See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/328243676

The Economics of Sports

Book · April 2018

DOI: 10.4324/9781315167947

CITATIONS READS

23 29,116

1 author:

Michael Leeds
Temple University
92 PUBLICATIONS 738 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Michael Leeds on 18 February 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

THE ECONOMICS OF SPORTS

The sports industry provides a seemingly endless set of examples from every
area of microeconomics, giving students the opportunity to study economics
in a context that holds their interest. Thoroughly updated to reflect the current
sports landscape, The Economics of Sports introduces core economic concepts
and theories and applies them to American and international sports.

Updates for this sixth edition include:

• More coverage of international sports, including European football;

• A revised chapter on competitive balance, reflecting new techniques;
• A brand-new chapter on mega-events such as the Olympics and World Cup;
• New material on umpire bias;
• A completely redesigned chapter on amateur competition that focuses
exclusively on intercollegiate sports. This chapter is also now modular,
enabling instructors who wish to intersperse it with the other chapters to
do so with greater ease.

This accessible text is accompanied by a companion website which includes

resources for students and instructors. It is the perfect text for advanced
undergraduate and graduate courses on sports economics.

Michael A. Leeds is Professor and Department Chair of Economics at Temple

University, Philadelphia, PA, USA, and a research associate at IZA, USA. He has
published numerous articles in labor economics and the economics of sports,
and was co-editor of the Handbook on the Economics of Women in Sports. He has
won departmental, college, and university awards for his teaching. From 2007 to
2009, he was an Assistant Dean at Temple University, Japan.

Peter von Allmen is Professor at the Department of Economics, Skidmore College,

Saratoga Springs, NY, USA. He previously served as the president of the North
American Association of Sports Economics, and his primary research area is sports
economics, with a particular focus on compensation schemes, incentives, and
monopsony power.

Victor A. Matheson is Professor of Economics at the College of the Holy Cross,

Worcester, MA, USA. He is co-editor of the Journal of Sports Economics and has
written over 80 journal articles and book chapters. In addition, he worked as a
soccer referee for 30 years and has officiated matches in Major League Soccer as
well as over 400 Division 1 college games.
THE ECONOMICS OF SPORTS
Sixth Edition
Michael A. Leeds, Peter von Allmen
and Victor A. Matheson
Sixth edition published 2018
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
The right of Michael A. Leeds, Peter von Allmen and Victor A. Matheson
to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them
in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other
means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Pearson Education 2001
Fifth edition published by Pearson 2014
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 978-1-138-05216-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-16794-7 (ebk)

Typeset in Corbel and Myriad Pro

by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/Leeds

BRIEF CONTENTS

List of Figures xiii

List of Tables xvi
Prefacexviii

Part One: Introduction and Review of Economic Concepts 1

1 Economics and Sports 3

2 Review of the Economist’s Arsenal 13

Part Two: The Industrial Organization of Sports 53

3 Sports Leagues and Franchises 55

4 Monopoly and Antitrust 91

5 Competitive Balance 119

Part Three: Public Finance and Sports 147

6 The Public Finance of Sports: Who Benefits and How? 149

7 The Public Finance of Sports: Who Pays and Why? 179

8 Mega-Events 205

Part Four: The Labor Economics of Sports 237

9 An Introduction to Labor Markets in Professional Sports 239

10 Labor Market Imperfections 271

11 Discrimination 299
vi BRIEF Contents

Part Five: Sports in the Not-for-Profit Sector 325

12 The Economics of Intercollegiate Sports 327

References365
Index393
DETAILED CONTENTS

List of Figures xiii

List of Tables xvi
Prefacexviii

Part One: Introduction and Review of Economic Concepts 1

1 Economics and Sports 3

Introduction 3
1.1 The Organization of the Text 4
Special Features and Additional Resources 5
1.2 Babe Ruth and Comparative Advantage 6
Opportunity Costs 6
Absolute and Comparative Advantage 6
Biographical Sketch: Babe Didrikson Zaharias 8
Summary, Discussion Questions, Problems 10

2 Review of the Economist’s Arsenal 13

Introduction 13
Learning Objectives 13
2.1 The Supply and Demand Model 13
Demand, Supply, and Equilibrium 14
Changes in Supply and Demand 16
2.2 Output and the Production Function 24
A Note on the Definition of Output 24
The Production Function 24
Price Ceilings and the Economics of Scalping 27
2.3 Market Structures: From Perfect Competition to Monopoly 28
Perfect Competition 28
Monopoly and Other Imperfectly Competitive Market Structures 30
The Impact of an Increase in Costs 33
2.4 The Rise of Professional Sports 34
Biographical Sketch: Mark Cuban 36
Summary, Discussion Questions, Problems 38

Appendix 2A: Utility Functions, Indifference Curves,

and Budget Constraints 40
2A.1 Constrained Maximization 40
2A.2 Using Indifference Curves and Budget Constraints:
The Rise of Soccer and Baseball 45

Appendix 2B: Regression Analysis in Brief 48

viii Detailed Contents

Part Two: The Industrial Organization of Sports 53

3 Sports Leagues and Franchises 55

Introduction 55
Learning Objectives 56
3.1 Open versus Closed Leagues 56
3.2 The Economics of Team Behavior 57
Maximizing Profits or Maximizing Wins? 57
3.3 Closed Leagues: Revenue and Cost in North American Sports 61
Revenue and Cost 61
Revenue Is Determined by Demand 61
A Detailed Look at Revenue 65
Costs 72
League Size, Opportunity Cost, and Team Movement 73
3.4 Open Leagues: Revenue and Cost in European Soccer 78
Profit Maximization in Soccer 80
3.5 Single-Entity Ownership 83
Biographical Sketch: Bill Veeck 84
Summary, Discussion Questions, Problems 85

4 Monopoly and Antitrust 91

Introduction 91
Learning Objectives 91
4.1 What’s Wrong with Monopoly? 91
Monopolists and Deadweight Loss 92
Do Monopolies Always Charge Monopoly Prices? 95
Promotion, Relegation, and Monopoly Power in
Open Leagues 95
4.2 Strategic Pricing 96
Variable and Dynamic Ticket Pricing 97
Bundling 99
Price Discrimination and Two-Part Pricing 100
4.3 What’s Right with Monopoly? 103
4.4 Strategic Barriers to Entry 104
4.5 Society’s Response to Monopoly: Antitrust Laws 106
An Important Anomaly: Baseball’s Antitrust Exemption 107
Leagues That Lack an Antitrust Exemption 110
Limited Exemptions: The NFL and Television 110
Biographical Sketch: Alvin “Pete” Rozelle 111
Summary, Discussion Questions, Problems 114

5 Competitive Balance 119

Introduction 119
Learning Objectives 119
5.1 Why Study Competitive Balance? 119
The Fans’ Perspective 120
The Owners’ Perspective 121
The Effect of Market Size 122
The Influence of Diminishing Returns 124
A Brief History of Competitive Balance 124
5.2 Measuring Competitive Balance 125
Within-Season Variation 125
Detailed Contents ix

Between-Season Variation 128

Illustrating Competitive Imbalance 131
5.3 Attempts to Alter Competitive Balance 132
The Invariance Principle 133
Revenue Sharing 135
Salary Caps and Luxury Taxes 136
The Reverse-Order Entry Draft 137
Schedule Adjustments in the NFL 139
Promotion and Relegation 140
Biographical Sketch: Bud Selig 140
Summary, Discussion Questions, Problems 142

Part Three: Public Finance and Sports 147

6 The Public Finance of Sports: Who Benefits and How? 149

Introduction 149
Learning Objectives 150
6.1 How Teams Benefit from New Facilities 150
Facilities, Attendance, and Profits 150
6.2 How Fans Benefit from a New Facility 152
The Size and Shape of Stadiums and Arenas 152
The Size and Shape of Basketball and Hockey Arenas 156
The Size and Shape of Football and Soccer Stadiums 157
Do New Facilities Create Better Teams? 158
Teams as Public Goods 159
6.3 How Cities Benefit from Teams and Facilities 160
Positive and Negative Externalities 161
Facilities, Spending, and Tax Revenue 164
Studies of Economic Impact 168
Interest Groups and Public Choice 168
Location, Location, Location 170
Biographical Sketch: Al Davis 172
Summary, Discussion Questions, Problems 174

7 The Public Finance of Sports: Who Pays and Why? 179

Introduction 179
Learning Objectives 179
7.1 How Cities Came to Fund Stadiums 180
Teams on the Move 180
The Four Eras of Stadium Construction 181
7.2 How Teams Exploit Monopoly Power 183
Leagues, Cities, and Market Power 183
7.3 Stadium Location and Costs 187
How Exchange Rates Affect Costs 187
Why Most Stadiums Are Not in the Center of Town 188
7.4 Stadium Costs and Financing 190
7.5 Paying for Stadiums 192
Who Pays a Sales Tax? 195
Incremental Financing 197
Taxes That Spread the Burden 197
The Benefits of Debt 198
x Detailed Contents

Biographical Sketch: George W. Bush 200

Summary, Discussion Questions, Problems 201

8 Mega-Events 205
Introduction 205
Learning Objectives 206
8.1 A Brief History of Mega-Events 206
The Original Mega-Event: The Ancient Olympics 207
The British Ethic and the Rise of the Modern Olympics 208
The Modern Olympic Games 208
FIFA and the World Cup 210
8.2 The Short-Run Benefits of Hosting Mega-Events 211
Two Types of Event Studies 212
Problems with ex ante Economic Impact Studies 213
Ex post Economic Impact Studies 216
8.3 The Long-Run Benefits of Hosting Mega-Events 219
General Infrastructure 221
Advertising and Branding 221
8.4 The Costs of Hosting Mega-Events 222
8.5 Why Do Cities Continue to Bid? 226
Distribution of Costs and Benefits 227
Non-Economic Rationales 227
The Winner’s Curse 228
The All-or-Nothing Demand Curve 229
Biographical Sketch: Willard “Mitt” Romney 230
Summary, Discussion Questions, Problems 232

Part Four: The Labor Economics of Sports 237

9 An Introduction to Labor Markets in Professional Sports 239

Introduction 239
Learning Objectives 240
9.1 An Overview of Labor Supply and Labor Demand 240
Labor Supply 241
Labor Demand 242
Labor Market Equilibrium 245
Human Capital and Player Compensation 247
9.2 Rank-Order Tournaments and Superstar Effects 248
Tournaments and Effort 248
Women and Tournaments 250
The Economics of Superstars 250
Tournaments, Superstars, and the Distribution of Income 251
9.3 The Dangers of Tournaments and Superstar Effects 253
Pay Disparities and Externalities: The Case of NASCAR 253
The Danger of Trying Too Hard 254
Performance-Enhancing Drugs 255
Biographical Sketch: Scott Boras 258
Summary, Discussion Questions, Problems 259

Appendix 9A: Using Indifference Curves to Model the

Labor–Leisure Choice 262
9A.1 The Labor–Leisure Model When Hours Are Fixed 266
Detailed Contents xi

10 Labor Market Imperfections 271

Introduction 271
Learning Objectives 271
10.1 The Monopsony Power of Sports Leagues 272
The Economics of Monopsony 272
The Impact of Rival Leagues 273
The Reserve Clause 274
10.2 Unions in Professional Sports 275
A Brief Introduction to the Economics of Unions 275
The Unique Role of Player Associations 278
Professional Associations 278
10.3 Free Agency 279
The Advent of Free Agency 280
Forms of Free Agency 281
The Franchise Tag 282
Salary Arbitration 282
Measuring Monopsony Power 284
Salary Caps 285
Luxury or Competitive Balance Taxes 288
10.4 Conflict and Compromise in Collective Bargaining 288
Economic Theory and Labor Conflict 289
Labor Conflict and Professional Sports 291
Biographical Sketch: Marvin Miller 292
Summary, Discussion Questions, Problems 294

11 Discrimination 299
Introduction 299
Learning Objectives 299
11.1 Evidence of Discrimination in Sports 299
11.2 The Economic Theory of Discrimination 301
11.3 Different Forms of Discrimination in
Professional Sports 301
Employer Discrimination 302
Does Anyone Win with Employer Discrimination? 304
Employee Discrimination 308
Consumer Discrimination 309
Positional Discrimination or Hiring Discrimination 311
11.4 Gender Equity 314
What Is a Woman? 315
Biographical Sketch: Branch Rickey 316
Summary, Discussion Questions, Problems 318

Part Five: Sports in the Not-for-Profit Sector 325

12 The Economics of Intercollegiate Sports 327

Introduction 327
Learning Objectives 327
12.1 The NCAA 328
A Brief History of the NCAA 328
The Structure of the NCAA 329
12.2 The Costs and Benefits of Big-Time College Sports 330
The Revenue from Intercollegiate Athletics 331
xii Detailed Contents

The Cost of Intercollegiate Athletics 335

Do Colleges Make a Profit from Athletics? 337
12.3 Monopoly Power in College Athletics 337
The NCAA and Optimal Cartel Behavior 338
Prisoner’s Dilemma: How Rational Actions Lead to
Irrational Outcomes 339
Academic Standards: A Key to Academic Integrity or
Exercise of Monopoly Power? 341
Antitrust and College Sports 343
12.4 Spillovers from Athletics to the University 344
College Sports as Public Goods 344
Admissions 344
Donations and State Funding 345
12.5 The College Sports Labor Market 346
The Value of Athletes to Colleges 346
The Value of College to Athletes 346
12.6 Discrimination and College Sports 351
Racial Discrimination 351
Title IX and Gender Discrimination 352
Biographical Sketch: Sonny Vaccaro 354
Summary, Discussion Questions, Problems 356

References365
Index393
FIGURES

2.1 The Demand for Baseball Cards 14

2.2 The Supply of Baseball Cards 15
2.3 Equilibrium in the Baseball Card Market 16
2.4 Changes in the Demand for and Supply of Baseball Cards 18
2.5 A Change in Supply Due to a Tax 20
2.6 Relatively Elastic versus Inelastic Supply 21
2.7 The Supply of Mickey Mantle and Hank Aaron Cards 22
2.8 The Relationship between Individual Demand and Market
Demand for Baseball Cards 23
2.9 Differences in Demand for Hank Aaron and Mickey Mantle
Cards Create Differences in Price 23
2.10 (a) The Total Product Curve, (b) the Marginal Product Curve,
and (c) the Marginal Cost Curve 25
2.11 The Effect of a Price Ceiling 27
2.12 Determination of Competitive Firm Demand 29
2.13 Marginal Revenue and Marginal Cost 29
2.14 Demand and Marginal Revenue from Ticket Sales 31
2.15 Rockies Attendance and Prices 32
2.16 (a) Blackhawks Attendance and Prices, (b) White Sox
Attendance and Prices 32
2.17 A Change in Demand Due to the Addition of a Marquee Player 33
2.18 The Marginal Utility and Marginal Cost of Leisure Time 34
2A.1 Consumer Preferences 41
2A.2 Indifference Curves 41
2A.3 Diminishing Marginal Rate of Substitution 42
2A.4 The Impossibility of Intersecting Indifference Curves 43
2A.5 Budget Constraint 43
2A.6 The Effect of Changes in Price on the Budget Constraint 44
2A.7 The Effect of an Increase in Income 44
2A.8 The Utility-Maximizing Bundle 45
2A.9 The Trade-Off between Goods and Leisure 46
2A.10 The Utility-Maximizing Combination of Goods and Leisure 46
2A.11 Subsistence Level of Income Allows No Leisure 46
2A.12 An Increase in Income Allows for Some Leisure 47
2B.1 Scatterplot of Attendance and Winning Percentage
in MLB, 2016 49
2B.2 The Regression Line 50
3.1a Total Revenue and Total Cost Curves 60
3.1b Profit-Maximizing and Win-Maximizing Behavior 61
3.2 Revenue, Cost, and City Size 64
3.3 Gate Revenue for the NBA, NFL, NHL, and MLB 66
3.4 Determining the Optimal Size of a Closed League 74
xiv Figures

3.5 The Effect of Entry on Demand 76

4.1 The Cost of a Monopoly to Society 92
4.2 Consumer Surplus for Individual Consumers 94
4.3 Variable Ticket Pricing 98
4.4 Segmented Market Price Discrimination 101
4.5 Representative Demand Curve for a Consumer and
Two-Part Pricing 103
4.6 Profit-Maximizing Output for a Natural Monopoly 104
5.1 The Benefit of Improving the Team Depends on Market Size 123
5.2 The Lorenz Curves for La Liga and the NHL, 2015–2016 132
5.3 The Market for Tickets to the Opening Ceremonies at the
2018 Olympics 133
6.1 Seating and Field Configuration for a “Cookie-Cutter” Stadium 153
6.2 Seating and Field Configuration for a Football-Only Stadium 154
6.3 Seating and Field Configuration for a Modern Baseball-Only
Stadium 155
6.4 A New Facility Might Encourage a Team to Win More Games 158
6.5 Negative Externalities Shift the Supply Curve Leftward 162
6.6 Positive Consumption Externalities Shift the Demand Curve
Outward 164
7.1 The Currency Market Sets the Exchange Rate for Canadian
and US Dollars 188
7.2 Competing Firms Move to the Center of Town 189
7.3 The Rent Gradient 189
7.4 The Impact of a $4/Night Tax on Hotel Stays 193
7.5 A Tax on Dialysis Causes Very Little Deadweight Loss 194
7.6 Tax Breaks Favor Municipal Bonds 199
8.1 Athens’ Olympic Athletic Center, the “Spiros Louis” Stadium,
Built in 2004 and Fallen into Disrepair Less Than Ten years Later 220
8.2 A Monopolist Can Extract Consumer Surplus by Setting Price
and Quantity 230
9.1 Average Player Salaries in the Major Leagues Since 1991 240
9.2 Individual and Market Labor Supply Curves for Workers
and Boxers 241
9.3 The Labor Demand Curve 243
9.4 The Equilibrium Wage and Quantity in the Labor Market 245
9.5 Wages Increase in the NBA Due to Increases in Demand 246
9.6 The Effect of Roster Limits 246
9.7 The Increasing Marginal Cost of Effort 249
9.8 Creating the Incentive for a High Level of Effort in a
Tournament 249
9.9 Minor Differences in Performance Can Lead to Large Shifts
in Demand 251
9.10 The Lorenz Curve for the ATP’s Top 50 Money Winners in 2016 252
9.11 Comparing the Rewards in the 2015 PGA Championship and
the 2015 Daytona 500 253
9.12 PED Use: A Prisoner’s Dilemma 256
9A.1 Indifference Curves 262
9A.2 The Income and Time Constraints 263
9A.3 Individual Utility-Maximizing Curves 264
9A.4 Changes in Labor Supply Due to Wage Changes 265
9A.5 The Individual Labor Supply Curve 266
9A.6 Increases in Wealth That Result in No Labor Supplied 267
Figures xv

9A.7 Labor Supply When Players Cannot Choose the Number

of Games 267
10.1 Employment and Wage Level for a Monopsonist 272
10.2 Effect of Unions on Wages 277
10.3 Bilateral Monopoly 277
10.4 Payrolls for Teams in the Four Major Leagues 287
10.5 The Contract Zone 289
10.6 (a) Contract Zone with Powerful Union, (b) Contract Zone
with Powerful Employer, (c) Mistaken Perceptions about
the Contract Zone 290
11.1 (a) Equilibrium Wages with Discrimination; (b) Equilibrium
Wages with No Discrimination 303
11.2 Discrimination with a Large Pool of Players 305
11.3 The Color Line Breaks Down as a Result of the Prisoner’s
Dilemma 307
12.1 Cartels and Marginal Cost 339
12.2 Optimal Division of Output by a Cartel 340
TABLES

1.1 The Gain and Loss from Moving Babe Ruth 7

2.1 Career Statistics of Hank Aaron and Mickey Mantle 16
2B.1 Multiple regression results 51
3.1 Performance Measures for the Phillies, Yankees, Indians,
and Royals, 2011–2016 58
3.2 Dallas Mavericks’ and Toronto Raptors’ winning percentage
and operating income, 2007–2012 59
3.3 Market Value, Revenue, Payroll, Gate Revenue, and Operating
Income, 2016 63
3.4 Current US Major League Television Broadcasting Deals 67
3.5 The Ten Most Lucrative US Naming Rights Deals (in $ Millions) 71
3.6 Ten Most Populous Metropolitan Statistical Areas and Their
Sports Teams, 2017 75
3.7 Top Ten European Soccer Club Values and Revenues, 2016  78
3.8 Organizational Structure of English Soccer 78
3.9 The Hierarchy of English Soccer Competition 79
3.10 Revenue Distributions for the EPL, the Bundesliga, La Liga,
Serie A, and Ligue1, 2014–2015 81
4.1 Changes in Attendance and Average Ticket Prices 2001–2016 96
5.1 New York Yankees’ Success and American League and National
League Attendance, 1950–1958 120
5.2 Winning Percentages for the National and American
Leagues, 1996 126
5.3 Dispersion of Winning Percentages, 2015–2016 127
5.4 Distribution of Championships, 2006–2007 to 2015–2016 130
6.1 Stadium Age and Luxury Seating for the Five Most Valuable
NFL Franchises 152
6.2 MLS Soccer-Specific Stadiums 157
6.3 How Logrolling Can Improve Social Well-Being 169
7.1 Stadium Construction in North American Sports Leagues,
1990–2017 190
7.2 Facilities Built between 2010 and 2017 191
8.1 Number of Bids for Summer and Winter Olympic Games 210
8.2 Direct Revenues from Olympic Games 212
8.3 Examples of Mega-Event ex ante Economic Impact Studies 217
8.4 Examples of Mega-Event ex post Economic Impact Studies 218
8.5 Costs of Hosting Mega-Events 225
9.1 The Five Highest-Paid Celebrities and Athletes in the Forbes
2016 “Celebrity 100” 252
10.1 Labor Unrest in Professional Sports Since 1980 288
11.1 Racial and Ethnic Breakdown of MLB Players in 2015 at
Selected Positions (%) 312
TABLES xvii

11.2 Percentage of Whites at Different Levels of Professional

Sports Leagues (%) 313
11.3 Performance and Rewards for Men’s and Women’s Soccer Teams 314
12.1 Market Value and Revenue for the 20 Most Valuable Football
Programs 331
12.2 Power 5 Conference Broadcast Revenue for Football 332
12.3 Selected Bowl Payouts in 2016–2017 333
12.4 Bowl Payouts by Conference 334
12.5 Mean Revenues, Expenditures, Subsidies, and Profits for
FBS Athletic Departments 337
12.6 College Football Broadcasts as a Prisoner’s Dilemma 341
12.7 Graduation Success Rates (GSRs) for Men’s 2015 Sweet
16 Teams 349
12.8 Graduation Success Rates (GSRs) for Women’s 2015 Sweet
16 Teams 350
12.9 The Probability of Signing with a Professional Team 351
PREFACE

As always seems to be the case, much has happened in the world of sports since
the publication of the previous edition. From the doping scandals that rocked
the most recent Olympics to the movement of not one but two NFL franchises to
Los Angeles and the $200 million NCAA settlement over the cost of attendance,
the economic landscape of professional and amateur sports is constantly chang-
ing. As a reflection of the dynamic nature of the field, the sixth edition of The
Economics of Sports includes several major changes since the fifth edition.

Perhaps the most notable change is the addition of Victor A. Matheson from the
College of the Holy Cross to the author team. Victor is an internationally rec-
ognized expert in the field of sports economics, most notably in the economic
impact of franchises and mega-events. A second major change for this edition
is a direct result of Victor’s influence on the book: the addition of a new chapter
devoted to mega-events, such as the World Cup and the Olympics. Separating
mega-events from the analysis of franchise location and the costs and benefits
of stadium funding allows us to analyze the public finance of sport more clearly
and completely.

In addition to adding a new author, we have a new publisher. We are very excited
to join Taylor & Francis. From our first meeting, we were impressed with their
ability to see our vision for a comprehensive approach to learning sports econom-
ics that includes not only the text but also a full complement of online resources,
including an author blog, mini-lectures from the authors, and enhanced lecture
support materials and instructor resources.

From its modest beginnings as something of a novelty, sports economics has

become a vibrant sub-discipline within the larger field of applied microeconom-
ics, fully recognized by the American Economic Association as a stand-alone
field with its own JEL classification code. Researchers tend to be drawn to the
field for two reasons: the wide variety of interesting economic questions one
can ask about the industry itself and the extraordinary availability of data that
allow economists to use sport to answer broader questions about economic
relationships.

As the research field has developed, the number of sports economics courses
has grown as well. Throughout this growth and change, sports economics con-
tinues to serve as both a mirror and a lens; reflecting our broader culture and
values, while bringing into focus such fundamental issues as fairness and the
legitimacy of free markets. With the passing of each season, new events unfold
in professional and amateur sports that call out for analysis. Finally, in the con-
text of this book, sports economics remains a vital and interesting area of study
for students of economics. Sports provides a seemingly endless set of examples
Preface xix

from every area of microeconomics, giving students the opportunity to study

public finance, industrial organization, and labor markets in a context that holds
student interest like no other.

Over the many years that we have worked on this project, we have enjoyed con-
tinuous help and support from students and colleagues at colleges and universi-
ties across the United States and around the world. Our colleagues continue to
offer encouragement, share classroom experiences, and suggest new and differ-
ent coverage as the industry evolves. For all this support and help, we are most
grateful. We hope that our own enthusiasm, as well as the enthusiasm others
have shared with us, is reflected in the text.

New to This Edition

The sixth edition contains several meaningful changes that are reflected
throughout the book. These changes enhance the features from previous edi-
tions that have made learning about sports economics meaningful as well as
enjoyable:

• We have added significant coverage of sports outside North America, most

notably, European soccer. While you will find discussion of leagues and
events outside North America throughout the text, this new material is most
evident in Chapters 3, 4, and 8.
• As noted above, Chapter 8 is new to the book. This chapter covers the
economics of mega-events such as the Olympics, the World Cup, and the
Super Bowl.
• Because we now devote significant attention to the Olympics in the chapter
on mega-events, Chapter 12 now deals solely with intercollegiate sports in
the US.
• The material on intercollegiate sports in Chapter 12 has been significantly
modified to reflect the different ways in which people teach this material.
Those who wish to treat intercollegiate sports separately from professional
sports may continue to use Chapter 12 as a stand-alone chapter. However,
the material in Chapter 12 now parallels the coverage of the preceding
chapters. This allows instructors who wish to use intercollegiate sports to
illustrate earlier concepts to “cut and paste” these sections into earlier
chapters.
• We have added significant discussion of empirical findings of economists
throughout the text.
• All tables and figures have been updated to reflect the most recently avail-
able information.
• We have substantially increased the volume and types of online support
materials to include an author blog, mini-lectures from the authors, periodic
updates of tables, and additional material that we were not able to include
in the text.

As with the previous editions, our goal is to keep the text comprehensive yet
accessible. The text is designed to serve as the foundation for undergraduate
courses in sports economics. The nature of the subject matter makes this a
unique challenge. Unlike area courses such as industrial organization or labor
economics, which are self-contained fields in the broader area of economics,
sports economics cuts across a wide array of economic disciplines. To deal with
this problem, we have split the text into five parts, three of which are devoted
to illustrating prominent areas of economics: industrial organization, public
xx Preface

finance, and labor economics. We hope that this division provides students
with an overview of much of economics and inspires them to pursue each indi-
vidual field.

Intended Audience
Balancing accessibility against an economist’s desire for theoretical rigor remains
a challenge. Economics of sports classes are taught at a variety of levels, rang-
ing from undergraduate courses with principles of economics as the only pre-
requisites, to the graduate level. This text is designed to provide the instructor
a great deal of flexibility. All the material in the main body of the text should be
accessible to students with a single semester of microeconomics principles. To
enrich courses taught at a higher level, we have included appendices containing
intermediate-level material at the end of several chapters. The online resources
provide additional opportunities to add depth and rigor.

To ensure that all students begin the course with a common background, we
provide a substantial review of principles-level material in Chapter 2. This mate-
rial can be covered explicitly in class or left to the students to read on their
own, as needed. For instructors interested in presenting econometric research,
Chapter 2 contains an appendix on the fundamentals of regression. In advanced
undergraduate- and graduate-level courses, the text can serve as a foundation
for readings from primary source materials.

Organization of the Text and Coverage Options

As stated previously, the text is divided into five parts. The first two chapters
introduce students to sports economics, review principles-level tools, and illus-
trate how economic principles apply to the sports industry. Chapters 3, 4, and
5 cover the industrial organization of the sports industry. Here, we discuss the
competitive landscape, the implications of monopoly power, profit maximiza-
tion, and competitive balance. Chapter 4 focuses on antitrust and regulation and
how they have impacted the formation, success, and, sometimes, the failure of
leagues. Chapter 5 explains why leagues worry about competitive balance, how
to measure competitive balance, and how leagues attempt to alter competitive
balance. Chapters 6, 7, and 8 focus on public finance. In Chapters 6 and 7, students
learn the benefits and costs of providing public support for stadiums and events,
why teams seem to have so much power over municipalities, and why munici-
palities fight so hard to keep the teams they have or court new ones. Chapter 8
presents the economics of mega-events, including why nations strive to win the
right to host them and why the benefits rarely outweigh the costs. Chapters 9
through 11 focus on labor issues in sports. Chapter 9 introduces the fundamen-
tal theories of labor markets, including human capital theory and tournament
theory. Chapter 10 covers monopoly unions and monopsony leagues, two labor
market imperfections that profoundly impact the functioning of most sports
labor markets. Chapter 11 discusses discrimination in sports. Finally, Chapter 12
focuses on the economics of intercollegiate sports. Because major college sports
is an industry in itself, this chapter serves as a capstone to the text, incorporating
the theories and concepts from many of the previous chapters.

Acknowledgments
In a project such as this, the list of people who contributed to its completion
extends far beyond those whose names appear on the cover. We owe personal
Preface xxi

and professional debts of sincere gratitude to a great many people. First, we

thank our editorial team at Routledge: Emily Kindleysides, Natalie Tomlinson,
and Laura Johnson. We also are grateful for the advice, encouragement, and
suggestions from the ever-growing community of sports economists who use
this book. Their input and support serve as a continuing source of motivation
and assistance. We would particularly like to thank all of those who read and
reviewed the manuscript as we prepared the sixth edition. Their suggestions for
improvements were excellent, and we tried our best to incorporate them wher-
ever possible. A special thanks to Eva Marikova Leeds for her diligent review of
the manuscript during the revision process. Finally, as always, we thank our fam-
ilies: Eva, Daniel, Melanie, Heather, Daniel, Thomas, Eric, Jolie, Lara, and Aly, all
of whom provided unwavering support.
Michael A. Leeds
Peter von Allmen
Victor A. Matheson
 Part One

INTRODUC TION AND REVIEW

OF ECONOMIC CONCEPTS

Chapter 1 Economics and Sports 3

Chapter 2 Review of the Economist’s Arsenal 13
1
ECONOMICS AND SPORTS

All I remember about my wedding day in 1967 is that the Cubs dropped a
double-header.
—George Will1

Introduction
On May 3, 2016, the seemingly impossible came to pass: Leicester City F.C. had
won the English Premier League title after beginning the season as a 5,000 to 1
underdog. This was their first championship season since their founding in 1884.
Soccer fans the world over followed the team’s run to the title and the victory set
off wild celebration in Leicester.

Almost exactly six months later, the Chicago Cubs defeated the Cleveland Indi-
ans to capture their first World Series in over 100 years. While the Cubs’ champi-
onship was less improbable than that of Leicester City, it was celebrated with the
same intensity. Chicagoans could finally say that “The Curse of the Billy Goat”
had been lifted. In 1945, William “Billy Goat” Sianis and his goat were denied
entry to Wrigley Field to see the Cubs play in game four of the World Series. He
reportedly said, “You are going to lose this World Series and you are never going
to win another World Series again.”2

Sports occupy a unique position in the human psyche. Athletic contests around
the world have long been a way for individuals, institutions, cities, and nations
to define themselves. Sports can bring out the best and the worst in people.
As early as the 19th century, universities used football to give their students a
sense of identity. Cities feel that they have achieved “big-time” status when they
attract a major league franchise. At the national level, Japan’s performance in
the 2011 Women’s World Cup provided a much-needed lift to a country devas-
tated by the earthquake and tsunami and shaken by a near nuclear disaster. At
the same time, police have had to quell riots on campuses in the wake of heart-
breaking losses—or big victories. Reports of domestic violence rise in cities when
“their” team is upset in the Super Bowl. In their pursuit of national pride, coun-
tries have sometimes sacrificed the physical well-being of their young athletes
by giving them performance-enhancing drugs that have dire side-effects.3

Sports can also serve as tools by which nations conduct foreign policy. They
have brought people together, as was the case in 1971 when a team of American
table-tennis players and their “ping-pong diplomacy” marked the first step in the
reopening of relations between the United States and China. They have also kept
people apart, as demonstrated by the boycotts that disrupted the 1976, 1980,
and 1984 Olympics.

The clamor over sports might lead one to think that the sports industry domi-
nates the world economy. In fact, compared to many firms, let alone industries,
4 Economics and Sports

it is relatively small. According to Forbes.com, the total revenues generated by

the four largest North American sports leagues (basketball, baseball, football,
and hockey) totaled about $32.15 billion in 2017, which would rank 89th among
the Fortune 500 list of largest revenue-generating companies (ironically one
place behind Nike). The four sports’ combined revenues are about one-sixteenth
of those of Walmart and half those of PepsiCo, yet, unlike sports, Walmart does
not have its own section in any newspaper, and PepsiCo is not routinely featured
on “all cola, all the time” cable networks.4

This book harnesses our enthusiasm for sports and uses it to introduce a vari-
ety of economic concepts. These concepts frequently have applications beyond
the business of sports. For example, understanding how sports leagues exercise
monopoly power provides deeper insight into the policies followed by the Orga-
nization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) or Google, and learning
about the impact of free agency on team payrolls shows how free markets affect
the distribution of incomes in an economy. Studying sports economics thus pro-
vides more than an appreciation for the sports industry. It also demonstrates
how economic reasoning helps us understand the world around us. This text
emphasizes economic concepts rather than providing encyclopedic coverage
of professional and amateur sports and athletes. As a result, we do not explain
the particulars of every sport in each chapter, and some sports receive much
more attention than others. The book includes significant coverage of the four
major sports in North America as well as European soccer. As part of your course,
your instructor may ask you to apply the lessons learned here to other leagues,
events, or athletes, giving you the opportunity to apply the principles learned
here.

1.1 The Organization of the Text

The text is divided into five parts. The remainder of this part provides an exten-
sive review of basic economic tools, particularly supply and demand, the basics
of production theory, and models of perfect competition and monopoly. The
tools introduced in Chapter 2 are used throughout the text to inform a wide vari-
ety of questions in the broader sports industry.

The next three parts of the text are devoted to showing how three areas of eco-
nomics provide insight into how sports function. Part Two presents the industrial
organization of sports. Industrial organization is the study of firm strategy, such
as how firms set prices to maximize profit, as well as the regulatory response of
government when firms’ interests conflict with broad societal goals. In Chapter
3, we discuss the purpose and structure of professional leagues by studying the
largest leagues in North America and Europe. We also review competitive and
monopoly markets and discuss the implications for profit maximization in each
case. In Chapter 4, we extend the discussion of monopoly and analyze the chal-
lenges that concentrated markets create for consumers and would-be competi-
tors. In Chapter 5, we investigate the desirability of competitive balance, how
it can be measured, how it has changed over time, and how leagues have dealt
with unbalanced competition.

Part Three contains three chapters on the public finance of sports. Public
finance asks how and why governments provide goods and services, and how
they raise the funds to pay for them. In Chapter 6, we discuss the potential ben-
efits of new arenas for teams and the cities in which they play, and describe how
Economics and Sports 5

the size and shape of facilities have evolved. In Chapter 7, we turn to the cost
of these facilities, including an analysis of why local governments might view
some or all of these costs as an investment and how to fund such an investment.
In Chapter 8, we discuss the economics of mega-events, such as the Olympics
and World Cup.

Part Four covers the labor economics of professional sports. Labor economics
analyzes how markets determine the level of employment and compensation.
In Chapter 9, we use labor markets to explain why professional athletes receive
such high salaries. In doing so, we introduce labor market concepts, such as
human capital and rank-order tournaments. Chapter 10 explores the monopsony
power of teams and leagues and the countervailing power of player unions. We
show how the two institutions set pay and working conditions. We also explore
the causes and implications of work stoppages when leagues and players fail
to reach an agreement. In Chapter 11, we discuss the history and implications
of discrimination in professional sports. From the informal yet strictly enforced
“color lines” that marked the National Football League (NFL) and Major League
Baseball (MLB) until 1946 and 1947, respectively, to the limits that leagues such
as Nippon Professional Baseball still place on how many foreign players are
permitted on team rosters, sports provide many examples of discriminatory
behavior.

Finally, in Part Five (Chapter 12), we broaden our study of sports to include ama-
teur athletics in the form of major college sports. We begin with a brief history of
the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). We go on to examine how
the principles explored earlier in the textbook—industrial organization, public
finance, and labor economics—apply in the context of intercollegiate sports.

Special Features and Additional Resources

At the conclusion of each chapter, you will find biographical sketches. The world
of sports is filled with colorful personalities that add to our enjoyment of the
game. Some of these people are well-known to even the casual sports fan. Oth-
ers are less known, but all have played vital roles in the evolution of the eco-
nomics of sports. These biographical sketches, the first of which appears in this
chapter, highlight both their accomplishments in the context of the chapter and
their character as individuals.

As you progress through the course, we encourage you to make full use of the
internet as a powerful and easy-to-use source of information. First and foremost,
the publisher of this text, Routledge, maintains a website specifically designed
to support the book. Log on to www.routledge.com/cw/Leeds and you will find
data, a set of interesting links, and supplementary material designed to enhance
your learning. The site is updated regularly so that it contains links to sites and
stories that are sure to be of interest.

In addition to the sites we provide, virtually every major (and almost every
minor) league team, sports league, and association has its own website. These
sites contain news (including economic events) from around the league. One
caution: Beware of “fake news” or inaccurate, poorly maintained datasets that
are rampant on noncommercial, individual blogs and private websites. The infor-
mation they convey is often based on opinion rather than on fact and is of little
or no value.
6 Economics and Sports

1.2 Babe Ruth and Comparative Advantage

Economics can often help to resolve what at first glance seems to be puzzling
behavior. As we will see throughout the text, this is also true in sports economics.
For example, consider how comparative advantage, a model normally used to
explain international trade, can explain why the Boston Red Sox stopped using
the best left-handed pitcher in baseball in 1918.

Opportunity Costs
In 1915, a young left-hander for the Boston Red Sox emerged as one of the domi-
nant pitchers in the game, helping the Red Sox to World Series championships in
1916 and 1918. In the 1918 World Series, he won two games and set a record for
consecutive scoreless innings that stood until 1961. From 1915 through 1918, he
won 78 games and lost only 40, and he allowed slightly over 2 runs per game. In
1919, he pitched in only 17 games and won only 16 more games in the rest of his
career, yet no fans complained. The reason was that the young pitcher was none
other than George Herman “Babe” Ruth, who went on to redefine baseball as a
power-hitting right fielder for the Red Sox and later for the New York Yankees.

Babe Ruth confronted the Red Sox with the classic economic problem of oppor-
tunity costs. An opportunity cost is the value of the best forgone alternative. We
all face opportunity costs in our everyday lives. Our limited time, income, and
energy constantly force us to choose between alternative actions. When we go
to the movies on Saturday night, we no longer have the time or the money to go
to a concert that evening. When the Red Sox used Babe Ruth as a right fielder,
they gave up the chance to use him as a pitcher. (Because the main contribution
of a right fielder is as a hitter, we will use the term “hitter” rather than right fielder
from now on.) If the goal of a team is to win as many games as possible (an objec-
tive we will explore later in this text), then the opportunity cost of using a player
at one position is the wins that the team sacrifices by not using him at another
position. When the Red Sox used Babe Ruth as an outfielder, they sacrificed wins
by not having a great pitcher in their rotation. If they had kept Ruth as a pitcher,
they would have sacrificed wins by not having a great hitter in their lineup.

Absolute and Comparative Advantage

It is usually easy to decide where to use a player, as only a few players make
good pitchers, and pitchers are typically bad hitters. Babe Ruth, however, was
an exception. He was the best pitcher and the best hitter on the team. Being
the best at everything meant that Babe Ruth had an absolute advantage at both
pitching and hitting. A person or country has an absolute advantage in an activ-
ity when it is more efficient at that activity than another person or country. If the
United States can make cancer drugs using fewer resources than Japan can, it
has an absolute advantage in making cancer drugs. Because Babe Ruth was a
better pitcher and hitter than any other player on the Red Sox, he had an abso-
lute advantage over all his teammates in both pitching and hitting.

The Red Sox used Babe Ruth as a hitter because, although he had an absolute
advantage as both a hitter and as a pitcher, his absolute advantage as a hitter
was much larger than his absolute advantage as a pitcher. This meant that Babe
Ruth had a comparative advantage as a hitter. A person or country has a com-
parative advantage when the opportunity cost of an activity is lower than it is
for another person or country. Because Babe Ruth was such a good hitter, the
Economics and Sports 7

opportunity cost of using him as a pitcher (the number of wins the team would
sacrifice) was extremely high, much higher than for other players on the team.
This meant that, even though Babe Ruth had an absolute advantage over his
teammates as a pitcher, he did not have a comparative advantage as a pitcher.5

To see the gains from moving Babe Ruth from the pitcher’s mound to the out-
field more clearly, we compare the opportunity cost of using Babe Ruth at each
position in 1918. The opportunity cost of using Ruth as an outfielder was the
additional runs given up by Red Sox pitchers, which might have led to more
losses. The opportunity cost of using Ruth as a pitcher was the reduction in runs
scored by the Red Sox, which also might have led to more losses. Ruth’s switch
from pitcher to outfielder probably displaced Tilly Walker, arguably the worst of
the Red Sox starting outfielders in 1917, and made room for Dutch Leonard, who
had the highest earned run average (ERA) among the regular starting pitchers in
1918.6 Ruth’s last year as a full-time pitcher—1917—was an amazing one; he won
24 games, lost 13, and gave up about 2 runs per game. The first year that Ruth
played mostly in the outfield was even more amazing. He led the league in slug-
ging percentage (the average number of bases advanced per at bat), and his 11
home runs not only led the league, they were almost twice as much as the 6 hit
by the entire Red Sox starting outfield in 1917.

Table 1.1 shows that replacing Ruth, who had a 2.01 ERA in 1917, with Leon-
ard, who had a (still low) 2.72, meant that the Sox gave up 0.71 more runs per 9
innings than they would have if Ruth had had an identical year in 1918. Over the
14 games that Leonard pitched, that meant that the Red Sox’ opportunity cost
of using Babe Ruth in the field was about 10 runs in the 1918 season.7 Using the
formula for runs produced (runs scored + runs batted in – home runs) shows that
Ruth produced 29 more runs in 1918 than Walker produced in 1917. Thus, the Red
Sox came out 19 runs ahead from the switch.

At this point, one might ask why the Red Sox did not use Babe Ruth as a pitcher
every four or five days and as a hitter every day in between. In baseball, the skills
of pitching and hitting are so different that one cannot develop both at the same
time. No American player has ever managed to play every day and pitch every
fourth or fifth day, as acquiring the skills needed to become an elite hitter or
pitcher demands a great deal of intensive practice.8 This pre-commitment gen-
erally does not leave enough time or energy to develop other skills.

More generally, one of the most important conclusions of the theory of com-
parative advantage is that developing specific skills and specializing in activities

Table 1.1 The Gain and Loss from Moving Babe Ruth
Player Runs Sacrificed Runs Produced
Babe Ruth 2.01 per game 105 per season
Dutch Leonard 2.72 per game —
Tilly Walker — 76 per season
Net change +9.94 per season a
+29 per season

Uses 14 starts for the 1918 season.

a

Source: Baseball Almanac, at http://www.baseball-almanac.com.

8 Economics and Sports

that use these skills make individuals, firms, and nations better off. Professors
employ research assistants and working parents hire day care providers because
trying to do everything would take them away from the activities that they per-
form best. It is cheaper (more efficient) for them to pay other people to provide
the goods or services than to try to do everything themselves.

At the national level, if the United States has a comparative advantage in pro-
ducing cancer drugs, it is better off specializing in cancer drugs than in TVs, even
if it has an absolute advantage over Japan in both products. The opportunity cost
of our sacrificing cancer drugs to make TVs is higher than the cost of sending
cancer drugs to Japan in exchange for TVs. Like Babe Ruth, we are better off spe-
cializing in what we are relatively best at and leaving the rest to others.

Biographical Sketch

Babe Didrikson Zaharias

(1911–1956)

I knew exactly what I wanted to be when I grew up. My goal was to be

the greatest athlete that ever lived.
—Babe Didrikson Zaharias9

The theory of comparative advantage tells us that athletes are better off
when they specialize. A quick look at athletes from the professional ranks
to middle schools seems to bear this hypothesis out. “Two-way” football
players have become a rarity, and athletes who play more than one sport
have all but disappeared. It is thus unlikely that the athletic world will
ever see another Babe Didrikson Zaharias. Zaharias dominated women’s
sports like no athlete before or since, achieving star status in the disparate
worlds of basketball, track and field, and golf.

Mildred Ella Didriksen was born in 1911 to impoverished Norwegian immi-

grants in Port Arthur, Texas. The sixth of seven children and the young-
est girl, Mildred got the nickname “Babe” while a young girl and still the
“baby” of the family, though she later attributed the nickname to com-
parisons with baseball hero Babe Ruth. Her last name was changed to
“Didrikson” because of a spelling error in her school records.
Economics and Sports 9

As a youth, Zaharias was drawn to sports at a time when sexual stereo-

types still discouraged women from participating in “manly” sports, but
Zaharias’ working-class upbringing freed her from many of the restric-
tions that would have constrained her development as an athlete. She did
not participate in organized sports, however, until she left high school in
1930 to play basketball for the Employers Casualty Insurance Company.

It may seem odd today for an athlete to advance her career by taking a job
as a secretary for an insurance company, but at that time, many colleges
did not offer athletic programs for women, and the fledging NCAA was
openly disdainful of women’s athletics. Employers Casualty played in the
45-member Women’s National Basketball League, which played under
the auspices of the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU). The AAU was then the
dominant athletic body; it oversaw competitions by a few schools and by
companies that sponsored teams.

The Employers Casualty “Golden Cyclones” were one of the best ama-
teur teams in the nation. When the first All-American women’s basketball
team was announced in 1929, eight of its members were from Employers
Casualty. Zaharias quickly established herself as a star among stars, being
named an All-American for three straight years.

As good as she was on the basketball court, Zaharias had her greatest suc-
cess in track and field. It was here that she recorded the greatest single
performance in the history of track and field, and perhaps of any athletic
competition. At the 1932 National Track and Field Competition, which
was the trials for the 1932 Los Angeles Olympic Games, Zaharias was the
sole representative of the Employers Casualty team. In one afternoon,
she ensured that Employers Casualty won the team championship by
winning the shot put, the baseball throw, the javelin throw, the 80-meter
hurdles, and the broad jump. She also tied for first in the high jump and
finished fourth in the discus, an event in which she normally did not com-
pete. In all, she won six gold medals and broke four world records in about
three hours. Zaharias hardly skipped a beat in the Olympics, setting world
records in the javelin throw and the 80-meter hurdles. She also tied for
first in the high jump, but some judges objected to her then-unorthodox
style (the so-called Western Roll, which soon became the dominant style).
As a compromise, she was declared the second-place finisher and won the
only half-gold-half-silver medal in the history of the Olympics.

As the dominant performer and personality of the 1932 “Hollywood

Games,” Zaharias quickly became a national celebrity. Her publicity, how-
ever, came at a considerable cost. The public did not know what to make
of a woman who defied sexual stereotypes. Zaharias seemed destined to
fade from public view when the AAU stripped her of her amateur status
for appearing in an automobile advertisement (even though, apparently,
she had not given permission for the firm to use her likeness). After a year
or so of stunts and exhibition tours, she returned to work for Employers
Casualty.

Over the next several years, Zaharias reconstructed her personal and
athletic lives. Stung by her treatment in the press, she strove to develop
10 Economics and Sports

a more feminine image, playing up her role as a wife following her mar-
riage to professional wrestler (and later sports promoter) George Zaha-
rias in 1938, but she was anything but a typical housewife. Having picked
up golf as a teenager, Zaharias threw herself into her new, more socially
acceptable sport. In 1935, she won the Texas State Women’s Golf Cham-
pionship and was ready to enter full-time competition when the United
States Golf Association banned her from amateur competition because of
her appearance in the automobile advertisement. She responded by turn-
ing pro, but she quickly realized that professional golf provided neither
adequate competition nor adequate pay. She succeeded in having her
amateur status reinstated in 1943. Though she would have to wait until
the end of World War II to enter the next stage of her athletic career, it
was worth the wait.

Zaharias burst onto the women’s golf tour in 1945, winning the Texas Wom-
en’s Open and the Western Open, and being named “Woman Athlete of the
Year” by the Associated Press (an award she had won 13 years earlier for her
Olympic exploits). This proved merely a warm-up for 1946, when she won
14 straight tournaments. In 1947, Zaharias became the first American to win
the British Women’s Amateur golf championship in the 55-year history of
the event.

After her victory in the British Amateur event, Zaharias again turned pro
and a year later became a charter member of the newly formed Ladies
Professional Golf Association (LPGA—it chose the term “Ladies” to avoid
conflict with the unsuccessful Women’s PGA). Her talents led her to be a
dominant figure in the LPGA—she won about two of every three events
she entered in 1950 and 1951—and her showmanship, while not always
appreciated by her competitors, helped market the new tour.

In 1953, Zaharias was diagnosed with cancer, and doctors told her family
and friends (but not Zaharias herself) that she had less than a year to live.
Within four months, however, she was back on the tour, finishing as the
sixth-highest money winner for 1953. She did even better in 1954, winning
five tournaments and having the lowest average on the tour. The cancer
reappeared in 1955, and Babe Didrikson Zaharias, arguably the greatest
athlete of the 20th century, died in 1956.

Source: Susan Cayleff, Babe: The Life and Legend of Babe Didrikson Zaharias
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995).

Summary
Sports occupy a unique place in the public psyche. Although sports gener-
ate less revenue than many other industries, sports results are predicted,
reported, and analyzed in newspapers, magazines, books, and on TV and radio
programs. This text presents economic models from industrial organization,
public finance, and labor economics to provide insight into the economics of
sports. As you read the text, you will learn about the largest sports leagues in
North America and Europe, as well as mega-events like the Olympics and their
power to illuminate economic theory. For example, one of the most important
Economics and Sports 11

economic models is that of comparative advantage. Despite having an abso-

lute advantage as both a pitcher and an outfielder and hitter, Babe Ruth spe-
cialized in playing the outfield because he had a comparative advantage at
hitting over pitching.

Discussion Questions
1 Why do sports generate so much more news coverage than other industries
that are much larger in financial terms?
2 Why do some countries prefer particular sports over others? What factors
might lead us to follow different sports?
3 The theory of comparative advantage predicts that athletes perform better
when they specialize. Studies show that young athletes are increasingly
focusing on a single sport. Do you think this is a good idea?

Problems
1.1 Use an appropriate economic theory to explain why LeBron James might
employ someone to answer his fan mail even if he can read the letters and
type the responses more quickly than the person he employs.
1.2 Is the following statement true or false? Explain your reasoning. “I am
attending college on a full athletic scholarship, so the opportunity cost of
attending college is zero for me.”
1.3 From 1946 through 1967, the placekicker and offensive lineman for the
Cleveland Browns, Lou Groza, was successful on 54.9 percent of his field
goal attempts. From 1999 through 2012, the Browns’ kicker was Phil Daw-
son, who was successful on 84.0 percent of his attempts. Use the theory of
comparative advantage to explain the massive improvement in the Browns’
kicking game.
1.4 The term “figure skating” refers to the shapes that skaters used to trace
in the ice as part of skating competitions. In the 1970s, this aspect of the
sport was deemphasized and eventually eliminated. Use the theory of
comparative advantage to show why eliminating this part of the competi-
tion has led skaters to perform much more difficult and sophisticated
jumps and spins.
1.5 Carly Lloyd is arguably the best central midfielder in international women’s
soccer. She is also an effective attacker, scoring three goals in the Women’s
World Cup Final in 2015. Based on the theory of comparative advantage,
what position should Lloyd play?
1.6 In 2012, the Indianapolis Colts released future Hall of Fame quarterback
Peyton Manning despite the fact he potentially had several more years as
an elite quarterback ahead of him. Explain why the Colts did this using the
concept of opportunity costs.

Notes
1 George F. Will. 1998. Bunts (New York: Scribner): 22.
2 A.J. Perez. 2016. “The Chicago Cubs’ Billy Goat Curse, Explained,” USA Today Sports,
October 25, at http://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/2016/10/25/chicago-cubs-
billy-goat-curse-explained/92715898/. Accessed March 15, 2017.
3 See Katie Kindelain. 2012. “Kentucky Students Riot after NCAA Championship
Win,” abcnews.com, April 3, at http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/04/
12 Economics and Sports

kentucky-students-riot-after-ncaa-championship-win; David Card and Gordon B.

Dahl. 2011. “Family Violence and Football: The Effect of Unexpected Emotional Cues
on Violent Behavior,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126(1), February: 103–143; Ste-
ven Ungerleider. 2001. Faust’s Gold: Inside the East German Doping Machine (New
York: Thomas Dunne Books).
4 “Fortune 500,” at http://beta.fortune.com/fortune500/list/. Accessed March 15, 2017.
Forbes data are from Forbes.com, Business of Hockey, Basketball, Football, and Bas-
ketball lists. Revenue data are from the 2017 lists except for the NHL, which is 2016.
Accessed October 21, 2017.
5 For a more complete explanation of Babe Ruth’s comparative advantage during his
career with the New York Yankees, see Edward Scahill. 1990. “Did Babe Ruth Have
a Comparative Advantage as a Pitcher?” Journal of Economic Education, 21(4), Fall:
402–410.
6 The earned run average is the average number of runs a pitcher gives up per nine
innings, the normal length of a ballgame.
7 The Boston Red Sox played only 126 games in 1918 because the season was termi-
nated on September 1 due to the United States’ entry into World War I.
8 Shohei Otani of Japan’s Nippon Ham Fighters is doing just this. In 2016, he hit 22 home
runs and had a 0.588 slugging average. As a pitcher, he went 10–4 with a 1.86 ERA.
9 Susan Cayleff. 1995. Babe: The Life and Legend of Babe Didrikson Zaharias (Urbana:
University of Illinois Press): 46.
References
2016 NFL Attendance Data, Pro Football Reference, at http://www.pro-football-
reference.com/years/2016/attendance.htm.
2016-17 Bowl Money, ACC Football Rx, at http://accfootballrx.blogspot.com/2016/12/2016-17-bowl-
money.html.
20172021 Basic Agreement, at http://www.mlbplayers.com/pdf9/5450407.pdf.
Abrams, Roger . 1998. Legal Bases: Baseball and the Law. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Agence France-Presse . 2017. CBS News: 12 Riders Used Motorized Bikes in the 2015 Tour, VeloNews,
January 30, at http://www.velonews.com/2017/01/news/cbs-news-12-riders-used-motorized-bikes-in-the-
2015-tour_429741.
Aldrich, Eric M , Peter S. Arcidiacono , and Joseph L. Vigdor . 2005. Do People Value Racial Diversity?
Evidence from Nielsen Ratings, The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis and Policy, 5(1), Article 4: 122.
Allmers, Swatje , and Wolfgang Maennig . 2009. Economic Impacts of the FIFA Soccer World Cups in
France 1998, Germany 2006, and Outlook for South Africa 2010, Eastern Economic Journal, 35(4): 500519.
Amar, Harshit . 2015. La Liga Suspended: The Strange Case of TV Rights, Footballtarget. com, November
5, at http://www.footballtarget.com/la-liga-strange-case-tv-rights/.
Anderson, Michael L. 2017. The Benefits of College Athletic Success: An Application of the Propensity Score
Design, Review of Economics and Statistics, 99(1), March: 119134.
Anderson, Nick . 2014. The Gender Factor in College Admissions: Do Men or Women Have an Edge?
Washington Post, March 26, at https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/the-gender-factor-in-
college-admissions/2014/03/26/4996e988-b4e6-11e3-8020-
b2d790b3c9e1_story.html?utm_term=.2c0148c84b8b.
Anderson, Torben , and Sumner J. La Croix . 1991. Customer Discrimination in Major League Baseball,
Economic Inquiry, 29(4), October: 665677.
Andreff, Wladimir , and Paul Staudohar . 2002. European and US Sports Business Models, in Transatlantic
Sport: The Comparative Economics of North American and European Sport, ed. Carlos Pestana Barros ,
Muradali Ibrahimo , and Stefan Szymanski . Cheltenham: Edward Elgar: 2349.
Annala, Christopher , and Jason Winfree . 2011. Salary Distribution and Team Performance in Major League
Baseball, Sport Management Review, 14(2), May: 167175.
Annual Lobbying by the National Football League, OpenSecrets.org, January 25, 2017, at
https://www.opensecrets.org/lobby/clientsum.php?id=D000027847.
Anonymous , MLB Executives: Alan H. (Bud) Selig, at
http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/official_info/about_mlb/executives.jsp?bio=selig_bud.
Anonymous . 1981. Kapp Victory Seems Empty, New York Times, August 4, at
http://www.nytimes.com/1981/08/04/sports/kapp-victory-seems-empty.html?pagewanted=all.
Appleyard, Alex . 2016. The Flyers European Renaissance, Philadelphia Sons of Penn, October 18, at
http://sonsofpenn.com/flyers/the-flyers-european-renaissance/.
Aries, Elizabeth , Danielle McCarthy, Peter Salovey , and Mahzarin Banaji . 2004. A Comparison of Athletes
and Non-Athletes at Highly-Selective Colleges: Academic Performance and Personal Development,
Research in Higher Education, 45(6), September: 577602.
366 Aschwanden, Christie . 2016. The Olympics Are Still Struggling to Define Gender, FiveThirtyEight, June
28, at http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/the-olympics-are-still-struggling-to-define-gender/.
Ashenfelter, Orley , and David Bloom . 1984. Models of Arbitrator Behavior: Theory and Evidence, American
Economic Review, 74(1), March: 111124.
Associated Press . 2000. Soldier Field Referendum Rejected, December 29.
Associated Press . 2002. Commissioner Spent $1.2 Million on Lobbying in 2001, ESPN. com, May 15.
Associated Press . 2005. Saints Home Games: 4 at LSU, 3 in Alamodome, September 12, at
http://sports.espn.go.com/nfl/news/story?id=2159595.
Associated Press . 2006. A Look at Spending on Recent Winter Olympics, October 2, at
http://wintergames.ap.org/article/look-spending-recent-winter-olympics.
Associated Press . 2013. Deloitte: Qatar to Spend $200 Billion for World Cup, USA Today, July 9, at
http://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/soccer/2013/07/09/deloitte-qatar-to-spend-200-billion-world-
cup/2501815/.
Associated Press . 2015. NFL Teams That Use Variable or Dynamic Ticket Pricing, ESPN. com, July 11, at
http://www.espn.com/espn/wire?id=13237217&section=nfl.
Associated Press . 2016. ATP Money Leaders, Federal News Radio, September 12, at
http://federalnewsradio.com/sports-news/2016/09/atp-money-leaders/.
Associated Press . 2016. Supreme Court Rejects NCAA Appeal of Ed OBannon Case, Los Angeles Times,
October 3, at http://www.latimes.com/sports/sportsnow/la-sp-supreme-court-ed-obannon-20161003-snap-
story.html.
Associated Press . 2017. Russia Increases 2018 World Cup Budget by $325 Million, February 6, at
http://www.espnfc.com/fifa-world-cup/story/3055194/russia-increases-2018-world-cup-budget-by-$325-
million.
ATP World Tour , The 2017 ATP Official Rulebook, at http://www.atpworldtour.com/en/corporate/rulebook.
Austrian, Ziona , and Mark Rosentraub . 1997. Clevelands Gateway to the Future, in Sports, Jobs, and
Taxes, ed. Roger G. Noll and Andrew Zimbalist . Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press: 355384.
Aynsworth, Hugh . 2004. Owner of Dallas Cowboys Seeks $1 Billion in Tax Funds, Washington Times,
February 2, at http://www.washingtontimes.com/national/20040202-120350-8901r.htm.
Baade, Robert , Robert Baumann , and Victor Matheson . 2008. Selling the Game: Estimating the Economic
Impact of Professional Sports through Taxable Sales, Southern Economic Journal, 74(3), January: 794810.
Baade, Robert , Robert Baumann , and Victor Matheson . 2010. Slippery Slope: Assessing the Economic
Impact of the 2002 Winter Olympic Games in Salt Lake City, Utah, Region et Dveloppement, 31: 8191.
Baade, Robert , and Richard Dye . 1988. Sports Stadiums and Area Development: A Critical Review,
Economic Development Quarterly, 2(3), August: 265275.
Baade, Robert , and Victor Matheson . 2002. Bidding for the Olympics: Fools Gold? in Transatlantic Sport:
The Comparative Economics of North American and European Sport, ed. Carlos Pestana Barros , Muradali
Ibrahimo , and Stefan Szymanski . Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar: 127151.
Baade, Robert , and Victor Matheson . 2006. Have Public Finance Principles Been Shut Out of Financing
New Stadiums for the NFL? Public Finance and Management, 6(3): 284320.
Baade, Robert , and Victor Matheson . 2006. Padding Required: Assessing the Economic Impact of the
Super Bowl, European Sports Management Quarterly, 6(4): 353374.
Baade, Robert , and Victor Matheson . 2013. Financing Professional Sports Facilities, in Financing Economic
Development in the 21st Century, ed. Sammis White and Zenia Kotval . New York: M.E. Sharpe Publishers.
Baade, Robert , and Victor Matheson . 2016. Going for the Gold: The Economics of the Olympics, Journal of
Economic Perspectives, 30(2), April: 201218.
Baade, Robert , and Allen Sanderson . 1997. The Employment Effect of Teams and Sports Facilities, in
Sports, Jobs, and Taxes: The Economic Impact of Sports Teams and Stadiums, 367ed. Roger G. Noll and
Andrew Zimbalist . Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press: 92118.
Badenhausen, Kurt . 2011. The NFL Signs TV Deal Worth $27 Billion, Forbes.com, December 14, at
https://www.forbes.com/sites/kurtbadenhausen/2011/12/14/the-nfl-signs-tv-deals-worth-26-billion/.
Badenhausen, Kurt . 2016. Warriors, Chase Tie-Up Ranks among Biggest Stadium Naming Deals Ever,
Forbes.com, January 28, at http://www.forbes.com/sites/kurtbadenhausen/2016/01/28/warriors-chase-tie-up-
joins-ranks-of-biggest-stadium-naming-rights-deals/.
Badenhausen, Kurt , and Michael Ozanian . 2009. The Business of Baseball, Forbes.com, April 22, at
http://www.forbes.com/lists/2009/33/baseball-values-09_New-York-Yankees_334613.html.
Badenhausen, Kurt , Michael Ozanian , and Christina Settimi . 2010. The Business of Baseball, Forbes.com,
April 7, at http://www.forbes.com/lists/2010/33/baseball-valuations-10_New-York-Yankees_334613.html.
Badenhausen, Kurt , Michael Ozanian , and Christina Settimi . 2011. MLB Team Values, Forbes.com, March
22, at http://www.forbes.com/lists/2011/33/baseball-valuations-11_land.html.
Baker, William . 1982. Sports in the Western World. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield.
Ballotpedia . Largest Cities in the United States by Population, at
https://ballotpedia.org/Largest_cities_in_the_United_States_bypopulation.
Baltzell, F. Digby . 1995. Sporting Gentlemen: Mens Tennis from the Age of Honor to the Cult of the
Superstar. New York: The Free Press.
Bamberger, Michael , and Don Yaeger . 1997. Over the Edge, Sports Illustrated, April 14: 6170.
Banko, Lauren , Eva Marikova Leeds , and Michael A. Leeds . 2016. Gender Differences in Response to
Setbacks: Evidence from Professional Tennis, Social Science Quarterly, 97(2), June: 161176.
Baroncelli, Alessandro , and Umberto Lago . 2006. Italian Football, Journal of Sports Economics, 7(1),
February: 1328.
Barra, Allen . 2000. In Anti-trust We Trust, Salon Magazine, May 19, at
http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2000/05/19/antitrust/index.html.
Barra, Allen . 2005. The Last Coach: A Life of Paul Bear Bryant. New York: W.W. Norton.
Barry, Dave . 1999. Dave Barry Turns Fifty. New York: Random House.
Bartlett, Donald , and James Steele . 2001. Snow Job, Sports Illustrated, December 10: 7997.
Baseball Almanac, at http://www.baseball-almanac.com.
Baseball Almanac, President George W. Bush Baseball Related Quotations, at http://www.baseball-
almanac.com/prz_qgwb.shtml.
Baumann, Robert , Bryan Engelhardt , and Victor Matheson . 2012. Employment Effects of the 2002 Winter
Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, Journal of Economics and Statistics, 232(3), May: 308317.
Baumann, Robert , and Victor Matheson . 2017. Mega-Events and Tourism: The Case of Brazil,
Contemporary Economic Policy, in press.
Baumann, Robert , Victor Matheson , and Chihiro Muroi . 2009. Bowling in Hawaii: Examining the
Effectiveness of Sports-Based Tourism Strategies, Journal of Sports Economics, 10(1), February: 107123.
BBC . 2008. Faz Presidency Marred by Racial Abuse, February 25, at
http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/africa/7262763.stm.
BBC . 2012. Sol Campbell Warns Fans to Stay Away from Euro 2012, May 28, at
http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-18192375.
BBC . 2013. London 2012: Olympics and Paralympics 528 Million under Budget, July 19, at
http://www.bbc.com/sport/0/olympics/20041426.
BBC . 2014. Urawa Reds Play to Empty Stadium after Fans Banned for Racist Banner, March 23, at
http://www.bbc.com/sport/football/26704368.
BBC . 2014. Atalanta Is Fined over Banana Incident in Italys Serie A, May 12, at
http://www.bbc.com/sport/football/27374486.
368 BBC . 2017. Qatar Spending $500m a Week on World Cup Infrastructure Projects, February 8, at
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-38905510.
Becker, Gary . 1971. The Economics of Discrimination, 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Becker, Gary . 1983. A Theory of Competition among Pressure Groups for Political Influence, Quarterly
Journal of Economics, 97(3), August: 371400.
Becker, Gary . 1993. Human Capital, 3rd ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Beckett Baseball Card Price Guide, 2016.
Belson, Ken . 2009. Tickets Cost Too Much? Check Back Tomorrow, New York Times, May 18: D-2.
Belson, Ken . 2011. New Sponsor on WNBA Uniforms, New York Times, August 22, at
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/22/sports/basketball/wnba-makes-sponsorship-deal-with-boost-mobile.html.
Belzer, Jason . 2016. The Worlds Most Powerful Sports Agents, Forbes, September 21, at
https://www.forbes.com/sites/jasonbelzer/2016/09/21/the-worlds-most-powerful-sports-agents-2016/.
Berentsen, Aleksander . 2002. The Economics of Doping, European Journal of Political Economy, 18(1),
March: 109127.
Berger, Ken . 2016. NBA Free Agency Cheat Sheet: Everything You Need to Know, CBSS-ports.com, June
30, at http://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/nba-free-agency-cheat-sheet-everything-you-need-to-know/.
Berkowitz, Steve , Christopher Schnaars , Jodi Upton , Mark Hannan , Michael Stern , Justin Meyer , NCAA
Finances, USAToday.com, at http://sports.usatoday.com/ncaa/finances/.
Berman, Gabrielle , Robert Brooks , and Sinclair Davidson . 2000. The Sydney Olympic Games
Announcement and Australian Stock Market Reaction, Applied Economics Letters, 7(12), December:
781784.
Berri, David , Stacey Brook , Bernd Frick , Aju Fenn , and Roberto Vicente-Mayoral . 2005. The Short Supply
of Tall People: Explaining Competitive Imbalance in the National Basketball Association, Journal of
Economic Issues, 39(4), December: 10291041.
Berri, David J. , and Martin B. Schmidt . 2010. Stumbling on Wins. Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT Press.
Berri, David J. , Martin B. Schmidt , and Stacey L. Brook . 2006. The Wages of Wins: Taking Measure of the
Many Myths in Modern Sport. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Berri, David J. , and Rob Simmons . 2009. Race and the Evaluation of Signal Callers in the National Football
League, Journal of Sports Economics, 10(1), February: 2343.
Betzold, Michael , and Ethan Casey . 1992. Queen of Diamonds: The Tiger Stadium Story. West Bloomfield,
MI: Northfield Publishing.
Birger, Jon . 2009. Baseball Battles the Slump, CNNMoney.com, February 19, at
http://money.cnn.com/2009/02/18/magazines/fortune/birger_baseball.fortune/index.htm.
Bloom, David , and Christopher Cavanaugh . 1987. Negotiator Behavior under Arbitration, American
Economic Review, 77(2), May: 353358.
Blum, Ronald . 2016. Dodgers, Latin American Players Losers in MLB Labor Deal, Associated Press,
December 1, at http://bigstory.ap.org/91335e2ae60d440d9a72ee1ed3caa14d.
Bodvarsson, Orn B. 1999. A Test of Employer Discrimination in the NBA, Contemporary Economic Policy,
17(2), April: 243256.
Bodvarsson, Orn B. , and Brad R. Humphreys . 2013. Labor Market Discrimination and Capital: The Effects
of Fan Discrimination on Stadium and Arena Construction, Contemporary Economic Policy, 31(3), July:
604617.
Boniface, Daniel . 2016. MLS Player Salaries 2016 Released by Major League Soccer Players Union, The
Denver Post: The Terrace, May 19, at http://blogs.denverpost.com/rapids/2016/05/19/mls-player-salaries-
2016-released-major-league-soccer-players-union/27671/.
Borland, Jeffrey , and Robert MacDonald . 2003. Demand for Sport, Oxford Review of Economic Policy,
19(4): 478502.
Boulder Daily Camera . 2007. Democratic Convention an Economic Boon, January 12.
369 Bowen, William , and Sarah Levin . 2003. Reclaiming the Game: College Sports and Educational
Values. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Brooke, James . 2002. Legacy of World Cup May Be the Stadiums Left Behind, New York Times, June 2, at
http://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/02/sports/soccer-legacy-of-world-cup-may-be-the-stadiums-left-
behind.html.
Brown, Robert W ., and R. Todd Jewell . 2013. Revenues and Subsidies in Collegiate Sports: An Analysis of
NCAA Division I Womens Basketball, in Handbook on the Economics of Women in Sports, ed. Eva Marikova
Leeds and Michael A. Leeds . Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Brown, Maury . 2016. 2016 MLB Advanced Media Revenues Projected to Reach $1.1-$1.2 Billion,
Forbes.com, March, at https://www.forbes.com/sites/maurybrown/2016/03/03/mlb-advanced-media-
projected-revenues-to-be-1-1-1-2-billion-in-2016/.
Brown, Maury . 2016. How Major League Baseball Continues Massive Growth with the Addition of BAMTech
Europe, Forbes.com, November 1, at http://www.forbes.com/sites/maurybrown/2016/11/01/how-major-
league-baseball-continues-massive-growth-with-addition-of-bamtech-europe/.
Brown, Robert . 2011. Estimates of a College Football Players Rents, Journal of Sports Economics, 12(2),
April: 200212.
Brustein, Joshua . 2010. Star Pitchers in a Duel? Tickets Will Cost More, New York Times, June 27, at
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/28/technology/28tickets.html.
Buchanan, James . 1965. An Economic Theory of Clubs, Economica, 32(125), February: 114.
Buraimo, Babatunde . 2008. Stadium Attendance and Television Audience Demand in English League
Football, Managerial and Decision Economics, 29(6): 513523.
Buraimo, Babatunde , and Rob Simmons . 2008. Do Sports Fans Really Value Uncertainty of Outcome?
Evidence from the English Premier League, International Journal of Sport Finance, 3(3), August: 146155.
Bureau of Labor Statistics . 2016. Economic News Release: Union Members Summary, January 28, at
http://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htm.
Burgos, Adrian . 2007. Playing Americas Game. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Burk, Robert . 1994. Never Just a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball to 1920. Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press.
Burns, Ken . 1994. Baseball (film). PBS Video.
BusinessWeek , Company Overview of Giants Stadium LLC, BusinessWeek.com, at
http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=36320464.
Byers, Walter , with Charles Hammer . 1995. Unsportsmanlike Conduct: Exploiting College Athletes. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Byrne, Jim . 1986. The $1 League: The Rise and Fall of the USFL. New York: Prentice Hall.
Byrom, J. Robert . 2009. ESPN Names Oklahoma Most Prestigious Program during AP/BCS Eras, USC
Trojans, January 23, at http://bleacherreport.com/articles/114758-espn-names-ou-most-prestigous-school-
during-apbcs-eras.
Cacciola, Scott . 2016. NBA and Players Union Agree to New Labor Deal, New York Times, December 14, at
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/14/sports/basketball/nba-collective-bargaining-agreement.html.
Cagan, Joanna , and Neil deMause . 1998. Field of Schemes. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press.
Campbell, Tim . 2012. Jets Will Not Need NHLs Revenue-Sharing, Winnipeg Free Press, April 25, at
http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/breakingnews/Jets-will-not-need-NHLs-revenue-sharing--
146445605.html.
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation . 2005. Montreal Says No to Big Owe, October 8, at
http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal-says-no-to-big-owe-1.569446.
Canellos, Peter S. 1997. In City with Short Memory, Astrodome May Become History, Milwaukee Journal-
Sentinel, July 27: 26A.
Card, David , and Gordon B. Dahl . 2011. Family Violence and Football: The Effect of Unexpected Emotional
Cues on Violent Behavior, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126(1), February: 103143.
Carlino, Gerald , and N. Edward Coulson . 2004. Compensating Differentials and the Social Benefit of the
NFL, Journal of Urban Economics, 56(1), July: 2550.
370 Carroll, Kathleen , and Brad R. Humphreys . 2016. Opportunistic Behavior in a Cartel Setting: Effects of
the 1984 Supreme Court Decision on College Television Broadcasts, Journal of Sports Economics, 17(6),
June: 601628.
Carroll, Lewis . 1972. Through the Looking Glass, in The Annotated Alice. New York: Meridian Books.
Cary, Tom . 2017. British Cycling Told to Sort Out Mess or Lose 26m as Backlash Intensifies, The
Telegraph, March 2, at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/cycling/2017/03/02/team-sky-british-cycling-fire-missing-
medical-records-latest/.
Cassing, James , and Richard Douglas . 1980. Implications of the Auction Mechanism in Baseballs Free
Agent Draft, Southern Economic Journal, 47(1), July: 110121.
Cayleff, Susan . 1995. Babe: The Life and Legend of Babe Didrickson Zaharias. Urbana: University of Illinois
Press.
CBS . 2006. The Football Game That Broke Racial Barriers, YouTube, at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CnOpZvEulvY.
Center for Public Integrity . 2000. How George W. Bush Scored Big with the Texas Rangers, January 18, at
https://www.publicintegrity.org/2000/01/18/3313/how-george-w-bush-scored-big-texas-rangers.
Chapman, Steve . 2003. A Stadium Deal That Is Hard to Bear, Chicago Tribune, September 14.
Chavez, Chris . 2017. Intelligence Report: Russias Olympic Doping Scandal Linked to Election Interference,
Sports Illustrated, January 6, at http://ww.si.com/olympics/2017/01/06/us-intelligence-agency-russia-hackers-
dnc-wada-doping-scandal.
Chema, Thomas . 1996. When Professional Sports Justify the Subsidy, Journal of Urban Affairs, 18(1),
February: 1922.
Chiari, Mike . 2015. NHL Salary Cap Announced for 2015-16 Season, Bleacher Report, June 23, at
http://bleacherreport.com/articles/2504174-nhl-salary-cap-announced-for-2015-16-season.
Clapp, Christopher M. , and Jahn K. Hakes . 2005. How Long a Honeymoon? The Effect of New Stadiums
on Attendance in Major League Baseball, Journal of Sports Economics, 6(3), August: 237263.
Close, Kerry . 2016. 5 Reasons Why Tennis Should Keep Paying Men and Women Equally, Everyday
Money, March 22, at http://time.com/money/4265912/equal-pay-tennis-djokovic-williams/.
Clotfelter, Charles T. 2011. Big-Time Sports in American Universities. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Coase, Ronald . 1960. The Problem of Social Cost, Journal of Law and Economics, 3(1), October: 144.
Coates, Dennis . 2007. Stadiums and Arenas: Economic Development or Economic Redistribution?
Contemporary Economic Policy, 25(4), October: 565577.
Coates, Dennis , and Craig Depken . 2010. Mega-Events: Is Baylor Football to Waco What the Super Bowl
Is to Houston? Journal of Sports Economics, 12(6): 599620.
Coates, Dennis , and Brad R. Humphreys . 2003. The Effect of Professional Sports on Earnings and
Employment in U.S. Cities, Regional Science and Urban Economics, 33(2), March: 175198.
Coates, Dennis , and Brad R. Humphreys . 2003. Professional Sports Facilities, Franchises, and Urban
Economic Development, Public Finance and Management, 3(3), September: 335357.
Coates, Dennis , Brad R. Humphreys , and Li Zhou . 2014. Reference-Dependent Preferences, Loss
Aversion, and Live Game Attendance, Economic Inquiry, 52(3), July: 959973.
Cobb, Nathan . 1986. Baseball Border War: In Milford, Conn. Geography Brings Sox and Mets Fans Cheek
to Jowl, Boston Globe, October 20: 8.
Coleman, B. Jay , Kenneth Jennings , and Frank McLaughlin . 1993. Convergence or Divergence in Final-
Offer Arbitration in Professional Baseball, Industrial Relations, 32(2), April: 238247.
Collective Bargaining Agreement. 2011, August 4, at https://nfllabor.files.wordpress.com/2010/01/collective-
bargaining-agreement-2011-2020.pdf.
371 Condor, Bob . 2011. NHL, NBC Sign Record-Setting 10-Year TV Deal, NHL.com, April 19, at
https://www.nhl.com/news/nhl-nbc-sign-record-setting-10-year-tv-deal/c-560238.
Conlin, Michael , and Patrick M. Emerson . 2006. Discrimination in Hiring versus Retention and Promotion:
An Empirical Analysis of Within-Firm Treatment of Players in the NFL, Journal of Law, Economics &
Organization, 22(1), April: 115136.
Conway, Russ . 1997. Game Misconduct: Alan Eagleson and the Corruption of Hockey. Buffalo, NY:
MacFarlane, Walter, and Ross.
Cook, Jason . 2013. End of Football Season Brought $37 Million in Media Exposure for Texas A&M, Texas
A&M Today, January 12, at http://today.tamu.edu/2013/01/18/study-end-of-football-season-produced-37-
million-in-media-exposure-for-texas-am/.
Coon, Larry . NBA Salary Cap FAQ, at http://www.cbafaq.com.
Corbett, Peter . 2015. Report: Super Bowl Lifted Valley Economy by $720 Million, Arizona Republic, June 23.
Corbitt, Craig , and Jan Yi . American Needle, Inc. v. National Football League, : Amicus Curiae Brief of
Economists in Support of Petitioner, at
http://people.stern.nyu.edu/wgreene/entertainmentandmedia/AmericanNeedleEconomists.pdf.
Cots Baseball Contracts, at http://legacy.baseballprospectus.com/compensation/cots/2005/02/.
Covington, Robert N. 2003. How Much Is the Law to Blame for Baseballs Turbulent Labor Relations? Journal
of Sports Economics, 4(4), November: 357361.
Croson, Rachel , and Uri Gneezy . 2009. Gender Differences in Preferences. Journal of Economic Literature,
47(2), Summer: 127.
Crowley, Joseph . 2006. In the Arena: The NCAAs First Century. Indianapolis: NCAA.
Cubs.com . Six Game Pack, at http://chicago.cubs.mlb.com/chc/ticketing/sixpacks.jsp.
Curme, Michael A. , and Greg M. Dougherty . 2004. Competition and Pay for National Hockey League
Players Born in Quebec, Journal of Sports Economics, 5(2), May: 186205.
Danielson, Michael . 1997. Home Team: Professional Sport and the American Metropolis. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Das, Andrew . 2016. Pay Disparity in US Soccer? Its Complicated, New York Times, April 21, at
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/22/sports/soccer/usmnt-uswnt-soccer-equal-pay.html.
Dealy, Francis . 1990. Win at Any Cost: The Sell Out of College Athletics. New York: Birch Lane Press.
DeBrock, Lawrence , Wallace Hendricks , and Roger Koenker . 1996. The Economics of Persistence:
Graduation Rates of Athletes as Labor Market Choice, Journal of Human Resources, 31(3), Summer:
513539.
Delaney, Kevin . 2003. Public Dollars, Private Stadiums. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Deloitte Sports Business Group . June 2016. Annual Review of Football Finance 2016, ed. Dan Jones , at
https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/uk/Documents/sports-business-group/deloitte-uk-annual-
review-of-football-finance-2016.pdf.
DeLuca, Dave . 2017. How the NFL Franchise Tag Works, SportingNews, February 27, at
http://www.sportingnews.com/nfl/news/how-nfl-franchise-tag-works-exclusive-vs-non-exclusive-transition-
difference/1w7mwh36nqnfw1qb7lne9t9ka0.
Demas, Lane . 2010. Integrating the Gridiron: Black Civil Rights and American College Football. New
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Dempsey, Chris , and Andrew Zimbalist . 2017. No Boston Olympics: How and Why Smart Cities Are
Passing on the Torch. Lebanon, NH: ForeEdge Publishers.
Depken, Craig A. II. 1999. Free-Agency and the Competitiveness of Major League Baseball, Review of
Industrial Organization, 14(3), May: 205217.
Depken, Craig A. II. 2000. Wage Disparity and Team Productivity: Evidence from Major League Baseball,
Economics Letters, 61(1), April: 8792.
Depken, Craig A. II , and Dennis P. Wilson . 2006. NCAA Enforcement and Competitive Balance in College
Football, Southern Economic Journal, 72(4), April: 826845.
Deutsche Welle . 2006. World Cup to Boost German Economy, January 2, at http://www.dw.com/en/world-
cup-to-boost-german-economy/a-1842332.
372 Dickey, Glenn . 1991. Just Win, Baby: Al Davis and His Raiders. New York: Harcourt, Brace,
Jovanovich.
Dolan, Paul , Georgios Kavetsos , Christian Krekel , Dimitris Mavridis , Robert Metcalfe , Claudia Senik ,
Stefan Szymanski , and Nicolas R. Ziebart . 2016. The Host with the Most? The Effects of the Olympic
Games on Happiness, Centre for Economic Performance Discussion Paper No. 1441.
Dolinar, Sean . 2016. 2016 MLB Arbitration Visualization, Instagraphs, January 19, at
http://www.fangraphs.com/blogs/instagraphs/2016-mlb-arbitration-visualization.
Dorian, P. Owen , Michael Ryan , and Clayton R. Weatherston . 2007. Measuring Competitive Balance in
Professional Team Sports Using the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index, Journal of Industrial Organization, 31(4),
December: 289302.
Dosh, Kristi . 2016. College Football Payouts by Conference for 2016-17, Forbes.com, December 31, at
http://www.forbes.com/sites/kristidosh/2016/12/31/college-football-playoff-payouts-by-conference-for-2016-
17/.
Dosh, Kristi . 2016. New Deals with Fox, ESPN, and CBS Nearly Triple Big Ten TV Revenue, Forbes.com,
June 20, at https://www.forbes.com/sites/kristidosh/2016/06/20/new-deals-with-fox-espn-and-cbs-nearly-
triple-big-ten-television-revenue/.
Downie, Andrew . 2012. Soccer-Brazil World Cup Stadiums on Track, but Costs Soar, Reuters, April 3, at
http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/03/soccer-world-brazil-idUSL2E8F2GG820120403.
Drellich, Evan . 2016. MLB Changes Market Rank Formula in Revenue Sharing, The Boston Herald,
December 3, at
http://www.bostonherald.com/sports/red_sox/clubhouse_insider/2016/12/mlb_changes_market_rank_formul
a_in_revenue_sharing.
Du Plessis, Stan , and Wolfgang Maennig . 2010. The 2010 FIFA World Cup High Frequency Data
Economics: Effects on International Tourism and Awareness for South Africa, Development Southern Africa,
28(3), September: 349365.
Dubas-Fisher, David . 2016. How Much Should Chelsea Season Tickets Cost Based on the Rate of
Inflation? getwestlondon, February 9, at http://www.getwestlondon.co.uk/sport/football/football-news/how-
much-should-chelsea-season-10864543.
Dworkin, James . 1981. Owners versus Players: Baseball and Collective Bargaining. Boston, MA: Auburn
House.
Ebert, Graydon . MLSE Buy, Offside: A Sports Law Blog, at http://offsidesportsblog.blogspot.com/p/mlse-
buy.html.
Eckard, E. Woodrow . 1998. The NCAA Cartel and Competitive Balance in College Football, Review of
Industrial Organization, 13(3), June: 347369.
Eckard, E. Woodrow . 2003. The ANOVA-Based Competitive Balance Measure: A Defense, Journal of
Sports Economics, 4(1), February: 7480.
Economy, Peter . Mark Cuban: 19 Inspiring Power Quotes for Success, Inc.com, at
http://www.inc.com/peter-economy/mark-cuban-19-inspiring-power-quotes-for-success.html.
Ehrenberg, Ronald G. , and Michael Bognanno . 1990. Do Tournaments Have Incentive Effects? Journal of
Political Economy, 98(6), December: 13071324.
El-Hodiri, Mohamed , and James Quirk . 1971. An Economic Model of a Professional Sports League, Journal
of Political Economy, 79(6), NovemberDecember: 13021319.
Ellis, Zac . 2014. What Does the Kessler Antitrust Lawsuit vs. The NCAA Mean? Michael McCann Explains,
Sports Illustrated, March 17, at https://www.si.com/college-football/campus-union/2014/03/17/ncaa-antitrust-
lawsuit-jeffrey-kessler#.
ESPN . 2007. Casino Exec: All-Star Game Wasnt Good for Business, ESPN.com, May 4, at
http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story?id=2859699.
ESPN . 2012. MLB Completes New TV Deals, ESPN.com, October 2, at
http://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/8453054/major-league-baseball-completes-eight-year-deal-fox-turner-
sports.
ESPN . 2016. NBA Extends Television Deals, ESPN.com, February 14, at
http://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/11652297/nba-extends-television-deals-espn-tnt.
ESPN . 2017. NCAA Agrees to Historic $209 Million Settlement over Scholarship Shortages, ESPN.com,
February 4, at http://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/_/id/18616780/ncaa-agrees-historic-209m-
settlement-scholarship-shortages.
373 Estrada, Chris . 2015. Unofficial Results, Winnings, and Race Stats 57th Daytona 500, NBCSports,
February 22, at http://nascar.nbcsports.com/2015/02/22/unofficial-results-winnings-and-race-stats-57th-
daytona-500/.
Euchner, Charles . 1993. Playing the Field. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Everson, Darren . 2009. The Game That Changed Alabama, Wall Street Journal, December 4: W6.
Fagan, Kate , and Luke Cyphers . 2012. Five Myths about Title IX, ESPNW.com, April 29, at
http://www.espn.com/espnw/title-ix/article/7729603/five-myths-title-ix.
Fainaru-Wade, Mark , and Lance Williams . 2006. Game of Shadows: Barry Bonds, BALCO, and the
Steroids Scandal That Rocked Professional Sports. New York: Gotham Books.
Farber, Michael . 1995. Giant Sucking Sound, Sports Illustrated, March 20: 104.
Farhi, Paul . 2014. Did the Winter Olympics in Sochi Really Cost $50 Billion? A Closer Look at That Figure,
Washington Post, February 10.
Farrar, Doug . 2010. The NFL Loses American Needle: What It Means, Shutdown Corner/Yahoo! Sports,
May 24, at http://sports.yahoo.com/nfl/blog/shutdown_corner/post/The-NFL-loses-American-Needle-What-it-
means?urn=nfl,243282.
Farrey, Tom . 2014. Jeffrey Kessler Files against NCAA, ESPN.com, March 18, at
http://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/_/id/10620388/anti-trust-claim-filed-jeffrey-kessler-challenges-
ncaa-amateur-model.
Feddersen, Arne , and Wolfgang Maennig . 2012. Sectoral Labour Market Effects of the 2006 FIFA World
Cup, Labour Economics, 19(6): 860869.
Feddersen, Arne , and Wolfgang Maennig . 2013. Mega-Events and Sectoral Employment: The Case of the
1996 Olympic Games, Contemporary Economic Policy, 31(3): 580603.
Feldman, Louis . 2001. Financing the Colosseum, Biblical Archaeology Review, 27(4), July/August, at
https://members.bib-arch.org/biblical-archaeology-review/27/4/1.
Feloni, Richard . 2015. How Mark Cuban Turned the Dallas Mavericks Franchise around by Treating It Like a
Startup, Business Insider, April 21, at http://www.businessinsider.com/how-mark-cuban-turned-around-
dallas-mavericks-2015-4.
Ferretti, Christine . 2015. John Oliver Challenges Funding of New Red Wings Arena, The Detroit News, July
13.
Ferro, Shane . 2015. Heres Why Its Fair That Female Athletes Make Less Than Men, Business Insider: UK,
July 7, at http://uk.businessinsider.com/womens-small-soccer-salaries-are-fair-2015-7?IR=T.
Finley, Jeff . 2012. Utah A.G. Drops Investigation of College Footballs BCS System for Now, Deseret News,
October 27, at http://www.deseretnews.com/article/865565434/Utah-AG-drops-antitrust-investigation-of-
college-footballs-BCS-system--for-now.html.
Finley, Moses , and H.W. Pleket . 1976. The Olympic Games: The First Thousand Years. New York: Viking
Press.
Flohr, Andrew . 2015. The Gentrification of Oracle Arena, SBNation, December 22, at
https://www.goldenstateofmind.com/2015/12/22/9775912/NBA-ticket-prices-2015-golden-state-warriors-
christmas.
Flyvbjerg, Bent , and Allison Stewart . 2012. Olympic Proportions: Cost and Cost Overrun at the Olympics
19602012, Sad Business School, Working Paper, University of Oxford.
Foer, Franklin . 2004. How Soccer Explains the World: An Unlikely Theory of Globalization. New York:
HarperCollins.
Forbes.com . 2014. DirecTV Extends Its Deal with NFL for $12 Billion, October 8, at
https://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2014/10/08/directv-extends-its-deal-with-nfl-for-12-
billion/#f6de4c1639b8.
Forbes.com . The Business of Baseball: 2016 Ranking, at http://www.forbes.com/mlb-valuations/list/,
accessed December 10, 2016.
Forbes.com . The Business of Basketball: 2016 Ranking, at http://www.forbes.com/nba-valuations/list/,
accessed December 10, 2016.
Forbes.com . The Business of Football: 2016 Ranking, at http://www.forbes.com/nfl-valuations/list/, accessed
December 10, 2016.
Forbes.com . The Business of Hockey: 2016 Ranking, at http://www.forbes.com/nhl-valuations/list/,
accessed December 10, 2016.
374 Forbes.com . The Business of Soccer: 2016 Ranking, at http://www.forbes.com/soccer-valuations/list/,
accessed December 10, 2016.
Forbes.com . #204 Mark Cuban, at http://www.forbes.com/profile/mark-cuban/, accessed May 27, 2017.
Forbes.com . Dallas Mavericks, at http://www.forbes.com/teams/dallas-mavericks/, accessed February 2017.
Forbes.com . The Worlds Highest-Paid Celebrities, at https://www.forbes.com/celebrities/list/#tab:overall,
accessed April 15, 2017.
Forsyth, Jennifer S . 2009. American Needle Throws Downfield in NFL Licensing Dispute, Law Blog: The
Wall Street Journal, September 18, at http://blogs.wsj.com/law/2009/09/18/american-needle-throws-
downfield-in-nfl-licensing-dispute/.
Fort, Rodney , and Andrew Gill . 2000. Race and Ethnicity Assessment in Baseball Card Markets, Journal of
Sports Economics, 1(1), February: 2138.
Fort, Rodney , Young Hoon Lee , and David Berri . 2008. Race, Technical Efficiency, and Retention: The
Case of NBA Coaches, International Journal of Sport Finance, 3(2), May: 8497.
Fort, Rodney , and Robert Rosenman . 1999. Streak Management, in Sports Economics: Current Research,
ed. J. Fizel , E. Gustafson , and L. Hadley . Westport, CT: Praeger.
Fortune.com. Fortune 500, at http://beta.fortune.com/fortune500/list/.
Frank, Robert , and Philip Cook . 1995. The Winner-Take-All Society. New York: The Free Press.
Frick, Bernd , and Brad Humphreys . Prize Structure and Performance: Evidence from NAS CAR, University
of Alberta Working Paper, at
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254448375_Prize_Structure_and_Performance_Evidence_from_N
ASCAR.
Frick, Bernd , and Joachim Prinz . 2007. Pay and Performance in Professional Road Running: The Case of
City Marathons, International Journal of Sport Finance, 2(1), February: 2535.
Frommer, Harvey . 1982. Rickey and Robinson. New York: Macmillan.
Gaines, Cork . 2014. A Luxury Suite at the New 49ers Stadium Will Cost You $60,000, Business Insider,
October 22, at http://www.businessinsider.com/49ers-stadium-suites-nfl-2014-10.
Gayer, Ted , Austin J. Drukker , and Alexander K. Gold . 2016. Tax-Exempt Municipal Bonds and the
Financing of Professional Sports Stadiums, Economic Studies at Brookings, September.
Gbadamosi, Faruq . 2015. The Economics of Nikes Air Jordan Brand, The Market Mogul, September 19, at
http://themarketmogul.com/the-economics-of-nikes-air-jordan-brand/.
Gerencer, Tom . 2016. How Much Money Do NFL Players Make? Money Nation, January 5, at
http://moneynation.com/how-much-money-do-nfl-players-make/.
Gerrard, Bill . 2007. Is the Moneyball Approach Transferrable to Complex Invasion Sports? International
Journal of Sport Finance, 2(4), November: 214230.
Gibson, Charlotte , Jim Keller , and Sachin Dave Chandan . 2017. Whos the Highest-Paid Public Employee
in Every State? ESPN.com, March 30, at http://www.espn.com/espn/feature/story/_/id/19019077/highest-
paid-us-employees-dominated-college-football-college-basketball-coaches.
Giesecke, James , and John Madden . 2011. Modelling the Economic Impacts of the Sydney Olympics in
RetrospectGame Over for the Bonanza Story? Economic Papers, 30(2), June: 218232.
Gilbert, Susan . 1996. The Smallest Olympians Face the Biggest Risks, New York Times, July 28: E4.
Gitter, Seth , and Thomas Rhoads . 2014. Stadium Construction and Minor League Baseball Attendance,
Contemporary Economic Policy, 32(1), January: 144154.
Gius, Mark , and Donn Johnson . 1998. An Empirical Investigation of Wage Discrimination in Professional
Basketball, Applied Economics Letters, 5(11), November: 703705.
Gneezy, Uri , and Aldo Rustichini . 2004. Gender and Competition at a Young Age, American Economic
Review, 94(2), May: 377381.
375 Gramm, Cynthia , and John Schnell . 1994. Difficult Choices: Crossing the Picket Line during the 1987
National Football League Strike, Journal of Labor Economics, 12(1), January: 4171.
Gregory, Sean , and Steve Goldberg . 2009. Daytona Drag: NASCAR Tries to Outrace the Recession, Time,
February 12, at www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1879136,00.html.
Grenoble, Ryan . 2014. UConn Basketball Player Speaks of Hungry Nights, Going to Bed Starving,
Huffington Post, April 7, at http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/04/07/shabazz-napier-hungry-uconn-
basketball_n_5106132.html.
Groothuis, Peter , Bruce Johnson , and John Whitehead . 2004. Public Funding of Professional Sports
Stadiums: Public Choice or Civic Pride? Eastern Economic Journal, 30(4), Fall: 515526.
Gurney, Gerald S. , and Richard M. Southall . 2012. College Sports Bait and Switch, ESPN. com, August 9,
at http://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/_/id/8248046/college-sports-programs-find-multitude-ways-
game-ncaa-apr.
Guttman, Allen . 1991. The Anomaly of Intercollegiate Athletics, in Rethinking College Athletics, ed. Judith
Andre and David James . Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press: 1730.
Hakes, Jahn , and Christopher Clapp . 2006. The Edifice Complex: The Economics of Public Subsidization of
Major League Baseball Facilities, The International Journal of Sport Finance, 1(2): 7795.
Hakes, Jahn , and Raymond Sauer . 2006. An Economic Evaluation of the Moneyball Hypothesis, Journal of
Economic Perspectives, 20(3), Summer: 173185.
Hamilton, Barton H. 1997. Racial Discrimination and Professional Basketball Salaries in the 1990s, Applied
Economics, 29(3), March: 287296.
Hamilton, Bruce , and Peter Kahn . 1997. Baltimores Camden Yards Ballparks, in Sports, Jobs, and Taxes,
ed. Roger G. Noll and Andrew Zimbalist . Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press: 245281.
Hamrick, Jeff , and John Rasp . 2015. The Connection between Race and Called Strikes and Balls, Journal
of Sports Economics, 16(7), October: 714734.
Hanssen, Andrew F. , and Torben Anderson . 1999. Has Discrimination Lessened over Time? A Test Using
Baseballs All-Star Vote, Economic Inquiry, 37(2), April: 326352.
Harasta, Cathy . 2002. Romney Shows His Mettle, Dallas Morning News, February 17.
Harris, David . 1986. The League: The Rise and Decline of the NFL. New York: Bantam Books.
Harris, Nick . 2015. Club by Club Guide to the Premier Leagues Financial Health: Find Out What State Your
Club Is in with Our Graphic, Daily Mail, March 28, at http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/football/article-
3016432/Club-club-guide-Premier-League-sfinancial-health.html.
Hatab, Lawrence . 1991. The Greeks and the Meaning of Athletics, in Rethinking College Athletics, ed.
Judith Andre and David James . Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press: 3142.
Haugen, Kjetil K. 2004. The Performance Enhancing Drug Game, Journal of Sports Economics, 5(1),
February: 6786.
Haupert, Michael J. 2015. The Economic History of Major League Baseball, at
https://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-economic-history-of-major-league-baseball/.
Hayes, Beth . 1984. Unions and Strikes with Asymmetric Information, Journal of Labor Economics, 2(1),
January: 5784.
Heintel, Robert . 1996. The Need for an Alternative to Antitrust Regulation of the National Football League,
Case Western Reserve Law Review, 46(4), Summer: 10331069.
Helgeson, Baird , and Jennifer Brooks . 2012. After Years of Dealing and Debate, Vikings Get Their Biggest
Win, Minnesota Star-Tribune, May 11, at http://www.startribune.com/politics/statelocal/150960525.html.
Heller, Lauren , and E. Frank Stephenson . 2017. If You Host It Will They Come? The Effect of the Super
Bowl on Host City Hotel Occupancy, Working Paper, April.
Helyar, John . 1994. Lords of the Realm. New York: Villard Books.
Hepp, Christopher . 1999. Near Fabled Park, Ambience a Lure, Philadelphia Inquirer, September 29: A1-A6.
376 Hobson, Will , and Steven Rich . 2015. As College Sports Revenues Spike, Coaches Arent the Only
Ones Cashing In, Washington Post, December 29, at https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/as-college-
sports-revenues-spike-coaches-arent-only-ones-cashing-in/2015/12/29/bbdb924e-ae15-11e5-9ab0-
884d1cc4b33e_story.html?utm_term=.f833819885c8.
Hoffer, Adam , and Ryan Freidel . 2014. Does Salary Discrimination Persist for Foreign Players in the NBA?
Applied Economics Letters, 21(1), February: 15.
Hoffer, Adam , Brad R. Humphreys , Donald J. Lacombe , and Jane E. Ruseski . 2015. Trends in NCAA
Athletic Spending: Arms Race or Rising Tide? Journal of Sports Economics, 16(6), August: 576596.
Hotchkiss, Julie , Robert Moore , and Stephanie Zobay . 2003. Impact of the 1996 Summer Olympic Games
on Employment and Wages in Georgia, Southern Economic Journal, 69(3): 691704.
Humphreys, Brad . 2002. Alternative Measures of Competitive Balance, Journal of Sports Economics, 3(2),
May: 133148.
Humphreys, Brad . 2003. The ANOVA-Based Competitive Balance Measure: A Reply, Journal of Sports
Economics, 4(1), February: 8182.
Humphreys, Brad , and Xia Feng . 2012. The Impact of Sports Facilities on Housing Values: Evidence from
Census Block Group Data, City, Culture and Society, 3(3), September: 189200.
Humphreys, Brad , and Michael Mondello . 2007. Intercollegiate Athletic Success and Donations at NCAA
Division I Institutions, Journal of Sport Management, 21(2), April: 265280.
Humphreys, Brad , and Hyunwoong Pyun . 2017. Monopsony Exploitation in Professional Sport: Evidence
from Major League Baseball Position Players, 20002011, Managerial and Decision Economics, 38(5), July:
676688.
Humphreys, Brad , and Jane Ruseski . 2011. Socio-Economic Determinants of Adolescent Use of
Performance Enhancing Drugs: Evidence from the YRBSS, The Journal of Socio-Economics, 40(2), April:
208216.
Humphreys, Jeffrey . 1994. The Economic Impact of Hosting Super Bowl XXVIII on Georgia, Georgia
Business and Economic Conditions, MayJune: 1821.
Humphreys, Jeffrey , and M. Plummer . 1995. The Economic Impact on the State of Georgia of Hosting the
1996 Summer Olympic Games. Athens: Selig Center for Economic Growth, University of Georgia.
IEGSR . 2015. Sponsorship Spending on MLB Totals $778 Million in 2015 Season, Sponsorship.com,
November 9, at http://www.sponsorship.com/iegsr/2015/11/09/Sponsorship-Spending-On-MLB-Totals-$778-
Million-In.aspx.
International Ice Hockey Federation , Swede Ulf Sterner The First European in the NHL, The IIHF 100-Year
Anniversary, Ice Hockey Federation, at http://www.iihf.com/iihf-home/the-iihf/100-year-anniversary/100-top-
stories/story-70/.
International Olympic Committee . 2010. Factsheet: Legacies of the Games, UpdateJanuary 2010, at
http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Reference_documents_Factsheets/Legacy.pdf.
Irani, Daraius . 1996. Estimating Consumer Discrimination Using Panel Data: 19721991, in Baseball
Economics: Current Research, ed. John Fizel , Elizabeth Gustafson , and Lawrence Hadley . Westport, CT:
Praeger.
Ivins, Molly , and Lou Dubose . 2000. Shrub: The Short but Happy Political Life of George W. Bush. New
York: Vintage Books.
Jane, Wen-jhan . 2015. Customer Discrimination and Outcome Uncertainty in the World Baseball Classic:
The Case of the Taiwanese Television Audience, in The Sports Business in the Pacific Rim, ed. Young Hoon
Lee and Rodney Fort . Heidelberg: Springer: 103122.
Jansen, Steve . 2017. The Super Bowl May Bring a $500 Million Boost to Houston, or None at All, Houston
Press, January 31, at http://www.houstonpress.com/news/the-super-bowl-may-bring-a-500-million-boost-to-
houston-or-none-at-all-9156999.
Japans Earthquake and Tsunami Hit Parts Supplies, Motor Trend, June 2011, at
http://www.motortrend.com/features/auto_news/2011/1106_japan_earthquake_tsunami_hit_parts_supplies/v
iewall.html.
377 Jenkins, Jeffrey A. 1996. A Reexamination of Salary Determination in Professional Basketball, Social
Science Quarterly, 77(3), September: 594608.
Jewel, Todd R. , and David Molina . 2004. Productive Efficiency and Salary Distribution: The Case of U.S.
Major League Baseball, Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 51(1), February: 127142.
Joe Louis (Barrow), Arlington National Cemetery Website, July 27, 2009, at
http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/joelouis.htm.
Johnson, Bruce K. , and John C. Whitehead . 2012. Contingent Valuation of Sports, in The Oxford Handbook
of Sports Economics, ed. Stephen Shmanske and Leo Kahane . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Johnson, John . 1996. When a Professional Sport Is Not a Business: Baseballs Infamous Antitrust
Exemption, in Sports and the Law, ed. Charles Quirk . New York: Garland: 149165.
Jones, J.C.H. , and William D. Walsh . 1987. The World Hockey Association and Player Exploitation in the
National Hockey League, Quarterly Review of Economics and Business, 27(2), Summer: 87101.
Jones, Richard , and Don Walker . 2000. Packer Boss Warns of Move if Stadium Doesnt Get Upgrade,
Milwaukee Sentinel Journal, March 1.
Jordan, Mary , and Kevin Sullivan . 1999. Nagano Burned Documents Tracing 98 Olympics Bid, Washington
Post Foreign Service, January 21: A1.
Jude, Adam . 2015. UW, Alaska Airlines Agree to Naming-Rights Deal for Husky Stadiums Field, The Seattle
Times, September 2, at http://www.seattletimes.com/sports/uw-husky-football/uw-alaska-airlines-agree-to-
naming-rights-deal-for-husky-stadium/.
Justia US Supreme Court . United States v. International Boxing Club. 348 U.S. 236 (1955), at
https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/348/236/case.html#241.
Kahane, Leo , Neil Longley , and Robert Simmons . 2013. The Effects of Coworker Heterogeneity on Firm-
Level Output: Assessing the Impacts of Cultural and Language Diversity in the National Hockey League,
Review of Economics and Statistics, 95(1), March: 302314.
Kahn, Lawrence M. 1991. Discrimination in Professional Sports: A Survey of the Literature, ILR Review,
44(3), April: 395418.
Kahn, Lawrence M. 1992. The Effects of Race on Professional Football Players Compensation, Industrial
Labor Relations Review, 45(2), January: 295310.
Kahn, Lawrence M. 2006. Race, Performance, Pay, and Retention among National Basketball Association
Head Coaches, Journal of Sports Economics, 7(2), May: 119149.
Kahn, Lawrence M. , and Peter Sherer . 1988. Racial Differences in Professional Basketball Players
Compensation, Journal of Labor Economics, 6(1), January: 4061.
Kahn, Roger . 1993. The Era: 19471957. New York: Ticknor and Fields.
Kahneman, Daniel . 2011. Thinking Fast and Slow. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Kamada, Takuma , and Hajime Katayama . 2014. Team Performance and Within-Team Salary Disparity: An
Analysis of Nippon Professional Baseball, Economics Bulletin, 34(1): 144151.
Kanazawa, Mark T. , and Jonas P. Funk . 2001. Racial Discrimination in Professional Basketball: Evidence
from Nielsen Ratings, Economics Inquiry, 39(4), October: 599608.
Kane, Martin . 1972. Scorecard, SIVault, August 14, at
https://www.si.com/vault/1972/08/14/613127/scorecard.
Kaplan, Daniel . 2015. Dynamic Ticket Pricing Makes Successful Debut in NFL, Street and Smiths Sports
Business Journal, October 26, at http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2015/10/26/Leagues-
and-Governing-Bodies/NFL-dynamic.aspx.
Kaszuba, Mike , and Rochelle Olson . 2014. NFL Had a Long, Pricey and Secret Super Bowl Wish List for
Minneapolis, Star Tribune, June 9.
Kidd, Bruce. 1984. The Myth of the Ancient Games, in Five Ring Circus: Money, Power and Politics at the
Olympic Games, ed. Alan Tomlinson and Garry Whannel . London: Pluto Press: 7183.
Kindelain, Katie. 2012. Kentucky Students Riot after NCAA Championship Win, ABCNews. com, April 3, at
http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/04/kentucky-students-riot-after-ncaa-championship-win.
378 Kinsella, W.P. 1999. Shoeless Joe. New York: Mariner Books.
Klein, Christopher. 2016. College Footballs Most Lopsided Game. History in the Headlines, October 7, at
http://www.history.com/news/college-footballs-most-lopsided-game.
Klein, Eugene. 1987. First Down and a Billion: The Funny Business of Pro Football. New York: Morrow.
Knight, Phil. 2016. Shoe Dog. New York: Scribner.
Knoblauch, Austin. 2016. NFL Salary Cap Set at $155.27 Million for 2016, NFL.com, February 26, at
http://www.nfl.com/news/story/0ap3000000639226/article/nfl-salary-cap-set-at-15527-million-for-2016.
Knowles, Glenn , Keith Sherony , and Mike Haupert . 1992. The Demand for Major League Baseball: A Test
of the Uncertainty of Outcome Hypothesis, American Economist, 36(2), Fall: 7280.
Komisarchik, Mayya , and Aju Fenn . 2010. Trends in Stadium and Arena Construction, 1995-2015,
Colorado College Working Paper, April 5, 2010.
Koren, James Rufus , and Roger Vincent . 2017. How Much Could the Rams and Chargers Make in Their
New Stadium? We Ran the Numbers, Los Angeles Times, February 11, at
http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-rams-chargers-revenue-20170211-story.html.
Korr, Charles. 1991. Marvin Miller and the New Unionism in Baseball, in The Business of Professional
Sports, ed. Paul Staudohar and James Mangan . Urbana: University of Illinois Press: 115134.
Krautmann, Anthony. 1999. Whats Wrong with Scully-Estimates of a Players Marginal Revenue Product,
Economic Inquiry, 37(2), April: 369381.
Krautmann, Anthony C ., and David C. Berri . 2007. Can We Find It in the Concessions: Understanding Price
Elasticity in Professional Sports, Journal of Sports Economics, 8(2), May: 183191.
Krautmann, Anthony C ., Peter von Allmen , and David Berri . 2009. The Underpayment of Restricted
Players in North American Sports Leagues, International Journal of Sport Finance, 4(3), August: 7593.
Kuklick, Bruce. 1991. To Everything a Season: Shibe Park and Urban Philadelphia, 19091976. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press.
La Franco, Robert. 1997. Profits on Ice, Forbes, May 5: 8689.
Lambrinos, James , and Thomas D. Ashman . 2007. Salary Determination in the National Hockey League: Is
Arbitration Efficient? Journal of Sports Economics, 8(2), April: 192201.
Lane, Erin , Juan Nagel , and Janet S. Netz . 2014. Alternative Approaches to Measuring MRP: Are All Mens
College Basketball Players Exploited? Journal of Sports Economics, 14(3), June: 237262.
Lang, Jack. 2015. Mane Garrincha Stadium in Brasilia Being Used as a BUS DEPOT Less than a Year after
2014 World Cup, The Mirror, March 7, at http://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/football/news/mane-garrincha-
stadium-brasilia-being-5289603.
Lapchick, Richard E ., and DaWon Baker . 2015. The 2015 Racial and Gender Report Card: College Sport,
The Institute for Ethics and Diversity in Sport, at http://www.tidesport.org/college-sport.html.
Lapchick, Richard E ., Nikki Bowey , and Ray Matthew . 2015. 2015 Racial and Gender Report Card: Major
League Baseball, The Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport, April 15, at http://www.tidesport.org/mlb-
rgrc.html.
Lapchick, Richard E ., Juan Dominguez , Lizzie Haldane , Erika Loomer , and Jonathan Pelts . 2014The
2014 Racial and Gender Report Card: Major League Soccer, The Institute for Ethics and Diversity in Sport,
at http://www.tidesport.org/mls-rgrc.html.
Lapchick, Richard E ., and Angelica Guiao . 2015. The 2015 Racial and Gender Report Card: National
Basketball Association, The Institute for Ethics and Diversity in Sport, at http://www.tidesport.org/racial-and-
gender-report-cards.html.
Lapchick, Richard E ., and Natalie Nelson . 2015. The 2015 Racial and Gender Report Card: Womens
National Basketball Association, The Institute for Ethics and Diversity in Sport, at
http://www.tidesport.org/wnba-rgrc.html.
Lapchick, Richard E ., and Leroy Robinson . 2015. The 2015 Racial and Gender Report Card: National
Football League, The Institute for Ethics and Diversity in Sport, at http://www.tidesport.org/nfl-rgrc.html.
379 Lapchick, Richard E ., and Diego Salas . 2015. The 2015 Racial and Gender Report Card: Major League
Baseball, The Institute for Ethics and Diversity in Sport, at http://www.tidesport.org/mlb-rgrc.html.
Latta, Scott. 2006. Game-Day Inside Peek: Skyboxes Provide Alabamas Most Luxurious Look, Alabama
Crimson Tide, November 17, at
http://www.rolltide.com/news/2006/11/17/Game_Day_Inside_Peek_Skyboxes_Provide_Alabama_s_Most_Lu
xurious_Look.aspx.
Lavoie, Marc. 2000. The Location of Pay Discrimination in the National Hockey League, Journal of Sports
Economics, 1(4), November: 401411.
Lawrence, Paul. 1987. Unsportsmanlike Conduct: The National Collegiate Athletic Association and the
Business of College Football. New York: Praeger.
Lazear, Edward , and Sherwin Rosen . 1981. Rank Order Tournaments as Optimum Labor Contracts,
Journal of Political Economy, 89(5), October: 841864.
Leadley, John C ., and Zenon X. Zygmont . 2005. When Is the Honeymoon Over? Major League Baseball
Attendance 19702000, Journal of Sport Management, 19(3), July: 278299.
Leadley, John C ., and Zenon X. Zygmont . 2005. When Is the Honeymoon Over? National Basketball
Association Attendance 19712000, Journal of Sports Economics, 6(2), May: 203221.
Leadley, John C ., and Zenon X. Zygmont . 2006. When Is the Honeymoon Over? National Hockey League
Attendance 19702003, Canadian Public Policy, 32(2), June: 213232.
Leeds, Eva Marikova , and Michael A. Leeds . 2012. Event Analysis, in The Oxford Handbook of Sports
Economics, vol. 2, ed. Stephen Shmanske and Leo Kahane . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Leeds, Eva Marikova , Michael A. Leeds , and Irina Pistolet . 2007. A Stadium by Any Other Name, Journal
of Sports Economics, 8(6), December: 581595.
Leeds, Michael A. 1987. Bargaining as Search Behavior under Mutual Uncertainty, Southern Economic
Journal, 53(3), January: 677684.
Leeds, Michael A. 2008. Salary Caps and Luxury Taxes in Professional Sports Leagues, in The Business of
Sports, vol. 2, ed. Brad R. Humphreys and Dennis R. Howard. Westport , CT: Praeger: 181206.
Leeds, Michael A. 2008. Do Good Olympics Make Good Neighbors? Contemporary Economic Policy, 26(3),
July: 460467.
Leeds, Michael A. 2015. Youth Sports and the Accumulation of Human Capital, IZA World of Labor,
February, at http://wol.iza.org/articles/youth-sports-and-accumulation-of-human-capital/long.
Leeds, Michael , John Mirikitani , and Danna Tang . 2009. Rational Exuberance? An Event Analysis of the
2008 Olympic Announcement, International Journal of Sport Finance, 4(1), February: 515.
Legal Information Institute. Cornell University Law School , at https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/15/1.
Leifer, Eric. 1995. Making the Majors: The Transformation of Team Sports in America. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Lewis, Michael. 2003. Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game. New York: W.W. Norton.
Lewis, Michael. 2006. The Blind Side: Evolution of a Game. New York: W.W. Norton.
Litan, Robert , Jonathan Orszag , and Peter Orszag . 2003. The Empirical Effects of College Athletics: An
Interim Report, Sebago Associates, at http://www.sc.edu/faculty/PDF/baseline.pdf.
Lombardo, John. 2012. Inside NBAs Revenue Sharing: How Complex Plan Will Shift $140 Million to Needy
Teams, Street and Smiths Sports Business Journal, January 23, at
http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2012/01/23/Leagues-and-Governing-Bodies/NBA-
revenue.aspx.
Long, James , and Steven Caudill . 1991. The Impact of Participation in Intercollegiate Athletics on Income
and Graduation, Review of Economics and Statistics, 73(3), August: 525531.
Long, Judith Grant. 2004. Public Funding for Major League Sports Facilities Data Series: A History of Public
Funding, 1890 to 2005, Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, Center for Urban Policy
Research Working Paper Series.
380 Long, Judith Grant . 2012. Public/Private Partnerships for Major League Sports Facilities. New York:
Routledge Research in Sport Business and Management.
Longman, Jere. 1998. Nagano 1998: Seven Days to GoHigh Costs and High Expectations, New York Times,
January 30.
Lorge, Barry. 1990. Kroc Wanted to Give Padres to City, San Diego Union-Tribune, July 29: H1.
MacCambridge, Michael. 2004. Americas Game: The Epic Story of How Pro Football Captured a Nation.
New York: Random House.
Madden, Janice Fanning. 2004. Differences in the Success of NFL Coaches by Race, 19902002: Evidence
of Last Hire, First Fire, Journal of Sports Economics, 5(1), February: 619.
Madden, Janice Fanning , and Matthew Ruther . 2011. Has the NFLs Rooney Rule Efforts Leveled the Field
for African American Head Coach Candidates? Journal of Sports Economics, 12(2), April: 127142.
Maennig, Wolfgang , and Felix Richter . 2012. Exports and Olympics Games: Is There a Signal Effect?
Journal of Sports Economics, 13(6): 635641.
Major League Soccer , at www.mlssoccer.com.
Mandell, Richard. 1972. The Nazi Olympics. New York: Ballantine Books.
Maraniss, David. 2008. Rome 1960: The Olympics That Changed the World. New York: Simon and
Schuster.
Margolick, David . 2005. Beyond Glory: Joe Louis vs. Max Schmeling, and a World on the Brink. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf.
Mark Cuban, Bio.com, at http://www.biography.com/people/mark-cuban-562656.
Mark Cuban Wont Sell the Mavericks for Any Amount of Money, SI.com, June 30, 2016, at
http://www.si.com/nba/2016/06/30/mark-cuban-dallas-mavericks-wont-sell-any-amount.
Marks Bio, at http://markcubancompanies.com/about.html.
Martin, Charles . 1997. Integrating New Years Day: The Racial Politics of College Bowl Games in the
American South, Journal of Sport History, 24(3), Fall: 358377.
Matheson, Victor . 2006. Professional Sports, in Encyclopedia of American Business History, ed. Charles
Geisst . New York: Facts on File: 403408.
Matheson, Victor . 2008. Mega-Events: The Effect of the Worlds Biggest Sporting Events on Local, Regional,
and National Economies, in The Business of Sports, vol. 1, ed. Dennis Howard and Brad Humphreys .
Westport, CT: Praeger: 8199.
Matheson, Victor , Debra OConnor , and Joseph Herberger . 2012. The Bottom Line: Accounting for
Revenues and Expenditures in Intercollegiate Athletics, International Journal of Sport Finance, 7(1),
February: 3045.
Mathews, Karen . 2006. Yankees Break Ground on New $1 Billion Stadium, USAToday. com, August 16, at
http://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/al/yankees/2006-08-16-stadium-groundbreaking_x.htm.
McCann, Michael . 2016. In Denying OBannon Case, Supreme Court Leaves Future of Amateurism in
Limbo, Sports Illustrated, October 3, at https://www.si.com/college-basketball/2016/10/03/ed-obannon-ncaa-
lawsuit-supreme-court.
McGrath, Ben . 2009. The Extortionist, The New Yorker, October 29, at
http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/10/29/071029fa_fact_mcgrath.
McGraw, Dan . 2003. The Foreign Invasion of the American Game, The Village Voice, May 28June 3, at
https://www.villagevoice.com/2003/05/27/the-foreign-invasion-of-the-american-game/.
McManimon, Kevin . 2006. The House That Debt Built: Will the IRS Allow Cities to Finance Construction of
Stadiums on a Tax-Exempt Basis? McManimon and Scotland, LLC, May 29, at
http://www.mandslaw.com/articles/the-house-that-debt-built-will-the-irs-allow-cities-to-finance-construction-
of-stadiums-on-a-tax-exempt-basis/.
Mead, Chris . 1985. Triumphs and Trials, SIVault, September 23, at
https://www.si.com/vault/issue/43501/78/2.
Meyer, Joe . 2009. The Roman Colosseum, March 10, at http://www.synthreal.com/Colosseum.htm.
Michener, James . 1976. Sports in America. New York: Random House.
Mickle, Tripp , and Terry Lefton . 2009. Several Leagues Later, Debate on Single Entity Model Still Lively,
SportsBusinessJournal.com, June 8, at http://www.sportsbusiness-journal.com/article59720.
381 Miller, James . 1990. The Baseball Business: Pursuing Pennants and Profits in Baltimore. Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press.
Miller, Marvin . 1991. A Whole Different Ballgame: The Sport and Business of Baseball. Secaucus, NJ: Carol
Publishing Group.
Minium, Harry . 2016. Conference USA TV Revenue to Plummet to $2.8 Million Per Year, The Virginian-
Pilot, June 7, at http://pilotonline.com/sports/college/old-dominion/football/conference-usa-tv-revenue-to-
plummet-to-million-per-year/article_1dd435cb-800e-574d-be6d-0afa42d957e7.html.
Mitchell, Houston . 2015. Yogi Berra Dies at 90: Here Are Some of His Greatest Quotes, Los Angeles Times,
September 22.
MLB . 2016. Details of MLB, MLBPA Labor Agreement, MLB.com, December 4, at
http://m.mlb.com/news/article/210125462/details-of-mlb-mlbpa-labor-agreement/.
MLB , 2012-2016 MLB, MLBPA Basic Agreement, at
https://ipmall.law.unh.edu/sites/default/files/hosted_resources/SportsEntLaw_Institute/2012MLB_MLBPA_C
BA.pdf.
MLB Attendance Report2011, ESPN.com, at http://www.espn.com/mlb/attendance/_/year/2011.
MLB Attendance Report2016, ESPN.com, at http://www.espn.com/mlb/attendance/_/year/2016.
MLB.com , Standings, at http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/standings/index.jsp?tcid=mm_mlb_standings#19960929.
MLB.com , World Series History: Championships by Club, at
http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/history/postseason/mlb_ws.jsp?feature=club_champs.
MLB Confidential: The Financial Documents MLB Doesnt Want You to See, Part 1, Dead-spin, August 23,
2010, at http://deadspin.com/5615096.
MLB Confidential Part 2: Seattle Mariners, Deadspin, August 23, 2010, at http://deadspin.com/5619509.
MLB Fines and Suspensions. 2017. Spotrac, at http://www.spotrac.com/mlb/fines-suspensions/.
MLB Standings2011, ESPN.com, at http://www.espn.com/mlb/standings/_/seasontype/2/season/2011.
MLB Trade Rumors . 2016. Arbitration Tracker for 2016, MLB TradeRumors, at
http://www.mlbtraderumors.com/arbtracker2016.
Money & Company . 2011. Yankee Stadiums Troubled Tax-Free Financing, LATimes.com, June 17, at
http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/money_co/2011/06/yankee-stadiums-troubled-tax-free-financing-.html.
Mongeon, Kevin . 2015. A Market Test for Ethnic Discrimination in the National Hockey League: A Game-
Level Panel Data Approach, Journal of Sports Economics, 15(5), June: 460481.
Morgan, Jon . 1997. Glory for Sale: Fans, Dollars, and the New NFL. Baltimore, MD: Bancroft Press.
Munsey, Paul , and Corey Suppes . 2017. Ballparks, at http://www.ballparks.com.
Muret, Don . 2015. Football Becomes Classroom at Notre Dame, SportsBusiness Daily, January 12, at
http://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com/Journal/Issues/2015/01/12/In-Depth/Notre-Dame.aspx.
Nack, William . 1999. This Old House, Sports Illustrated, June 7: 100116.
Nardinelli, Clark , and Curtis Simon . 1990. Customer Discrimination in the Market for Memorabilia: The
Case of Baseball, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 105(3), August: 575595.
National Sports Law Institute , Sports Facilities Reports, Marquette University Law School, at
http://law.marquette.edu/national-sports-law-institute/sports-facility-reports.
National Womens Law Center , The Battle for Gender Equity in Athletics in Colleges and Universities, Title
IX and Womens Athletic Opportunity, at
http://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/2011_8_battle_in_college_athletics_final.pdf.
NBA.com . 2015. Salary Cap for 2015-16 Season Jumps to $70 Million, July 8, at
http://www.nba.com/2015/news/07/08/nba-salary-cap-2016-official-release/.
NBA Attendance Report 2015-16, ESPN.com, at http://www.espn.com/nba/attendance/_/year/2016.
382 NCAA . 2014. Football Bowl Subdivision Membership Requirements, NCAA.org, December 8, at
https://www.ncaa.org/sites/default/files/Football%20Bowl%20Subqa%2012%208%2014.pdf.
NCAA . 2016. Division I Student-Athletes Still Making Gains in APR, NCAA.org, April 20, at
http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/media-center/news/division-i-student-athletes-still-making-gains-apr.
NCAA . 2016. Estimated Probability of Competing in Professional Athletics, April 25, at
http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/research/estimated-probability-competing-professional-athletics.
NCAA . 2016. NCAA Sports Sponsorship and Participation Rates Report, at
http://www.ncaapublications.com/productdownloads/PR1516.pdf.
NCAA . Play Division I Sports, NCAA.org, at http://www.ncaa.org/student-athletes/play-division-i-sports.
Neale, Walter C. 1964. The Peculiar Economics of Professional Sports, Quarterly Journal of Economics,
78(1), February: 114.
New York Yankees Attendance Data, Baseball Almanac, at http://www.baseball-
almanac.com/teams/yankatte.shtml.
NFHS News . 2016. High School Sports Participation Increases for 27th Consecutive Year, National
Federation of State High School Associations, September 12, at https://www.nfhs.org/articles/high-school-
sports-participation-increases-for-27th-consecutive-year/.
NFL Fines and Suspensions. 2017. Spotrac, at http://www.spotrac.com/nfl/fines-suspensions/.
NHL Attendance Report 2015-16, ESPN.com, at http://www.espn.com/nhl/attendance/_/year/2016.
NHLPA . Collective Bargaining Agreement between National Hockey League and National Hockey League
Players Association, Article 49, at http://cdn.agilitycms.com/nhlpacom/PDF/NHL_NHLPA_2013_CBA.pdf.
Nightengale, Bob . 2006. Boras Is Baseballs Bigger Deal Man, USA Today, November 14, at
http://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/2006-11-14-boras-cover_x.htm.
Nocera, Joe , and Ben Strauss . 2016. Indentured: The Inside Story of the Rebellion against the NCAA. New
York: Penguin.
Nocera, Joe , and Ben Strauss . 2016. A Reformed Sneaker Pimp Takes on the NCAA, New York Times,
February 12, at https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/14/sports/ncaabasketball/a-reformed-sneaker-pimp-takes-
on-the-ncaa.html.
Noden, Merrell . 1994. Dying to Win, Sports Illustrated, August 8: 5259.
Noll, Roger . 1974. Attendance and Price Setting, in Government and the Sports Business, ed. Roger Noll .
Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
Noll, Roger . 1992. The Economics of Intercollegiate Sports, in Rethinking College Athletics, ed. Judith
Andre and David James . Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press: 197209.
Noll, Roger G. 2003. The Organization of Sports Leagues, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 19(4), Winter:
530551.
Noll, Roger G. , and Andrew Zimbalist . 1997. Build the StadiumCreate the Jobs! In Sports, Jobs, and Taxes,
ed. Roger G. Noll and Andrew Zimbalist . Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press: 154.
Noll, Roger G. , and Andrew Zimbalist . 1997. The Economic Impact of Sports Teams and Facilities, in
Sports, Jobs, and Taxes, ed. Roger G. Noll and Andrew Zimbalist . Washington, DC: Brookings Institution
Press: 5591.
Notre Dame Fighting Irish Premium Seating, Premium Seating, at http://www.premiumseating.com/notre-
dame-fighting-irish-football-luxury-suites.
OHara, Jane . 1998. In the Name of Greed, Macleans, January 19: 2224.
Open to All: Title IX at Thirty, Report of the Secretary of Educations Commission on Opportunity in Athletics,
February 28, 2003, at https://www2.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/athletics/title9report.pdf: 19.
Orlando Sentinel . 2005. Cruise Ships Supply Citys Super Bowl Room Service, February 3.
383 Ozanian, Mike . 2016. The NFLs Most Valuable Teams 2016, Forbes.com, September 14, at
https://www.forbes.com/sites/mikeozanian/2016/09/14/the-nfls-most-valuable-teams-2016/.
Pace, Levi . 2006. Economic Impact of the 2002 Olympic Winter Games, Policy Brief: 07-25-2006, at
http://gardner.utah.edu/_documents/publications/econ-dev/olympics-econ-impact.pdf.
Padawer, Ruth . 2016. The Humiliating Practice of Sex-Testing Female Athletes, New York Times, June 28,
at https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/03/magazine/the-humiliating-practice-of-sex-testing-female-
athletes.html.
Pallotta, Frank , and Brian Stelter . 2016. NFL Makes Enormous Thursday Night Football Deal with NBC and
CBS, CNN.com, February 1, at http://money.cnn.com/2016/02/01/media/thursday-night-football-nbc-cbs-
deal/.
Parrish, Paula . 2002. Leap of Faith: Mitt Romney Embraces Challenges, and This Might Be His Biggest
One, Rocky Mountain News, February 4: 8S.
Paserman, M. Daniele . 2010. Gender Differences in Performance in Competitive Environments? Evidence
from Professional Tennis Players, IZA Discussion Paper 2834.
Patra, Kevin . 2017. What to Know about NFL Franchise Tag Designations, Around the NFL, February 15, at
http://www.nfl.com/news/story/0ap3000000785958/article/what-to-know-about-nfl-franchise-tag-designations.
Peeters, Thomas , Victor Matheson , and Stefan Szymanski . 2014. Tourism and the 2010 World Cup:
Lessons for Developing Countries, Journal of African Economies, 23(2), January: 290320.
Peeters, Thomas , and Stefan Szymanski . 2014. European Football, Economic Policy, 29(78), April:
343390.
Peloquin, Matt . 2012. 2012 NCAA Television Revenue by Conference, CollegeSportsInfo. com, May 10, at
http://collegesportsinfo.com/2012/05/10/2012-ncaa-television-revenue-by-conference/.
Perez, A.J. 2016. The Chicago Cubs Billy Goat Curse Explained, USA Today Sports, October 25, at
http://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/2016/10/25/chicago-cubs-billy-goat-curse-explained/92715898/.
Perez, Matt . 2016. Where MLB Receives Its Revenue, Camden Depot, January 26, at
http://camdendepot.blogspot.com/2016/01/where-mlb-receives-its-revenue.html.
Perez, Stephen J. 2012. Does Intercollegiate Athletics Draw Local Students to a University? Journal of
Sports Economics, 13(2), April: 198206.
Perrotet, Tony . 2004. The Naked Olympics. New York: Random House.
Peter, Josh . 2015. Error Jordan: Key Figures Still Argue over Who Was Responsible for Nike Deal, USA
Today, September 30.
Peter, Josh . 2015. Hosting a Super Bowl a Huge Economic Plum, and Costly, USA Today, January 25, at
https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nfl/2015/01/25/super-bowl-host-cities-economic-impact/22324109/.
Peterson, Robert . 1970. Only the Ball Was White: A History of Legendary Black Players and All-Black
Professional Teams. New York: Gramercy Books.
Philipse, Sander . 2015. Salary Cap Floor Explained: Its Basically Irrelevant, SB-Nation, March 13, at
http://www.bucsnation.com/2015/3/13/8208069/nfl-salary-cap-floor-explained-its-basically-irrelevant.
Poole, Lynn , and Gray Poole . 1963. History of Ancient Olympic Games. New York: Ivan Obolensky, Inc.
Pope, Devin , and Jaren Pope . 2009. The Impact of College Sports Success on the Quantity and Quality of
Student Applications, Southern Economic Journal, 75(3), January: 750780.
Porter, Philip . 1999. Mega-Sporting Events as Municipal Investments: A Critique of Impact Analysis, in
Sports Economics: Current Research, ed. John Fizel , Elizabeth Gustafson , and Larry Hadley . Westport,
CT: Praeger.
Porter, Philip , and Deborah Fletcher . 2008. The Economic Impact of the Olympic Games: Ex Ante
Predictions and Ex Post Reality, Journal of Sport Management, 22(4): 470486.
384 Posner, Richard . 1975. The Social Costs of Monopoly and Regulation, Journal of Political Economy,
83(4), August: 807827.
Powell-Morse, Andrew . 2013. Mark Cuban: King of NBA Fines, Bleacher Report.com, April 25, at
http://bleacherreport.com/articles/1614812-mark-cuban-king-of-nba-fines.
Premier League 2015/16 Attendance, Worldfootball.net, at http://www.worldfootball.net/attendance/eng-
premier-league-2015-2016/1/.
Premium Seating and Hospitality Football, TexasSports.com, at
http://www.texassports.com/sports/2013/7/29/tickets_0729135534.aspx.
Preston, Ian , and Stefan Szymanski . 2000. Racial Discrimination in English Football, Scottish Journal of
Political Economy, 47(4), September: 342363.
Preuss, Holger . 2004. Economics of the Olympic Games. London: Edward Elgar.
Price Better, Qcue, at http://www.qcue.com/#price-better.
Price, Dwain . 2015. Fifteen Years Ago, Mark Cuban Came to Mavericks Rescue, Star Telegram, January 3,
at http://www.star-telegram.com/sports/nba/dallas-mavericks/article5390883.html.
Price, Joseph , Brian Soebbing , David Berri , and Brad Humphreys . 2010. Tournament Incentives, League
Policy, and NBA Team Performance Revisited, Journal of Sports Economics, 11(2), April: 117135.
Price, Joseph , and Justin Wolfers . 2010. Racial Discrimination among NBA Referees, Quarterly Journal of
Economics, 125(4), November: 18591887.
Price, Joshua . 2010. The Effects of Higher Admission Standards on NCAA Student-Athletes: An Analysis of
Proposition 16, Journal of Sports Economics, 11(4), August: 363382.
Prieto, Bianca . 2014. Super Bowl Week Gets Underway: N.Y./N.J. to See Some 400,000 Tourists, Denver
Post, January 27.
Primm, Eric , Nicole Leeper Piquero , Robert M. Regoli , and Alex R. Piquero . 2010. The Role of Race in
Football Card Prices, Social Science Quarterly, 91(1), March: 129142.
Purdy, Dean D. , Stanley Eitzen , and Rick Hufnagel . 1985. Are Athletes Also Students? The Educational
Attainment of College Athletes, in Sport and Higher Education, ed. Donald Chu , Jeffrey Segrave , and
Beverly Becker . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers: 221234.
Quinn, Kevin , Paul B. Bursik , Christopher Borick , and Lisa Raethz . 2003. Do New Digs Mean More Wins?
The Relationship Between a New Venue and a Professional Sports Teams Success, Journal of Sports
Economics, 4(3), August: 167182.
Quirk, James , and Rodney Fort . 1992. Pay Dirt. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Quirk, James , and Rodney Fort . 1999. Hardball. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Randle, Jeff . 2003. Chelsea Owner Seeks Fun and Trophies, BBC News, July 3, at
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3039750.stm.
Rascher, Daniel A. 2008. Franchise Relocation, Expansions, and Mergers in Professional Sports Leagues, in
The Business of Sports Volume 2: Economic Perspectives on Sport, ed. B.H. Humphreys and D.R. Howard .
Westport, CT: Praeger.
Rascher, Daniel A. , Chad D. McEvoy , Mark S. Nagel , and Matthew T. Brown . 2007. Variable Ticket
Pricing in Major League Baseball, Journal of Sport Management, 21(3), July: 407437.
Ray, Edgar W. 1980. The Grand Huckster: Houstons Judge Roy Hofheinz, Genius of the Astro-dome.
Memphis: Memphis State University Press.
Ray, Margaret A. , and Paul W. Grimes . 1993. Jockeying for Position: Winnings and Gender Discrimination
on the Thoroughbred Track, Social Science Quarterly, 74(1), March: 4661.
Record Six Teams to Pay Luxury Tax, Led by Dodgers, USA Today, December 16, 2016, at
http://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/2016/12/16/apnewsbreak-record-6-mlb-teams-to-pay-luxury-
tax/95536006/.
Rehberg, Megan . 2015. Grove City College v. Bell, Law and Higher Education, at
http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/465/555.html
Ribowsky, Mark . 1991. Slick: The Silver and Black Life of Al Davis. New York: Macmillan.
Rice, Lewis . 2002. Games Saver, Harvard Law Bulletin, Spring, at
https://today.law.harvard.edu/feature/games-saver/.
385 Rios, Edwin . 2016. These Are the Actual Costs of the Rio Olympics, Mother Jones, August 5, at
http://www.motherjones.com/media/2016/08/true-cost-rio-summer-olympics-zika.
Rishe, Patrick . 2012. The Best and Worst NFL Teams Regarding Drafting Proficiency, Forbes.com, April 25,
at http://www.forbes.com/sites/prishe/2012/04/25/the-best-and-worst-nfl-teams-in-drafting-collegiate-talent/.
Rishe, Patrick . 2012. Dynamic Pricing: The Future of Ticket Pricing in Sports, Forbes.com, January 6, at
https://www.forbes.com/sites/prishe/2012/01/06/dynamic-pricing-the-future-of-ticket-pricing-in-sports/.
Rismondo, Rene . 2016. Basic Agreement, MLBPlayers.com, June 29, at
http://www.mlbplayers.com/ViewArticle.dbml?DB_OEM_ID=34000&ATCLID=211043009.
Roberts, Gary R. 1992. Antitrust Issues in Professional Sports, in Law of Professional and Amateur Sports,
ed. Gary Uberstine . Deerfield, IL: Clark, Boardman, and Callaghan: 19-119-45.
Roberts, Gary R . 1997. Brown v. Pro Football, Inc.: The Supreme Court Gets It Right for the Wrong
Reasons, Antitrust Bulletin, 42(3), Fall: 595639.
Roberts, Gary R ., Stephen F. Ross , and Robert A. Baade . 1996. Should Congress Stop the Bidding War
for Sports Franchises? Hearing before the Subcommittee on Antitrust, Business Rights, and Competition,
Senate Committee on the Judiciary, August 1. Academics, Heartland Policy, vol. 4 (November 29), at
https://www.heartland.org/_template-assets/documents/publications/3924.pdf.
Romney, Mitt , and Timothy Robinson . 2004. Turnaround: Crisis, Leadership, and the Olympic Games.
Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing.
Rose, Andrew , and Mark Spiegel . 2011. The Olympic Effect, Economic Journal, 121(553): 652677.
Rosen, Dan . 2013. NHL, Rogers Announce Landmark 12-Year Deal, NHL.com, November 26, at
https://www.nhl.com/news/nhl-rogers-announce-landmark-12-year-deal/c-693152.
Rosen, Harvey , and Ted Gayer . 2014. Public Finance. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Rosen, Sherwin . 1981. The Economics of Superstars, American Economic Review, 71(5), December:
845858.
Rosentraub, Mark . 1997. Major League Losers. New York: Basic Books.
Rosentraub, Mark . 1997. Stadiums and Urban Space, in Sports, Jobs, and Taxes, ed. Roger G. Noll and
Andrew Zimbalist . Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press: 178207.
Ross, Stephen F . 2004. Player Restraints and Competition Law throughout the World, Marquette Sports
Law Review, 15(1), Fall: 4962.
Rottenberg, Simon . 1956. The Baseball Players Labor Market, Journal of Political Economy, 64(3), June:
242258.
Rovell, Darren . 2016. ACC on Track to Shatter Record for Money Earned in NCAA Tournament, ESPN.com,
March 26, at http://www.espn.com/mens-college-basketball/story/_/id/15071018/atlantic-coast-conference-
set-shatter-record-money-earned-ncaa-men-basketball-tournament.
Ruiz, Rebecca R . 2016. Olympic Officials Set Russias Roster; More Than 100 Are Barred for Doping, New
York Times, August 4, at https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/05/sports/olympics/rio-russians-barred-
doping.html.
Ryan, Joan . 1995. Little Girls in Pretty Boxes. New York: Doubleday.
Saffer, Paul . 2015. How Each Nation Has Done in Champions League, UEFA.com, September 10, at
http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/newsid=2275207.html.
Sandomir, Richard . 2009. Yankees Slash the Price of Top Tickets, New York Times, April 28, at
www.nytimes.com/2009/04/29/sports/baseball/29tickets.html.
Sandritter, Mark . 2015. 2015 PGA Championship Prize Money: Jason Day Takes Home $1.8 Million Payout,
SBNation, August 16, at https://www.sbnation.com/golf/2015/8/16/9162723/pga-championship-2015-purse-
prize-money-payout-jason-day.
San Jose Redevelopment Agency . 2009. Economic Impact Analysis: Proposed Major League Ballpark in
San Jose, CA, September 22, at
http://www.sjredevelopment.org/ballpark/meetings/092409/SanJosePresentation092109.pdf.
386 Santhanam, Laura . 2016. Data: How Does the US Womens Soccer Team Pay Compare to the Men?
PBS NewsHour: The Rundown, March 31, at http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/data-how-does-the-u-s-
womens-soccer-team-pay-compare-to-the-men/.
Scahill, Edward . 1990. Did Babe Ruth Have a Comparative Advantage as a Pitcher? Journal of Economic
Education, 21(4), Fall: 402410.
Schlabach, Mark . 2011. NCAA: Where Does the Money Go? ESPN.com, July 12, at
http://espn.go.com/college-sports/story/_/id/6756472/following-ncaa-money.
Schmidt, Martin B. , and David J. Berri . 2002. Competitive Balance and Market Size in Major League
Baseball, Review of Industrial Organization, 21(1), August: 4154.
Schoenfeld, David . 2016. Could Teams Actually Pay a 92 Percent Luxury Tax under the New CBA? Yes
and No, ESPN.com, December 2, at http://www.espn.com/blog/sweetspot/post/_/id/76736/how-luxury-tax-
penalties-would-work-on-baseballs-biggest-payrolls.
Schroffel, Jesse L. , and Christopher S.P. Magee . 2012. Own-Race Bias among NBA Coaches, Journal of
Sports Economics, 13(2), April: 130151.
Scully, Gerald W . 1989. The Business of Major League Baseball. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Scully, Gerald W . 1995. The Market Structure of Sports. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Seattle Times . 2011. Safeco Field Taxes: In with a Bang, Out with a Whimper, The Seattle Times, October
11, at https://www.seattletimes.com/opinion/safeco-field-taxes-in-with-a-bang-out-with-a-whimper/.
Seiken, Eric . 1996. The NCAA and the Courts: College Football on Television, in Sports and the Law, ed.
Charles Quirk . New York: Garland: 5662.
Seldon, Arthur . 1987. Public Choice and the Choices of the Public, in Democracy and Public Choice, ed.
Charles Rowley . London: Basil Blackwell: 122134.
Seravalli, Frank . 2015. Canadians Do Not Make Up the Majority of NHL Players This Season, TSN, October
22, at http://www.tsn.ca/canadians-do-not-make-up-the-majority-of-nhl-players-this-season-1.380861.
Seymour, Harold . 1960. Baseball: The Early Years. New York: Oxford University Press.
Seymour, Harold . 1971. Baseball: The Golden Age. New York: Oxford University Press.
Shapiro, Beth . 1983. John Hannah and the Growth of Big-Time Intercollegiate Athletics at Michigan State
University, Journal of Sports History, 10(3), Winter: 2640.
Shields, Mike . 2015. Womens World Cup Draws Strong Advertiser Demand for Fox Sports, Wall Street
Journal, June 5, at http://blogs.wsj.com/cmo/2015/06/05/womens-world-cup-draws-strong-advertiser-
demand-for-fox-sports/.
Shingler, Ronald J . 1988. Antitrust Law and the Sports League Relocation Rules, Golden State University
Law Review, 18(1), article 5, at http://digitalcommons.law.ggu.edu/ggulrev/vol18/iss1/5.
SI Wire . 2016. Drew Brees Says Concussion Safety Has to Be Driven by NFLPA, Sports Illustrated, October
4, at https://www.si.com/nfl/2016/10/05/drew-brees-saints-concussion-safety-peter-king-podcast#.
Siegfried, John , and Andrew Zimbalist . 2000. The Economics of Sports Facilities and Their Construction,
Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(3), Summer: 95114.
Siegfried, John , and Andrew Zimbalist . 2002. A Note on the Local Economic Impact of Sports Expenditures,
Journal of Sports Economics, 3(4), November: 361366.
Sievert, Justin . 2015. The Forgotten Antitrust Case: How an NCAA Loss Could Impact College Athletics,
SportingNews, November 4, at http://www.sportingnews.com/ncaa-football/news/ncaa-antitrust-case-
shawne-alston-effects-college-athletics/1uro6chmw5naj1o6n15opblfmy.
Sigelman, Lee . 1995. Its Academicor Is It? Admissions Standards and Big-Time Football, Social Science
Quarterly, 76(2): 247261.
Simmons, Bill . 2009. Welcome to the No Benjamins Association, Grantland.com, February 27, at
http://grantland.com/features/welcome-to-the-no-benjamins-association/.
Sirak, Ron . 2008. LPGA Facing Economic Realities, Golf Digest, November 18, at
http://www.golfdigest.com/golf-tours-news/2008-11/20081119sirak.
387 Sky Sports . 2015. Olympic Stadium Costs Soar Ahead of West Ham Move, June 19, at
http://www.skysports.com/football/news/11685/9890173/olympic-stadium-costs-soar-ahead-of-west-ham-
move.
Smetana, Jessica . 2017. Super Bowl 2017 Tickets: Why Fans Cant Go to the Game, SB Nation, February 3,
at http://www.sbnation.com/nfl/2017/2/3/14498480/2017-super-bowl-tickets-prices-patriots-falcons.
Smith, Chris . 2015. College Footballs Most Valuable Teams 2015: Texas, Notre Dame and Tennessee?
Forbes.com, December 22, at https://www.forbes.com/sites/chrissmith/2015/12/22/college-footballs-most-
valuable-teams-2015-texas-notre-dame-and-tennessee/.
Smith, Chris . 2016. Major League Soccers Most Valuable Teams 2016: New York, Orlando Thrive in First
Seasons, Forbes.com, September 7, at https://www.forbes.com/sites/chrissmith/2016/09/07/major-league-
soccers-most-valuable-teams-2016-new-york-orlando-thrive-in-first-seasons/.
Smith, Chris . 2016. The Most Valuable Sponsorship Deals in Soccer, Forbes.com, May 11, at
http://www.forbes.com/sites/chrissmith/2016/05/11/the-most-valuable-sponsorship-deals-in-soccer/
Smith, Gary . 1983. A New Life, Sports Illustrated, March 28: 6067.
Smith, Ronald . 1988. Sports and Freedom: The Rise of Big-Time College Athletics. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Smith, Thomas G . 2011. Showdown: JFK and the Integration of the Washington Redskins. Boston, MA:
Beacon Press: 140.
Solomon, Jon . 2015. CBS Sports 2015-16 FBS College Football Cost of Attendance Database,
CBSSports.com, August 20, at http://www.cbssports.com/college-football/news/2015-16-cbs-sports-fbs-
college-football-cost-of-attendance-database/.
Solow, Benjamin L. , John L. Solow , and Todd B. Walker . 2011. Moving on Up: The Rooney Rule and
Minority Hiring in the NFL, Labour Economics, 18(3), June: 332337.
Solow, John L. , and Anthony C. Krautmann . 2007. Leveling the Playing Field or Just Lowering Salaries?
The Effects of Redistribution in Baseball, Southern Economic Journal, 73(4): 947958.
Sommers, Christina Hoff . 2014. Title IX: How a Good Law Went Terribly Wrong, Time, June 23, at
http://time.com/2912420/titleix-anniversary/.
Southall, Richard M. , Mark S. Nagel , and Megan Sexton . 2016. 2016 Adjusted Graduation Gap Report:
NCAA Division-I Basketball, April 6, at http://csri-sc.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/2016-Basketball-AGG-
Report_Final.pdf.
Southall, Richard M. , Mark S. Nagel , Allen Wallace , and Megan Sexton . 2016. 2016 Adjusted Graduation
Gap Report: NCAA FBS Football, October 19, at http://csri-sc.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/2016-
Football-AGG-Report_Publish_Final_10-19-2016.pdf.
Spence, A. Michael . 1973. Job Market Signaling, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 87(3), August: 355374.
Sperber, Murray . 1990. College Sports Inc. New York: Henry Holt and Co.
Sperber, Murray . 1998. Onward to Victory: The Crises That Shaped College Sports. New York: Henry Holt.
Sports Illustrated . 2017. Super Bowl Commercials: How Much Does a Spot Cost in 2017? January 26, at
https://www.si.com/nfl/2017/01/26/super-bowl-commercial-cost-2017/.
Staff Writer . 2016. Sabres Announce New Dynamic Ticket Pricing Structure, NHL.com, August 24, at
https://www.nhl.com/sabres/news/sabres-announce-new-dynamic-ticket-pricing-structure/c-891524.
Standings, MLB.com, at http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/standings/index.jsp#20161002.
Stapen, Candyce. 2014. Super Bowl Hotel Rates Drop Close to Game Day, USA Today, January 29.
Stark, Jason. 2011. How the New CBA Changes Baseball, ESPN.com: Baseball, November 22, at
http://espn.go.com/espn/print?id=7270203&type=story.
Statista.com . 2016. NFL League and Team Sponsorship Revenue Worldwide 2010 to 2016 (in Million U.S.
Dollars), at https://www.statista.com/statistics/456355/nfl-league-team-sponsorship-revenue-worldwide/.
388 Statista.com . 2016. NHL League and Team Sponsorship Revenue Worldwide 2011 to 2016 (in Million
U.S. Dollars), at https://www.statista.com/statistics/456365/nhl-league-team-sponsorship-spending-
worldwide/.
Statista.com . 2017. National Basketball Association (League and Teams) Sponsorship Revenue from 2010
to 2017 (in Million U.S. Dollars), at https://www.statista.com/statistics/380270/nba-sponsorship-revenue/.
Staudohar, Paul. 1996. Playing for Dollars: Labor Relations and the Sports Business. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.
Staudohar, Paul. 2003. Why No Baseball Work Stoppage? Journal of Sports Economics, 4(4), November:
362366.
Staudohar, Paul. 2005. The Hockey Lockout of 20042005, Monthly Labor Report, December: 2329.
Steptoe, Sonja , and E.M. Swift . 1994. A Done Deal, Sports Illustrated, March 28: 3236.
Stigler, George , and Gary Becker . 1977. De Gustibus Non Est Disputandum, American Economic Review,
67(1), March: 7690.
Stinson, Jeffrey , and Dennis Howard . 2007. Athletic Success and Private Giving to Athletic and Academic
Programs at NCAA Institutions, Journal of Sport Management, 21(2), April: 235264.
Stratmann, Thomas. 1997. Logrolling, in Perspectives on Public Choice: A Handbook, ed. Dennis Mueller .
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 322341.
Suggs, Welch. 2005. New Grades on Academic Progress Show Widespread Failings among Top NCAA
Teams, The Chronicle of Higher Education, March 1, at http://www.chronicle.com/article/New-Grades-on-
Academic/119610.
Sullivan, Neil J. 1987. The Dodgers Move West. New York: Oxford University Press.
Summary of Major League Baseball Players Association Major League Baseball Labor Agreement, at
http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/downloads/2011_CBA.pdf.
Sunde, Uwe. 2009. Heterogeneity and Performance in Tournaments: A Test for Incentive Effects Using
Professional Tennis Data, Applied Economics, 41(2527), November December: 31993208.
Swift, E.M. 1994. Anatomy of a Plot: The Kerrigan Assault, Sports Illustrated, February 14: 2838.
Swindell, David , and Mark Rosentraub . 1998. Who Benefits from the Presence of Professional Sports
Teams? The Implications for Public Funding of Stadiums and Arenas, Public Administration Review, 58(1),
January/February: 1120.
Szymanski, Stefan. 2000. A Market Test for Discrimination in the English Professional Soccer Leagues,
Journal of Political Economy, 108(3), June: 590603.
Szymanski, Stefan , and Andrew Zimbalist . 2005. National Pastime: How Americans Play Baseball and the
Rest of the World Plays Soccer. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Tagaris, Karolina. 2014. Ten Years on, Athens 2004 Gives Greece Little to Cheer, Reuters, August 7, at
http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/08/07/uk-olympics-greece-idUKKBN0G70Y220140807.
Taibbi, Matt. 2009. The Devils Doorstep: A Visit with Scott Boras, Mens Journal, February 23, at
http://archive.li/NmdpD.
Tainsky, Scott , Brian M. Mills , and Jason A. Winfree . 2015. Further Examination of Potential Discrimination
among MLB Umpires, Journal of Sports Economics, 16(4), May: 353374.
Tannenwald, Jonathan. 2015. MLS, U.S. Soccer Officially Announce New TV Deal with ESPN, Fox,
Univision, December 13, at http://www.philly.com/philly/blogs/thegoalkeeper/Live-MLS-US-Soccer-officially-
announce-new-TV-deal-with-ESPN-Fox-Univision.html.
Taylor, Beck A. , and Justin G. Trogdon . 2002. Losing to Win: Tournament Incentives in the National
Basketball Association, Journal of Labor Economics, 20(1), January: 2341.
Team Marketing Report NFL 2016, at
https://www.teammarketing.com/public/uploadedPDFs/NFL_FCI_2016.pdf.
Teigland, Jon. 1999. Mega-Events and Impacts on Tourism; the Predictions and Realities of the Lillehammer
Olympics, Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 17(4): 305317.
389 Teammarketing.com, at https://www.teammarketing.com/public/uploadedPDFs/NBAFCI-2015-16.pdf;
https://www.teammarketing.com/public/uploadedPDFs/MLB_FCI_2016.pdf;
https://www.teammarketing.com/public/uploadedPDFs/NFL_FCI_2016.pdf;
https://www.teammarketing.com/public/uploadedPDFs/nhl%20fci%2015.pdf.
Thaler, Richard. 1988. The Winners Curse, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 2(1), Winter: 191202.
Thamel, Pete. 2006. Schools Where the Only Real Test Is Basketball, New York Times, February 25, at
http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/25/sports/ncaabasketball/25preps.html.
The Championships, Wimbledon: Prize Money per Programme, Wimbledon.com, at
http://www.wimbledon.com/pdf/Wimbledon_Prize_Money_2016.pdf.
The Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport . 2015. Keeping Score When It Counts: Analyzing the
Academic Performance of the 2015 NCAA Womens and Mens Sweet 16 Teams, March 25, at
http://nebula.wsimg.com/a726d64c2544c7fe98d458088e1e7ce4?AccessKeyId=DAC3A56D8FB782449D2A
&disposition=0&alloworigin=1.
Thornley, Stew. 2000. Land of the Giants: New Yorks Polo Grounds. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University
Press.
Tidey, Will. 2013. Sepp Blatters Most Embarrassing Outbursts, Bleacher Report, May 31, at
http://bleacherreport.com/articles/1657592-sepp-blatters-most-embarrassing-outbursts/page/2.
Title IX Legal Manual, United States Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, updated August 6, 2015, at
https://www.justice.gov/crt/title-ix.
Tofler, Ian , Barri Katz Stryer , Lyle J. Micheli , and Lisa Herman . 1996. Physical and Emotional Problems of
Elite Female Gymnasts, New England Journal of Medicine, 335(4), July 25: 281283.
Tollison, Robert. 1997. Rent Seeking, in Perspectives on Public Choice: A Handbook, ed. Dennis Mueller .
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 506525.
Tomlinson, Alan. 1984. De Coubertin and the Modern Olympics, in Five Ring Circus: Money, Power and
Politics at the Olympic Games, ed. Alan Tomlinson and Garry Whannel . London: Pluto Press: 8497.
Totalsportek2 . 2016. German Bundesliga New TV Rights Money Distribution System, June 9, at
http://www.totalsportek.com/money/bundesliga-tv-rights/.
Totalsportek2 . 2016. Italian Serie A TV Rights & Prize Money Distribution for 2016 (Explained), February 17,
at http://www.totalsportek.com/football/italian-serie-a-tv-rights-money-distribution/.
Totalsportek2 . 2017. Australian Open Tennis 2017 Prize Money, Total Sportek, January 26, at
http://www.totalsportek.com/tennis/australian-open-prize-money/.
Totalsportek2 . 2017. Premier League Player Salaries of 20 Clubs (Wage Bills 2016-17), January 20, at
http://www.totalsportek.com/money/english-premier-league-wage-bills-club-by-club/.
Tottenham Hotspur . Match Day Prices 2017/2018, at http://www.tottenhamhotspur.com/tickets/ticket-prices/.
Trumpbour, Robert. 2007. The New Cathedrals. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
Tu, Charles. 2005. How Does a New Stadium Affect Housing Values? The Case of FedEx Field, Land
Economics, 81(3), August: 379395.
UEFA.com . 2015. Financial Fair Play: All You Need to Know, June 30, at
http://www.uefa.com/community/news/newsid=2064391.html.
UEFA.com . 2016. 2015/16 Champions League Revenue Distribution, November 1, at
http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/newsid=2418253.html.
UEFA.com . 2016. 2015/16 Europa League Revenue Distribution, November 1, at
http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/news/newsid=2418259.html.
UEFA.com . Regulations of the UEFA Champions League 2015-2018 Cycle, at
http://www.uefa.com/MultimediaFiles/Download/Regulations/uefaorg/Regulations/02/35/87/89/2358789_DO
WNLOAD.pdf.
Ungerleider, Steven. 2001. Fausts Gold: Inside the East German Doping Machine. New York: Thomas
Dunne Books.
390 United Press International . 1982. Average N.F.L. Salary Is $90,102, Survey Says, New York Times,
January 29, at http://www.nytimes.com/1982/01/29/sports/average-nfl-salary-is-90102-survey-says.html.
United States Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U) 1970 2016, at
http://www.dlt.ri.gov/lmi/pdf/cpi.pdf.
University of Pennsylvania Museum of Anthropology and Archeology . 1996. The Real Story of the Ancient
Olympic Games, at https://www.penn.museum/sites/olympics/olympicathletes.shtml.
US Department of Commerce , Table CA1-3: Personal Income Summary, Regional Data: GDP & Personal
Income, at http://www.bea.gov/iTable/iTable.cfm?reqid=70&step=1&isuri=1&acrdn=5.
US Youth Soccer , Key Statistics, at http://www.usyouthsoccer.org/media_kit/keystatistics/.
USA Today , NCAA Salaries, USAToday.com, at http://sports.usatoday.com/ncaa/salaries/.
USA Today , Player Salaries, USAToday.com, at https://www.usatoday.com/sports/mlb/salaries/.
USA Today Salaries Data Base , USAToday.com, at
http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/salaries/index.htm.
USA Today Sports . 2016. Methodology for NCAA Athletic Department Database, USAToday.com, April 14,
at http://sports.usatoday.com/2016/04/14/methodology-for-ncaa-athletic-department-revenue-database/.
van Mill, David . 2015. Why Are We So Opposed to Performance-Enhancing Drugs in Sport? The
Conversation, August 27, at http://theconversation.com/why-are-we-so-opposed-to-performance-enhancing-
drugs-in-sport-46528.
Van Riper, Tom . 2009. Boxings Last Golden Boy? Forbes.com, January 15, at
https://www.forbes.com/2009/01/14/boxing-oscar-de-la-hoya-biz-sports_cx_tvr_0115delahoya.html.
Van Riper, Tom . 2010. The NFL Vs. American Needle, Forbes.com, January 7, at
http://www.forbes.com/2010/01/06/american-needle-supreme-court-business-sports-nfl.html.
Van Scyoc, L.J. , and N.J. Burnett . 2013. How Times Have Changed: Racial Discrimination in the Market for
Sports Memorabilia (Baseball Cards), Applied Economics Letters, 20(79), June: 875878.
Van Wynsberghe, Rob . 2011. Olympic Games Impact (OGI) Study for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic
Winter Games Games-time Report, at http://cfss.sites.olt.ubc.ca/files/2011/10/The-Olympic-Games-Impact-
Study-Games-time-Report-2011-11-21.pdf.
Veeck, Bill . 1962. Veeck as in Wreck. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Veeck, Bill , with Ed Linn . 1996. The Hustlers Handbook. Durham, NC: Baseball America Classic Books.
Veraros, Nikolaos , Evangelia Kasimati , and Peter Dawson . 2004. The 2004 Olympic Games
Announcement and Its Effect on the Athens and Milan Stock Exchanges, Applied Economics Letters, 11(12),
October: 749753.
Vincent, Claude , and Byron Eastman . 2009. Determinants of Pay in the NHL: A Quantile Regression
Approach, Journal of Sports Economics, 10(3), June: 256277.
Voigt, Kevin . 2010. Is There a World Cup Economic Bounce? CNN.com, June 11, at
http://edition.cnn.com/2010/BUSINESS/06/11/business.bounce.world.cup/index.html.
von Allmen, Peter . 2000. Is the Reward System in NASCAR Efficient? Journal of Sports Economics, 2(1),
February: 6279.
von Allmen, Peter . 2012. Multiplier Effects and Local Economic Impact, in The Oxford Handbook of Sports
Economics, vol. 2, ed. Stephen Shmanske and Leo Kahane . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
von Allmen, Peter . 2013. Coaching Women and Women Coaching: Pay Differentials in the Title IX Era, in
Handbook on the Economics of Women in Sports, ed. Eva Marikova Leeds and Michael A. Leeds
(Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar): 269289.
391 von Allmen, Peter , Michael Leeds , and Julian Malakorn . 2015. Victims or Beneficiaries? Wage Premia
and National Origin in the National Hockey League, Journal of Sports Management, 29(6), November:
633641.
Vrooman, John . 1997. Franchise Free Agency in Professional Sports Leagues, Southern Journal of
Economics, 64(1), July: 191219.
Vrooman, John . 2009. Theory of the Perfect Game: Competitive Balance in Monopoly Sports, Review of
Industrial Organization, 34(5): 544.
Waldron, Travis . 2016. St. Louis Taxpayers Arent Finished Paying for the Stadium the Rams Abandoned,
Huffington Post, January 13, at http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/rams-los-angeles-st-louis-
taxpayers_us_5696955ee4b0778f46f7c330.
Walker, Alissa . 2014. How L.A.s 1984 Summer Olympics Became the Most Successful Games Ever,
Gizmodo.com, February 6, at http://gizmodo.com/how-l-a-s-1984-summer-olympics-became-the-most-
success-1516228102.
Walker, Simone . 2009. De la Hoya Boxings Future Is Golden, SportsPro, October 13, at
http://www.sportspromedia.com/notes_and_insights/de_la_hoya_-_boxings_future_is_golden/.
Wall Street Journal . 2017. Russias 2018 World Cup Stadiums, October 2, at
https://graphics.wsj.com/embeddable-carousel/?slug=russia-world-cup-2018.
Ward, Geoffrey , and Kenneth Burns . 1994. Baseball: An Illustrated History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Weaver, Jane . 2005. Steroid Addiction a Risk for Young Athletes, MSNBC, April 5, at
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7348758.
Westcott, Rich . 1996. Philadelphias Old Ballparks. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Wetzel, Dan , Josh Peter , and Jeff Passan . 2010. Death to the BCS. New York: Gotham Books.
Wieberg, Steve . 2005. Academic Progress Rates Analyzed, USA Today, at
http://www.usatoday.com/sports/college/2005-03-01-apr-analysis_x.htm.
Will, George F. 1998. Bunts. New York: Scribner.
Winfree, Jason , Jill McCluskey , Ron Mittelhammer , and Rodney Fort . 2004. Location and Attendance in
Major League Baseball, Applied Economics, 36(19), October: 21172124.
Wolverton, Brad . 2012. Female Participation in College Sports Reaches All-Time High, The Chronicle of
Higher Education, January 22, at http://www.chronicle.com/article/Female-Participation-in/130431/.
Wong, Glenn . 2010. Essentials of Sports Law, 4th ed. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
World Population Review . Toronto Population 2016, at http://worldpopulationreview.com/world-
cities/toronto-population/.
WTA . 2017. 2017 WTA Official Rulebook, at http://www.wtatennis.com/sites/default/files/rules2017.pdf.
Yang, Chih-Hai , and Hsuan-Y Lin . 2012. Is There Salary Discrimination by Nationality in the NBA?: Foreign
Talent or Foreign Market, Journal of Sports Economics, 13(1), February: 5375.
Young, David . 1996. The Modern Olympics: A Struggle for Revival. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins
University Press.
Zengerle, Jason . 2008. The Pivot, The New Republic, July 9: 2432.
Zimbalist, Andrew . 1992. Baseball and Billions. New York: Basic Books.
Zimbalist, Andrew . 1999. Unpaid Professionals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Zimbalist, Andrew . 2003. Labor Relations in Major League Baseball, Journal of Sports Economics, 4(4),
November: 332355.
Zimbalist, Andrew . 2003. May the Best Team Win: Baseball Economics and Public Policy. Washington, DC:
Brookings Institution Press.
Zimbalist, Andrew . 2003. Sport as Business, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 19(4): 503511.
Zimbalist, Andrew . 2012. Personal Communication.
Zimbalist, Andrew . 2013. In the Best Interests of Baseball? Governing the National Pastime. Lincoln, NE:
University of Nebraska Press.
392 Zimbalist, Andrew . 2015. Circus Maximus: The Economic Gamble behind Hosting the Olympics and the
World Cup. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Zimmerman, Ann , and Leslie Scism . 2012. Boone Calls the Plays as Largess Complicates Life at Alma
Mater, Wall Street Journal, July 7, at
https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304782404577488592793245510.
Zimmerman, Dennis . 1997. Subsidizing Stadiums: Who Benefits, Who Pays? in Sports, Jobs, and Taxes,
ed. Roger G. Noll and Andrew Zimbalist . Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press: 119147.

View publication stats