) has re social and historical contexts of the utterance.
cently called for flexible approaches to pedagogy Moving beyond conventional codeswitching re
to respond to bilingual contexts that do not fit search, Bailey argued that:
easily into existing paradigms. Lin and Martin
Heteroglossia can encompass socially meaningful
(2005) have argued for more multilingual peda
forms in both bilingual and monolingual talk; it can
gogic and curriculum research. The research doc
account for the multiple meanings and readings of
umented in Lin and Martin (2005) and Arthur
forms that are possible, depending on one's subject
and Martin (2006) described the pedagogic po position; and it can connect historical power hierar
tentials behind codeswitching. These include chies to the meanings and valences of particular forms
increasing the inclusion, participation, and un in the here-and-now. (2007, p. 267)
derstandings of pupils in the learning processes;
developing less formal relationships between par Bailey demonstrated that the perspective of het
ticipants; conveying ideas more easily; and accom eroglossia allows one to distinguish between lo
plishing lessons. They spoke of the "pedagogic cal functions of particular codeswitches and their
validity of codeswitching" (Arthur & Martin, 2006, functions in relation to their social, political, and
p. 197) and considered ways in which the research historical contexts, in ways that formal codeswitch
might contribute to a "teachable" pedagogic re ing analysis does not. He convincingly argued
source. that the perspective of heteroglossia "explicidy
bridges
Important avenues of research have begun to the linguistic and the sociohistorical, en
riching
question the validity of boundaries around lananalysis of human interaction" (p. 269)
andNew
guages. Garcia (2007) showed in her work in is "fundamentally about intertextuality, the
ways that talk in the here-and-now draws mean
York schools that languages are not hermetically
ings from past instances of talk" (p. 272).
sealed units. Garcia prefers the term translan
guaging (p. xii) to codeswitching to describe the
usual and normal practice of "bilingualismLANGUAGE with ECOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY
out diglossic functional separation" in New York
classrooms (p. xiii). Makoni and Mashiri (2007) There are some examples of pedagogies that ex
suggested that rather than developing language plicidy seek to develop bilingual strategies based
policies that attempt at hermetically sealing on ecological
lan perspectives. Hornberger (2002,
guages, we should be describing the use of vernac 2005,2008) described her work on the continua of
ulars that leak into one another to understand the as an ecological model in the sense that
biliteracy
social realities of their users. As Lemke (2002) ar and literacy features are nested and in
language
gued: tersecting. One change along one point of a con
tinuum will cause potential changes along other
It is not at all obvious that if they were not politically continua, resulting in a reconfiguration of the
prevented from doing so, "languages" would not mix whole educational picture (Hornberger, 2002).
and dissolve into one another, but we understand al
In terms of optimizing pedagogy, Hornberger
most nothing of such processes_Could it be that all
(2005) suggested that "bi/multilinguals' learning
our current pedagogical methods in fact make mul
is maximized when they are allowed and enabled
tilingual development more difficult than it need be,
simply because we bow to dominant political and ide
to draw from across all their existing language
ological pressures to keep "languages" pure and sep skills (in two-h languages), rather than being con
arate? (p. 85) strained and inhibited from doing so by mono
lingual instructional assumptions and practices"
To move away from conceptualizing multi (p. 607).
lingualism as parallel monolingualisms, Bailey Another ecological pedagogic approach was
(2007) argued for a focus on voice rather described by Lopez (2008), who used the term
than language and makes a clear distinction be concurrent approaches in training prospective in
tween codeswitching and heteroglossia. Following digenous teachers in Latin America. He described
Bakhdn (1981, 1986, 1994), he acknowledged concurrent approaches as "generally untried but
that within every utterance there are traces of innovative use of languages used in the business
the social, political, and historical forces that have of teaching and learning" (p. 143). Lopez argued
shaped it. Bailey showed that rather than confin for a bilingual pedagogy that shows that "in in
ing signs to different languages as would be typi digenous everyday life, the two?or in some cases
cal in an account of codeswitching, heteroglossia three or more?languages are needed many times
encompasses both monolingual and multilingual in connection to one another and not as discretely
forms simultaneously, allowing for theorizing of separate as is often supposed" (p. 143).

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Angela Creese and Adrian Blackledge 107

Cummins (2005), too, made some explicit sug the design of the study and the nature of the data
gestions for developing bilingual strategies. He collected.
suggested:
METHODS
(a) systematic attention to cognate relationships
across languages; (b) creation of student-authored The research project consisted of four inter
dual language books by means of translation from the
locking case studies with two researchers work
initial language of writing to the L2; other multimedia
and multilingual projects can also be implemented
ing in two complementary schools in each of
four communities.2 The case studies focused on
(e.g., creation of iMovies, PowerPoint presentations,
etc.); (c) sister class projects where students from dif Gujarati schools in Leicester, Turkish schools in
ferent language backgrounds collaborate using two London, Cantonese and Mandarin schools in
or more languages, (p. 588) Manchester, and Bengali schools in Birmingham
(Creese, Barac, et al., 2008). Each case study iden
In the United Kingdom, research has demon tified two complementary schools in which to ob
strated that bilingual children do not view their serve, record, and interview participants. After 4
literacies and languages as separate but rather ex weeks observing in classrooms using an ethno
perience them as "simultaneous" (Kenner, 2004; graphic team approach (Creese, Barac, et al.,
Robertson, 2006; Sneddon, 2000). 2008), two key participant children were iden
However, there is also some caution expressed tified in each school. These children and their
in the research literature regarding the develop teachers were audio-recorded during the classes
ment of bilingual strategies/pedagogies based on observed, during break times, and, where possi
flexible methods. Martin (2005) wrote: ble, as they entered and left the complementary
school site. We interviewed stakeholders in the
And yet we need to question whether bilingual in schools, including teachers and administrators,
teraction strategies "work" in the classroom con and the key participant children and their par
text_Do they facilitate learning? Can classroom
ents. We also collected key documentary evidence
code-switching support communication, particularly
and took photographs.
the exploratory talk which is such an essential part of
the learning process? A corollary to this is whether
teacher-training programmes (both pre-service and TRANSIANGUAGING IN COMPLEMENTARY
in-service), in multilingual contexts take into account SCHOOLS
the realities and pragmatics of classroom language
use in such contexts, (p. 90) This article describes two case studies from
our larger project on complementary schools in
Lin (1999) acknowledged the switching be the United Kingdom: Gujarati and Chinese. The
tween English and Cantonese in her study en classes at the four schools described are held
sured understanding and motivation, but she on different days of the week (Saturday, Sunday,
warned against notions of easy transferability to and Thursday evening) and meet for around 2
other classrooms in other contexts and the dan 3 hours weekly. The number of students attend
ger of participating in the reproduction of stu ing the Chinese and Gujarati schools varies be
dents' disadvantage. Further, the development of tween 200 and 350, with the number of volunteer
pedagogies that respond to the research litera teachers somewhere between 15 and 35 (includ
ture will not work in any "mechanistic generalis ing teaching assistants). Teacher qualification and
able way" (Arthur 8c Martin, 2006, p. 197). The experience also varies, with some teachers possess
importance of responding to local circumstances ing qualified teacher status to work in the state
is made clear in the literature reviewed here. Al sector and others having many years of experi
though we can acknowledge that across all linguis ence working voluntarily in the complementary
tically diverse contexts moving between languages school setting but with few formal teaching quali
is natural, how to harness and build on this will fications.
depend on the sociopolitical and historical envi We start with an assembly at Jalaram Bal
ronment in which such practice is embedded and Vikasma, one of the Gujarati schools in the study.
the local ecologies of schools and classrooms. Assemblies are held at the end of each Satur
In the following sections we look at particular day morning session so that parents picking up
examples of flexible bilingualism in the context their children can attend. Assemblies are always
of complementary schools and consider some of very well attended by parents. The teachers sit at
the bilingual strategies used in complementary the front and the side. Children sit on the floor
school classrooms. Before this, we briefly describe facing the front, with younger children (aged 5)

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 108 The Modern Language Journal 94 (2010)

nearest the teachers and older children (aged 16 The following show which utterances are said in
18) nearest parents. Parents are at the back of English and which are said in Gujarati. We do this
the hall. Each week, one particular class and its not because we wish to argue that each language is
teacher lead the assembly. It is also an opportunity delivering different functions but rather because
for the head teacher to address the whole school: in classifying them into language groups, we can
young people, teachers, and parents. There are argue that such classification is meaningless for
200 children on roll at the school, and the as the speaker, SB.
sembly is a busy event that requires teachers to
move furniture to accommodate all participants. EXTRACT la
In Extract 1, we see that SB,2 the head teacher, Phrases Spoken in English
uses both Gujarati and English to speak to the au
dience. The translation is given after the text to what's going to happen here in Jalaram Bal
show the use of both English and Gujarati.3
Vikasma?
Holiday
EXTRACT 1 we're coming here
Assembly Audio Transcript, Gujarati GCSE presentation
I know that we're finishing on Friday in main
... what's going to happen here Jalaram stream school,
Bal Vikasma? Holiday nathi... awata Shani I know, it's a surprise
ware apne awanu chhe. we're coming here warned me today... it's something all of you will
awta shaniware... [several students put up their like, teachers will like... something for all of
us
hands] ... Amar? ... [picks on Amar or Amit to
reply]... Amare kidhu ne ke GCSE presentation next year
chhe... awanu chhe. I know that we're finish we're not going to take much time, 'cause I've got
ing on Friday in mainstream school, pun aiya few other things to tell you as well...
agal badhayne awanu chhe... I know, it's a sur
prise. Khawanu etlu fine chhe, K warned me to Phrases Spoken in Gujarati
day ... it's something all of you will like, teachers we ve to come here next Saturday
will like... something for all of us-[points to next Saturday.. .As Amar said, there's
but you all have to come here...
the class sitting in front of her] a balko a varshe
GCSE karwana chhe etle next year a badha awshe lovely food, K
mehman thayne, mota thayne!... we're not going something for all of us... these children are doing
to take much time, 'cause I've got few other things GCSE this year so
to tell you as well... they will come as guests, all grown up

Assembly Audio Transcript, English We wish to make the following points from clas
sifying the utterances into two languages. First,
... what's going to happen here in Jalaram both languages are needed simultaneously to con
Bal Vikasma? It's not a holiday, we've to vey the information about school openings and
come here next Saturday.. .we're coming here closings; that is, each language is used to con
next Saturday... [several students put up their vey a different informational message, but it is
hands] ... Amar? ... [picks on Amar or Amit to in the bilingualism of the text that the full mes
reply]... As A mar said, there's GCSE presentation, sage is conveyed. As Lopez (2008) argued, both
you have to come. I know we're finishing on Fri languages are "needed" in connection to one an
day in mainstream School, but you all have to come other. The meaning of the message is not clear
here... I know, it's a surprise, lovely food, K [a par without both languages. Second, it is in the move
ent] warned me today, it's something all of you ment between languages that SB engages with her
will like, teachers will like... something for all of diverse audience. The teachers, children, and par
us... [points to the class sitting in front of her] ents have different levels of proficiency in both
these children are doing GCSE this year so next year Gujarati and English. SB uses her languages to
they will come as guests, all grown up!... we're not engage her audience. However, her "languages"
going to take up much time 'cause I've got a few do not appear separate for her in this social act
other things to tell you as well... but rather a resource to negotiate meanings and
include as much of the audience as possible. SB's
If we break down the interaction further, we are language indexes her knowledge of the social
able to identify more specifically some of the bilin and linguistic complexity of the community she
gual strategies SB uses to engage her audience. addresses. We would argue that SB's utterances

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Angela Creese and Adrian Blackledge 109

are examples of translanguaging in which the 22 <so we discuss it... miss, do we sp

speaker uses her languages in a pedagogic con each other or one by one... >
text to make meaning, transmit information, and 23 PB: tame decide karo ke kone bol
perform identities using the linguistic signs at her 24 <you decide who speaks>
disposal to connect with her audience in com 25 [PB allocates more topics to pa
munity engagement. Gujarati and English are not students chat among themselve
distinct languages for the speaker in this context. 26 Ss: [off task] Seriously, yello
SB does not confine signs to different languages; gles] ... how do you know?
rather, her heteroglossia encompasses language 27 Ss: you're bad... [chat]...
forms simultaneously. 28 PB:... astethi bolwanu, discuss ka
In the second extract from a different Gujarati 29 <speak softly... do the discussi
class in another school, we see another exam 30 Ss: ... doesn't ask you what I wan
ple of flexible bilingualism as an instructional 31 Ss: ... mane doctor banwu chhe..
strategy to engage students. PB, the teacher, has really want to be a doctor... sorry
given the class some pair work, and in the ex 32 want to be a doctor, actually I d
tract the students are clarifying the task with being a doctor... I want to be.
their teacher before going on to do the task in 33 know for the kiddie ones...
pairs. In the following transcripts, it is not al paediatrician... karanke nana
ways possible to indicate which student is speak chhokra
ing. However, the key participant (KP) child is 34 manda pade to sara karwani dawa apwi
often the one the microphone picks up most chhe. Your turn, what do you want to
clearly. 35 be?
36 < I want to be a doctor... when litt
EXTRACT 2 are ill, I want to give them
1 PB:... have discussion karie, ek ek topic apu 37 medicines to make them better..
chhu badhyane, tame sharema karo... 38 Ss: I want to be a... watch s
2 ok... sssh... topic apu chhu... mari din gles] ... Medha & Co [laughs]...
charya, daily routine, tame decide up then, I
3 karo kon bolshe... 39 said mine, you say yours... I don't know
4 <Now let's discuss, I will give a topic each what you wana be... hurry up, say
to all, you share them, I'm giving yours
40 Ss: Listen then
5 the topics... daily routine... you decide who
speaks...> 41 Ss: ... Medha, hurry up, man... [chat in
6 Ss: what does it mean? English]... look behind you... [laughs,
7 PB: mari dincharya, daily routine... Medha calls
ane Jaimini, mane shu thawu game 42 Rupal] ... Medha turn around...
8 < my daily routine... Medha and Jaimini, [laughs]... [more chat]...
what I'd like to be> 43 Ss: hu moti thaine...
9 Ss: what is it? [chat] 44 < when I grow up... >
10 PB:... bai jana decide karo... only 5 minute 45 [General chatting and noise of discus
j apu chhu... je awde e bolwanu sions]
11 < both of you decide... giving you only 5 46 Ss: mane shu chhe... shuddup Medha,
minutes... speak what you can> you're such a loser!
12 Ss: miss, basically shu karwanu... discussion 47 < What is it for me... >
karya pachhi? 48 PB: OK, stop!
13 < miss, basically what do we have to do ? After 49 Ss: mane ghadialni... Medha and
discussion, what?> Co... Company of many watches...
14 PB: bolwanu 50 <I want to [have a shop for] watches.. .>
15 <speak>
16 Ss: shu bolwanu? Here both languages are used by teacher and
17 < speak what?> students to establish and clarify the pedagogic
18 PB: je discuss karyu hoi task. The task involves getting students to discuss
19 < what you discussed> topics such as daily routines and what they would
20 Ss: oh ... [chat]... ede we discuss it and like to be in the future. The phrase mari dincharya
then decide what we gonna say... miss 'daily routine' occurs twice early on in the ex
ame
tract and shows the teacher using both languages
21 ek bijanu kaie ke ek ek... to focus the students on one of the assigned

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 110 The Modern Language Journal 94 (2010)

topics. Both languages are also used to establish 29 <when does it finish?>
the procedural knowledge about the task with 30 Ss: [interrupting] athne chalis ke ne
"discussion/discuss" and "decide" repeated mul 31 <why don'tyou say 8:40 [in Gujarati] >
tiple times in English, whereas the focus on the
speaking skill is given in Gujarati. Both languages The teacher is willing to accept the students'
are needed to understand what is expected from English as long as the task is completed bilin
the task. The students, too, ask the teacher to clar gually. At each turn she returns to Gujarati or
ify the task in both languages (lines 12, 16, 20). a combination of the two languages. Rather un
Once the students are working in pairs, we see usually, we also see a student insist on Gujarati
that English is used to joke, tease, and play around rather than the English used in student answers.
(lines 46-47). While doing pair work, students use The longer extract (not shown here) shows that
both Gujarati and English to describe who they despite the student's insistence on the use of Gu
want to be (lines 31-35). It is the combination jarati (line 30), the student(s) continue(s) to reply
of both languages that keeps the task moving for to the teacher in English. The interactional pat
ward. We suggest that the teacher and students tern of teacher/Gujarati and student/English is
are finely tuned to the normative pattern of this a common phenomenon in Gujarati complemen
classroom ecology?that is, they sense the limits of tary schools (Martin et al., 2006). It is perhaps a
what is acceptable in terms of the use of one lan way to save face with regard to the different levels
guage in relation to the other. This is because the and proficiencies in the two languages. Certainly
teacher is aware of her learners' bilingualism? in the wider study we found that generally stu
its range and limitation and the identities that dents' English proficiency was greater than their
make use of it. The students, too, are aware of community language proficiency. In contrast, we
their teacher's expectations and identity position found that teachers' community language profi
ings, which are played out through bilingualism. ciency was higher than their English. However,
In Extract 3, rather unusually, the teacher requests we suggest that this is much more than a face
English and a student insists on Gujarati. saving act to hide a lack of proficiency. Rather,
we suggest that the bilingual participants in the
EXTRACT 3 classroom are also using their bilingualism as a
1 PB: pachhi? style resource (Androutsopoulos, 2007) for iden
2 <then?> tity performance to peers. Thus, their bilingual
3 Ss: [doesn't answer] ism in the classroom is not so much about which
languages
4 PB: OK, to Englishma boli nakh, chal bol but which voices are engaged in iden
5 < OK, speak in English, come on>tity performance.
6 Ss: I wake up in the morning, then A final
do mypoint to note from these extracts is the
brush... and I have bath, then use of heteroglossic terms such as sharema and En
7 I go to school glishma. These are common in this teacher's dis
8 PB: keda wage? course. In the same lesson, the teacher uses the
9 <at what time?> following terms: junglema 'in the jungle,' bookma
10 Ss: eight o'clock 'in the book,' yearma 'in the last year,' schoole 'to
11 PB: shema ja, chaline, gadima? school,' and daddyne 'to daddy' Rather than de
12 scribing these as either Gujarati or English or as
<how do you get there, walking, in a car?>
13 Ss: I walk it English with a Gujarati suffix, we would describe
14 PB: huh? Chaline them as heteroglossic. They are usually coined by
15 <walking> the teacher but taken up and used by the stu
16 Ss: [interrupting] ude dents, too, as a seemingly acceptable form. These
17 < he flies> heteroglossic phrases appear to serve as a linguis
18 PB: tari najikma thay tari school gharthi? tic resource that the teacher uses to keep the task
19 < is your school near your house ?> moving forward. They are also likely to reflect the
20 Ss: yah linguistic practices of PB beyond the classroom,
21 PB: oh, pachhi? indexing other language ecologies.
22 <then?> The next extract comes from the Mandarin
23 Ss: I do my lesson school in the Chinese case study. The teacher
24 [Ss laugh] has been working on a folk story with the
25 PB: keda wage tari nishal sharu thai? students, "Houyi shoots the suns and Chang'e flies
to the moon." At the time this interaction takes
26 < when does your school start ?>
27 Ss: eight forty place, the class is involved in learning key vocab
28 PB: ketla wage puri... ulary and reading aloud the textbook dialogue,

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Angela Creese and Adrian Blackledge 111
which introduces festivals and the stories associ English only." A third point is that the teacher
ated with them. The teacher then embarks on a skilfully uses her bilingualism to involve students.
long process of narrating and explaining the story. She narrates the story in Mandarin, keeping to
Extract 4 is one brief sample from this literacy the storyline. She explains the story in English,
event. emphasizing the story's moral tale. A final point
to be made in regard to bilingual strategies is the
EXTRACT 4 importance of identity work for both students and
1 T... ir 7<Someone stole the arrow> ... %< teachers. The student in Extract 4 is able to use his
because> people, they know that bilingualism to question and challenge the story,
2 they will not survive if there was no sun displaying his linguistic knowledge and sophisti
right? If there is no sun, they will not cation but also using the movement between lan
3 survive either. So people took the guages to distance himself from the storyline and
arrow... some of what it indexes. The teacher, too, is able to
4 Zhang: (interrupting and expressinguse
doubt)
her bilingualism for identity work, in her case
S^Js^lf ?H? <And this Houyi to move between endorsing the folk story message
5 didn't know/understand ?> but also to "side" with her students' notion of the
6 T: It's a legend. ridiculous nature of the storyline. She uses her
7 Zhang: Oh it's a legend. Let's just let it go. to pace the teaching and enable the
bilingualism
Hey... lesson to be accomplished.
8 T:... <Then> ...^M^MB??f?J17 Extract 5 comes from the same Chinese school.
< Houyi found that his last arrow Here, we see the classroom participants nego
9 disappeared> tiate an interaction bilingually, through "bilin
gual label quests." Martin (2005) attributed the
concept of label quests to Heath (1986) but
The storytelling provides much student laugher
extended the definition to describe bilingual
and opportunities to question. The students are
animated. There is student consensus about thelabel quests in which the teacher elicits la
implausibility of the story. Students think it bels
ab from the students, allowing for the teach
surd that Houyi could not understand that peoing to be "accomplished bilingually" (Martin,
2005, p. 83). Martin (2003) described this as a
ple need the sun to live. There is ridicule, but
there is also engagement. In terms of bilingual common feature of bilingual classrooms. In Ex
pedagogy, there are several points to make. First,
tract 5 we see an example from the Chinese data
the teacher allows the interruption of the usual from the Mandarin school. A new vocabulary item
classroom discourse routine of "initiate, respond,
is being taught, panwang, which means "to look
feedback" (IRF) moves. The interruption from forward to/long for." To capture the "cloze" na
Zhang (line 4) happens in Mandarin, whereas ture of this teaching interaction, we do not pro
the teacher's previous utterance is in English. As
vide a translation directly against panwang until
with the earlier Gujarati example, we argue that the teacher herself does.
because the student questioning and challenging
EXTRACT 5
is done bilingually, it is accepted by the teacher.
It appears that in the pacing of the bilingual T:in Xm + ft ? <The fourth term} > mm.
teraction playful naughtiness is allowed because <*panwang,'> <How do you say 'pan
students are still involved in the learning of folk
wang ?> t**n&,&ff]IPHfrMff4? <For example, what
stories, which is the pedagogic task in hand. Thedo we 'panwang'}> BfrM, <'panwang.'> Expect,
translanguaging that the teacher and students en look forward to. Write down the explanation be
gage in keeps the task moving and interrupts the side the words, in case you forget it later. mw.
usual IRF discourses of classroom life. A second<'panwang'>, the fourth one, means look for
point, as with the other data sets presented here,
ward to. tt ?fl i&, a in nmmW^} <For example, what do
is that both languages are needed for the storywe long for?>
to be understood; that is, the teacher uses and al
lows the student's bilingualism for the story to beThe teacher introduces a key vocabulary item,
made complete. Each language individually is not which will later appear in a dialogue to be read to
sufficient to convey the full narrative. As shownthe class by a pair of students. The teacher repeats
in our field notes from one of the non-Mandarin the new term panwang four times, asking students
speaking researcher's records: "Children seem to
to consider how it is said before giving a clue in
have got the point of the story, which I have Chinese that it is a verb: "What do we panwang}"
She then uses English to give the definition
failed to. They must do this through the teacher's
code switching as it is not achievable through the
"expect, look forward to." We see that the term is

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 112 The Modern Language Journal 94 (2010)

given in one language and explained in another languages become permeable. We have used the
language. The "translation" performs a pedagogic terms translanguaging (Garcia, 2007) and het
strategy of accomplishing one task (new vocabu eroglossia (Bailey, 2007; Bakhtin, 1984, 1986) to
lary teaching) before moving to the next (story describe language fluidity and movement. We
telling) . There are many variations of bilingual wish to emphasize the process by which bilingual
label quests in complementary school classrooms. participants in complementary schools "encom
Sometimes the teacher makes the bilingual label pass socially meaningful forms in both bilingual
quest and also self-answers; at other times, the and monolingual talk" (Bailey, 2007, p. 267). In
teacher asks in one language and expects the stu other words, we think the bilingual teachers and
dents to provide the answer in the other language. students in the complementary schools in this
In complementary schools, we see examples of study used whatever signs and forms they had at
bilingual quests from English to the community their disposal to connect with one another, in
language and also from the community language dexing disparate allegiances and knowledges and
into English (for further examples, see Martin creating new ones.
et al., 2006). We have focused on how this is achieved ped
In Extract 6, we see a further example of bilin agogically and have argued that flexible bilin
gual label quests. This time, it is student-initiated gualism is used by teachers as an instructional
and the data come from the Cantonese comple strategy to make links for classroom participants
mentary school. KP is one of the key participant between the social, cultural, community, and lin
children in the study. The vocabulary item is hang, guistic domains of their lives. Pedagogy in these
which in English means "to navigate." schools appears to emphasize the overlapping
of languages in the student and teacher rather
EXTRACT 6 than enforcing the separation of languages for
1 KP: I've got, I've got one, 'M,' I've got 'M' learning and teaching. We acknowledge, how
wrong. <I've got, I've got one, ever, that within complementary schools ide
2 'hang.' I've got 'hang' wrong.> ologies often clash, with as many arguments
3 T: [x*. <That's right.> articulated for separate bilingualism as for flexible
4 KP: ['M'. <'hang.'> bilingualism (Creese 8c Blackledge 2008; Creese,
5 T: ' 0t' ^ < The word ' hang' > ,W ffr A * fla' Barac, etal., 2008).
^ ^ fa 7 <Some of you had Our data find much in keeping with the lan
6 written the word 'hang' incorrectly>. guage ecology and bilingual pedagogy literature
' M' ^ {& 'a m < How do you write the reviewed earlier in this article. In our research, we
7 word ihang'?> also find examples of the need for both languages,
for the drawing across languages, for the addi
Here the students check their test scores. As
tional value and resource that bilingualism brings
earlier, this is a bilingual classroom with young to identity performance, lesson accomplishment,
people bringing in their different voices in iden and participant confidence. We have attempted to
tity performance. We see KP isolate the Chinese identify some of these through the data presented
term hang 'to navigate.' The teacher picks up on here.
this, and in the longer extract (not shown here), Some of the specific knowledge and skills shown
the teacher uses the students' concern with their
by classroom participants in practising flexible
incorrect answer to teach other vocabulary items bilingualism and flexible pedagogy included the
from the text, focusing the students on their writ following:
ing and literacy practices.

DISCUSSION 1. Use of bilingual label quests, repetition, and

translation across languages;
Teachers and students construct and partici 2. Ability to engage audiences through trans
pate in a flexible bilingual pedagogy in assemblies languaging and heteroglossia;
and classrooms. This pedagogy adopts a translan 3. Use of student translanguaging to establish
guaging approach and is used by participants for identity positions both oppositional and encom
identity performance as well as the business of lan passing of institutional values;
guage learning and teaching. This approach to a 4. Recognition that languages do not fit into
bilingual pedagogy allows complementary schools clear bounded entities and that all languages are
an avenue for the reproduction of social, commu "needed" for meanings to be conveyed and nego
nity, and pedagogic values and goals. tiated;
We have suggested that as participants engage 5. Endorsement of simultaneous literacies and
in flexible bilingualism, the boundaries between languages to keep the pedagogic task moving;

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Angela Creese and Adrian Blackledge 113

6. Recognition that teachers and students skil Arthur, J., & Martin, P. (2006). Accomplishing lessons
fully use their languages for different functional in postcolonial classrooms: Comparative perspec
tives from Botswana and Brunei Darussalam. Com
goals such as narration and explanation;
7. Use of translanguaging for annotating texts, parative Education, 42, 177-202
August, D., 8c Shanahan, T. (Eds.). (2006). Developing
providing greater access to the curriculum, and
literacy in second-language learners. Mahwah, NJ:
lesson accomplishment. Erlbaum.
If we are to move beyond "squandering our Bailey, B. (2007). Heteroglossia and boundaries. In M.
bilingual resources" (Cummins, 2005, p. 585) Heller (Ed.), Bilingualism: A social approach (pp.
and easing the burden of guilt associated with 257-276). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave.
translanguaging in educational contexts, further Baker, C. (2003). Biliteracy and transliteracy in Wales:
research is needed on classroom language ecolo Language planning and the Welsh national cur
gies to show how and why pedagogic bilingual riculum. In N. Hornberger (Ed.), Continua of
practices come to be legitimated and accepted by biliteracy (pp. 71-90). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual
Matters.
participants. An ecological perspective requires
us to question the pedagogic validity (Arthur Sc Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). The dialogic imagination: Four
Martin, 2006) of separate bilingualism. Like Lin essays. (M. Holquist, Ed.; C. Emerson 8c M.
and Martin (2005), we see the need for further Holquist, Trans.). Austin: University of Texas
research to explore what "teachable" pedagogic Press.
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and its treatment in critical literature. In C. Emer
approaches to learning and teaching languages
bilingually. son (Ed. & Trans.), Problems of Dostoevsky's poetics
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1 We use the term complementary school to acknowl
res and other late essays (pp. 60-102). Austin, TX:
edge the work these schools do to complement the ed
University of Austin Press.
ucation of the young people attending them in relation
Bakhtin, M. M. (1994). Problems of Dostoevsky's poet
to statutory education. We prefer the term complemen
ics. In P. Morris (Ed.), The Bakhtin reader: Selected
tary to supplementary, which we argue carries a "deficit"
writings of Bakhtin, Medvedev, Voloshinov (pp. 1 lu
connotation of educational failure. Following Garcia's ll 3). London: Arnold.
(2005) critique of heritage language as a term to replace
Blackledge, A. (2005). Discourse and power in a multilin
bilingualism, we are also mindful of the difficulties asso
gual world. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
ciated with this term. We settle here on complementary
schools. Creese, A., Barac, T, Bhatt, A., Blackledge, A., Hamid,
S., Li Wei, et al. (2008). Investigating multilingual
2 Pseudonyms are used for purposes of confidentiality.
ism in complementary schools in four communities.
3Transcription conventions: In keeping with the the
Final Report to ESRC RES-000-23-1180. Birming
oretical approach to linguistic practice that emerged
ham: University of Birmingham.
from this work, we make no distinction between dif
Creese, A., Bhatt, A., Bhojani, N., & Martin, P. (2006).
ferent "languages" in the transcribed data. We use ro
Multicultural, heritage and learner identities in
manized transliteration for all languages other than
complementary schools. Language and Education,
Cantonese and Mandarin, where we retain Chinese
20, 23-43.
orthography.
Creese, A., Bhatt, A., Bhojani, N., & Martin, P. (2008).
(.) pause of less than a second Fieldnotes in team ethnography: Researching
(2.5) length of pause in seconds complementary schools. Qualitative Research, 8,
speech transcribed speech 223-242.
<speech > translated speech Creese, A., 8c Blackledge, A. (2008, March). Flexible
CAPITALS loud bilingualism in heritage language schools. Paper pre
( ) speech inaudible sented at Urban Multilingualism and Intercultural
[ ] stage directions Communication, Antwerp, Belgium.
Creese, A., 8c Martin, P. (Eds.). (2003). Multilingual class
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Prof. Elana Shohamy: Winner of the UCLES/ILTA

Lifetime Achievement Award_
Professor Elana Shohamy has been selected to receive the Lifetime Achievement Award to be presented
at the 32nd International Language Testing Association/Language Teaching Research Colloquium
(ILTA/LTRC) meeting, which will be held in Cambridge, UK in April 2010.
Over a long career, Elana has maintained her program of empirical research, her insider critical critique
of the basis of language assessment and her concern for understanding the interaction between language
assessment and language policy. After completing her PhD at the University of Minnesota in 1978, she
soon started to raise questions about the nature and use of tests. It is particularly in this area that
her influence has been most felt: Her recognition of the power of tests, whether in education or in
immigration, built the critical link between testing and language policy, showing language tests to be
one of the most common instruments for enforcing language policy; her influence was the core of the
growing emphasis on ethics.
In her career, she has built a number of significant tests and has made major contributions to the
understanding of washback and other key research areas. The quality of her research and scholarship
has built her a major place as a leader in the field, combining academic and professional activities.
Furthermore, her example and teaching have built a generation of language testers who look to her
as a leader. She is Professor of Language Education at Tel Aviv University, but she has taught at a large
number of universities in various parts of the world, was the research director at the National Foreign
Language Center in Washington, DC, and is affiliated with CALPER (Center for Advanced Language
Proficiency Education at Research) at the Pennsylvania State University.
She was one of the founders of an early national language testing group (ACROLT), chaired the AILA
Commission on Language Testing and Evaluation, and served as President of ILTA in 1999. Apart from
her own extensive list of publications, she has played a major role in editing, serving on the editorial
boards of Language Testing, Language Assessment Quarterly, and The Modern Language Journal and as
founding co-editor of Language Policy.
Because of her many significant contributions over the years, the committee is pleased to announce
that Professor Elana Shohamy has been selected to receive the 2010 University of Cambridge Local
Examinations Syndicate (UCLES)/ILTA Lifetime Achievement Award.
From the 2010 UCLES/ILTA Lifetime Achievement Award Committee

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