When practical wisdom guides the conduct of making morally right

Lesson 3: THE MORAL AGENT: choices and actions, what does it identify as the proper and right thing
DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT to do?

A morally virtuous person targets mesotes. The middle is always in

VIRTUE AS EXCELLENCE
between an action, feeling, or passion that is deficient or excessive.
According to Aristotle, in achieving the highest purpose of a human Nothing is lacking or is too much from an act that is morally good.
person, one has the ability to function according to reason and
Mesotes is the middle measure of an action, feeling, or passion.
performs an activity well or excellently. This excellent way of doing
things is called virtue or arête by the Greeks. Being an excellent
individual works on doing well in her day-to-day existence, for being
virtuous cannot be accomplished by a single act.

What makes a human being excellent?

Aristotle says that excellence is an activity of the human soul,

therefore, one needs to understand the very structure of a person’s Determining the middle becomes the proper tool by which one can
soul which must be directed by her rational activity in an excellent way. arrive at the proper way of doing things.
For him, what comprises the human soul and this soul according to
him, must be directed by reason in an excellent way. The human soul A morally virtuous person is concerned with achieving her appropriate
is divided into 2 parts: action in a manner that is neither excessive nor deficient. For Aristotle,
virtue is the good in between vices. One has to function in a state that
I. Irrational element – not in the realm where virtue is exercised, her personality manifests the right amount of feelings, passions, and
because, as the term suggests, it cannot be dictated by reason. ability for a particular act. Generally, feelings and passions are neutral
which means that, in themselves, they are not neither morally right nor
A. Vegetative aspect – aspect of the soul that follows the natural
wrong.
processes involved in the physical activities and growth of a person.
When one shows a feeling of anger, we cannot immediately construe it
B. Appetitive aspect – act of desiring in itself is an impulse that
as morally wrong act. But the rightness and wrongness of feelings,
naturally runs counter to reason and most of the time refuses to go
passions, and abilities lies in the degree of their application in a given
along with reason.
situation. It is right to get angry at an offensive remark but it is not
right to get angry at everyone just because you were offended by
II. Rational faculty – the rational faculty of man exercises excellence
someone.
in him. One can rightly or wrongly apply the use of reason in this part.

A. Intellectual faculty (act of knowing)

One rational aspect where a person can attain excellence is in the

intellectual faculty of the soul. As stated by Aristotle, this excellence is
attained through teaching. We learn from our vast experiences through
time where we gain knowledge on things. We learn and gain wisdom
when we are being taught or in learning. “VIRTUE IS THE GOOD IN BETWEEN VICES”

There are two ways where we can attain intellectual excellence: The aid of reason dictates how humans should show different anger
philosophical and practical wisdom. toward a child and a mature individual. Mesotes determines whether
the act applied is not excessive nor deficient. An individual cannot be
 Philosophic wisdom – attaining knowledge of the general principles good at something but reason demands a continuous habituation of a
that constitute reality. For example, general theory on the origin of skill to perfect an act. Targeting the middle entails being immersed in a
things. It helps one understand in general the meaning of life. moral circumstance, understanding the experience, and eventually,
developing the knowledge of identifying the proper way or the mean to
 Practical wisdom – knowing the right conduct in carrying out a address a particular situation.
particular act. In other words, we can attain a wisdom that can provide
us with a guide on how to behave in our daily lives. SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOMENT

However, Aristotle points out that having intellectual excellence does The American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) is
not make one into morally good person. Why? Because, knowing the best known for his theory of stages of moral development. He
good and being able to determine the appropriate action in a given discern the ways in which moral reasoning developed as individuals
situation do not make her do the good automatically. grew older. He discovered that the reasons tended to change as the
children’s got older.
B. Moral faculty (act of doing)
Level 1 – Pre- conventional morality
Knowing the good implies the ability to perform morally virtuous acts.
The moral aspect of the rational faculty concerns itself with the act of •Stage 1. Obedienceand Punishment Orientation
doing the good.
•Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange
Therefore, rational faculty of a person tells us that she is capable of
achieving two kinds of virtue: moral and intellectual. How can we Level 2 – Conventional morality
achieve this excellence or moral virtue? it is attained by means of
habit. •Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships

DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT •Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order

A morally virtuous man is someone who habitually determines the Level 3 – Post- Conventional morality
good and does the right actions. Being morally good is a process of
•Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights
getting used to doing the proper act. Any craft that one does can be
perfected by habitually doing the right action necessary to be good in
•Stage 6. Universal Ethical Principles
a particular craft. A moral person habitually chooses the good and
consistently does good deeds. The constant act of choosing and doing Level 1: PRE-CONVENTIONAL
the good that a person, he is able to form her character.
At the pre-conventional level, we don’t have a personal code of
MORAL CHARACTER AND VIRTUES morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults
and the consequences of following or breaking their rules. Authority is
“Character” is derived from the Greek word ‘charaktêr’ which mean a
outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical
distinct mark. In modern usage, character was merge with
consequences of actions.
“personality” (combination of characteristics and qualities that forms
an individual’s distinctive characters). LEVEL STAGE NATURE OF MORAL
REASONING
Moral character is the existence or lack of virtues. A person has a good Level I: Stage 1: Obedience People make
moral character means that he/she is a good person and a good citizen Pre-conventional and Punishment decisions based on
with a sound moral compass. In the moral development, there is the Morality Orientation what is best for
sense of human flourishing. Developing a practical wisdom involves themselves,
learning from experiences. Knowledge is not inherent to a person. without regard for
others’ needs
Knowing the right thing to do when confronted by a choice is not easy.
or feelings. They
We may initially make mistakes on how reason is applied to a particular obey rules only
moral choice or action. One needs to develop knowledge by exercising if established by
her rational faculty/ practical reason. But through mistakes, she will be more powerful
able to sustain practical wisdom to help steer another’s ability to know individuals; they
morally right actions or choices. In other words, one is able to mature may disobey if
and grow in her capacity of knowing what to do and living a morally they aren’t likely to
get caught.
upright life.
“Wrong” behaviours
This flourishing is attained by the habitual practice of moral and are those
intellectual excellence.
 that will be to avoid guilt. I’ll do my duty.
punished.

Stage One: Obedience and Punishment Orientation

The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a
person is punished, they must have done wrong.

Level I: Stage 2: People recognize

Pre-conventional Individualism that others also
Morality and Exchange have
needs. They may try
to satisfy others’
needs if their own
needs are also met Level 3: POST- CONVENTIONAL
(“you scratch my
back, I’ll scratch • Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral
yours”). reasoning is based on individual rights and justice.

They continue to • According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most
define right and people get. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking
wrong primarily in necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality).
terms of
consequences to Moral maturity is seen in an agent who acts on what she has
themselves.
understood, using her full rationality, to be what is right, regardless of
Stage Two: Individualism and Exchange
whether the act will bring her the agent pleasure or pain and even
At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view regardless of whether the act is in accordance with one’s community’s
that is laws or not.

handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different LEVEL STAGE NATURE OF MORAL
REASONING
viewpoints. Here, self-interest take precedence. Level III: Stage 5: Social People recognize
Post-Conventional Contract and that rules represent
Morality Individual agreements among
“what’s in it for me?”
Rights many individuals
about appropriate
behaviour. Rules are
seen as potentially
Level 2: CONVENTIONAL useful mechanisms
that can maintain
At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to the general social
internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. Authority order
and protect
is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the
individuals rights.
norms of the group to which the person belongs.
People also
LEVEL STAGE NATURE OF MORAL recognize the
REASONING flexibility of rules;
Level II: Stage 3: Good People make rules that no longer
Conventional Interpersonal decisions based on serve society’s best
Morality Relationships what actions will interests should be
please others, changed.
especially authority
figures and other
individuals with high Stage Five: Human Rights – Social Contract and Individual
status (e.g.
Rights
teachers, popular
peers).
The individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the
They are concerned good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work
about maintaining against the interest of particular individuals.
relationships
through “I’ll live by the rules or try to change them”
sharing, trust, and
loyalty, and they LEVEL STAGE NATURE OF MORAL
take other people’s REASONING
perspectives and Level III: Stage 6: “Ideal” stage that
intentions into Post-Conventional Universal few people ever
account when Morality Ethical reach.
making decisions. principle
People in this stage
adhere to universal
Stage Three: Good Interpersonal Relationships (Interpersonal principles that
Concordance - "Good boy/girl") transcend specific
norms and rules.
The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being Stage Six: Universal Ethical Principles (ethical principle
orientation)
a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate
One realizes that all the conventions (laws, rules, and regulations) of
to the approval of others. “I want to be nice”
society are only correct if they are based on these universal ethical
LEVEL STAGE NATURE OF MORAL principles.
REASONING
Level II: Stage 4: People look to One must think for herself what she ought to do.
Conventional Maintaining the society as a whole
Morality Social Order for
guidelines about
right or wrong. They This theory helps to point out the differences in moral reasoning: the
know rules are
more mature kind is seen in people who are not anymore dictated by
necessary for
keeping society the logic of reward and punishment, or pain and pleasure. Simply
running smoothly following the rules even if, theoretically, they are the right ones, does
and believe it is not necessarily qualify as morally mature behaviour.
their “duty” to obey
them. If one aspires moral maturity, one must make use of her own power of
reasoning in cases of moral choice and not remain a creature of blind
However, they obedience to either pain and pleasure or to the demands of the group.
perceive rules to be
inflexible; they don’t To sum up, a state of character which habitually acts according to the
necessarily
recognize that as middle measure that practical wisdom identifies as the moral choice
society’s needs should be acted upon, given the concrete situation that is present to
change, the person. The goal of virtue ethics is to promote the maturity of the
rules should change character of the person. Building a good character is a task and
as well. responsibility of every person.

Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order

The child/individual becomes awareof the wider rules of society, so

judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and