This article was downloaded by: [Universite De Paris 1]

On: 29 August 2013, At: 14:10

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Reflective Practice: International and

Multidisciplinary Perspectives
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/crep20

Using critical incidents in teaching to

promote reflective practice
a a
Benita G. Bruster & Barbara R. Peterson
a
Austin Peay State University, Teaching and Learning , P.O. Box
4545, College of Education, Clarksville , 37044 , United States
Published online: 30 Oct 2012.

To cite this article: Benita G. Bruster & Barbara R. Peterson (2013) Using critical incidents in
teaching to promote reflective practice, Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary
Perspectives, 14:2, 170-182, DOI: 10.1080/14623943.2012.732945

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2012.732945

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
 Reflective Practice, 2013
Vol. 14, No. 2, 170–182, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2012.732945

Using critical incidents in teaching to promote reflective practice

Benita G. Bruster* and Barbara R. Peterson

Austin Peay State University, Teaching and Learning, P.O. Box 4545, College of Education,
Clarksville 37044, United States
(Received 1 March 2012; final version received 19 September 2012)

Literature in teacher education stresses the importance of preparing thoughtful

reflective practitioners. This study examined the use of critical incidents as a
Downloaded by [Universite De Paris 1] at 14:10 29 August 2013

tool for reflection employed by teacher candidates during their clinical teaching
semester. All participants were required to write weekly reflections using either
a traditional journaling format (N=10) or an on-line weblogging format (N=10).
Two independent readers analyzed the narratives and collaborated to reach cen-
suses using open and axial coding to determine key phrases and words and to
assign themes. The quantitative method used to analyze reflection entries was a
Two-way ANOVA design. The results indicated a significant difference between
the reflections of those who weblogged and the reflections of those who wrote
in traditional journals. Participants who wrote in journals wrote complex investi-
gative reflections of classroom events. Participants who wrote using weblogs
wrote less complex descriptions of classroom events. In addition, participants
who wrote using the weblogs generated questions about how to solve instruc-
tional issues more so than those who participated in the traditional journaling
format. Analysis of the participants’ reflective writing indicated that participants
from both groups moved in-and-out of five phases of reflection; however, the
language used in all reflective writing provided insight into each phase and
featured language that was representative of each particular phase.
Keywords: weblogging; critical incidents; reflective phases; reflective practice;
teacher candidates

Introduction
Reflective thinking and reflective practice have become common concepts in the
teacher education literature as national and state policy makers and teacher
education programs have committed themselves to preparing teachers to be
reflective practitioners (American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education,
2010; Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium, 1992; National
Board of Professional Teaching Standards, 2007; National Council for Accreditation
of Teacher Education, 2000). The emphasis on reflective practice challenges teacher
educators to create programs that provide constructive ways for teacher candidates
to engage in reflective practice.
Helping teacher candidates develop habits of reflection has been an ongoing
commitment in most teacher education programs. Teacher candidates are encour-
aged to reflect on lesson and unit plans, field and clinical experiences, and on

*Corresponding author. Email: brusterb@apsu.edu

Ó 2012 Taylor & Francis

 Reflective Practice 171

various course requirements. A common assumption is that reflective practice

facilitates the ability to apply theory to practice and to learn from experience. The
basic premise behind reflective practice is that an individual’s actions are guided by
what they have learned from previous experiences. Piaget (1967) asserted that
individuals do not assimilate new information in a step-by-step manner. Instead,
individuals learn through intellectual resolution, each event influenced by previous
experiences, individual backgrounds, and critical events that happen and change
ways of thinking. Looking back over events, situations, or critical episodes in a
way that allows for deep critical introspection is reflection. However, encouraging
deep critical reflection from students in an educational environment is often met
with disappointing outcomes. The idea of reflection is a taken-for-granted notion
among many educators that assumes reflection to be a natural response to a
dilemma or challenge. Although an individual may reflect, how the individual
reflects will have a bearing on the outcome. Reflective individuals have the ability
Downloaded by [Universite De Paris 1] at 14:10 29 August 2013

to think about their behaviors and make judgments about them. In contrast, Valli
(1992) suggested that individuals who are unreflective are limited in their ability to
make change. Deeper learning has a distinct relationship with reflective practice
(Sen & Ford, 2009) and is more likely to occur when individuals engage in what is
termed as deep reflection, analytical reflection, or critical reflection. As teacher
educators, we want to promote critical reflection; however, when reading the written
reflections of our students we observed the reflections to be descriptive in nature
with minimal evidence of being analytical or critical.
From our anecdotal observations, it appeared that our teacher candidates did not
automatically know how to reflect analytically or critically. As a result, we wanted
to learn more about the nature of reflective thinking and how critical reflection can
be effectively implemented in a teacher education program.

Theoretical framework
To develop a better understanding of the concept of reflection, we turned to the
work of John Dewey, who recognized that individuals can reflect on a whole host
of things in the sense of merely thinking about them. However, Dewey (1933)
emphasized that logical or analytic reflection can happen only when there is a real
problem to solve. Dewey saw true reflective practice as taking place when an indi-
vidual faces a real problem that needs to be resolved in a rational manner. Dewey
(1933) suggested that reflection begins with a felt difficulty that can range in inten-
sity from mild uneasiness to intense shock. To address this sense of unease,
Dewey suggested individuals must proceed through three steps of reflection: (1)
problem definition, (2) analysis, and (3) generalization. He distinguished between
action based on reflection and action that is impulsive or blind. He placed
emphasis on the need to develop certain attitudes of open-mindedness and skills of
thinking and reasoning in order to reflect. For Dewey, a fundamental purpose of
education is to help individuals acquire habits of reflection so they engage in
intelligent action.
Recent emphasis on the need for reflective practice saw a shift from Dewey’s
perspective of reflection as intelligent decision-making to reflection as a tool for
professional development which was inspired in-part by the work of Donald Schön
(1987). Schön believed that reflection can take place throughout an individual’s
career and is a crucial aspect of the process by which beginners in a discipline
 172 B.G. Bruster and B.R. Peterson

improve their practice. Schön proposed that in preparing professionals, educators

must guide students in making decisions under conditions of uncertainty. In
teaching, uncertain conditions may be categorized as critical incidents (Tripp,
1993). Thuynsma (2001) identified a critical incident as a turning point that results
in changes in the perception of effectiveness or success. Dewey, Schön, and Tripp
emphasized that reflecting on significant episodes in professional practice is
essential to the development of professional judgment. During the clinical teaching
semester, teacher candidates encounter many significant episodes that are difficult
to resolve. These episodes or instances become critical because they cause the can-
didate to pause, think back, and consider outcomes. Critical incidents, advocated
by Tripp (1993), are venues for teaching critical reflection. A critical incident is
an interpretation of a significant episode in a particular context rather than a rou-
tine occurrence. Typically, a critical incident is personal to an individual. Incidents
only become critical, that is problematic, if the individual sees them as such.
Downloaded by [Universite De Paris 1] at 14:10 29 August 2013

Reflecting on an incident after the incident has taken place is when it is defined
as critical. We utilized the critical incident technique in this study as the
framework for initiating the reflective process of teacher candidates during their
clinical teaching semester.

Methodology
To understand the nature of reflection, the researchers used the critical incident tech-
nique as a tool to enable reflective writing. Reflection during student teaching had
been an expected component of the student teaching experience for years at our
institution. However, reflections were often sparsely written, and seldom went
beyond the description of an event. For the purpose of this study all teacher
candidates were asked to reflect on teaching/learning incidents they deemed to be
critical during their student teaching experience. A requirement for this assignment
involved reflection on one critical incident each week for the duration of the
sixteen-week student teaching experience. Candidates had use of a protocol to guide
their reflections (see Appendix A). In developing the protocol, we used three criteria
to guide our choice of prompts. The participants were asked to: (1) describe the
context of their incident; (2) identify a dilemma they experienced or observed, and
(3) discuss the resolution of the dilemma.
While all participants used the critical incident technique as a means for reflec-
tion, we divided the participants into two different groups. One group wrote their
reflections in a traditional journaling format. Each week, these participants turned
their reflections in to their university supervisor as a written assignment. This for-
mat had typically been used during student teaching and was a familiar format for
the university supervisors. The other group wrote their reflections using a weblog.
The university supervisors had access to the weblogs, so these participants were not
required to turn in their reflections each week as an assignment. The weblog format
was utilized because half of the participants in this study had been introduced to
weblogging in a methods class the previous semester; they were familiar with this
medium as part of a class assignment. Although the university supervisors did not
interact with the webloggers on a consistent basis, they were available for help or
“as needed”. It was felt that constant interaction with the webloggers would hamper
the dialogue and could possibly create an environment where webloggers might
censor their own writing.
 Reflective Practice 173

Recognizing that the current generation of teacher candidates write fluently in

electronic media using weblogs, e-mails, and social networks; we wanted to
examine the effect of the use of a weblog compared to the use of the traditional
journaling format on the participants’ reflective writing. Stiller and Philleo
(2003) as cited in Shoffner (2009) acknowledge that teacher educators are taking
an interest in using weblogs as reflective spaces. Stiller and Philleo (2003)
replaced pen-and-paper reflective journals with weblogs in a teacher education
class, citing several drawbacks to the more traditional paper journal, among them
“generic responses, illegible handwriting and instructor access to the journal”
(p. 4).
A mixed method approach was used for data analysis. This approach consisted
of a qualitative thematic analysis of the written narratives using open and axial cod-
ing to assign key phrases and words in order to determine themes. After reading
participant reflections, each reader used inductive reasoning to analyze all journal
Downloaded by [Universite De Paris 1] at 14:10 29 August 2013

and weblog entries. Recurring words and phrases were identified, examined, and
color coded as categories emerged. Each critical incident was read separately to
confirm categories and to ensure that all viable possibilities for analysis were con-
sidered. Each reader tallied all similarly coded text to determine the frequencies of
all categories. Both readers analyzed each category of reflection to determine a defi-
nite fit and that all categories were distinct and separate (Straus & Corbin, 1990).
Following independent coding, both readers compared each reflection based on an
analysis of the language used to determine common words, phrases, and emerging
categories until censuses was reached.
The quantitative method used to analyze reflection entries was a Two-way
ANOVA design to compare the differences of written reflections between the
students who reflected using the weblog format and the students who reflected
using the traditional journal format.
The goal of this sixteen-week study was designed to: (1) examine the impact of
using the critical incident technique to promote critical reflection, (2) analyze the
language used by participants in the reflective narratives for emergent themes, and
(3) compare the use of weblogs vs. traditional journals as practical spaces for
written reflections.

Research participants and data collection

The participants of this study were a randomly selected subset of 20 students from an
entire group of 85 teacher candidates, and included undergraduate teacher candidates
seeking initial licensure in elementary education, middle school education, special
education or secondary education. Of the 20 randomly selected participants, ten
elected to reflect using a traditional hand-written journaling format, and the remaining
ten participants elected to reflect using a weblog format. Prior to this semester, all tea-
cher candidates participated in weblogging as part of a university course requirement;
therefore, all participants were familiar with the required technology, the social
interaction potential, and the technical realities of writing on a blog.
There were seven females and three males in the traditional journaling group
and eight females and two males in the weblogging group. All 20 participants
ranged in age from the mid-20s to the mid-30s. All teacher candidates who were
student teaching, including the participants of this study, received a critical incident
protocol that contained a common set of eight guided questions and prompts; there-
 174 B.G. Bruster and B.R. Peterson

fore, this assignment was not an additional requirement for the participants. The
protocol provided a definition of the critical incident technique, as well as carefully
crafted questions and prompts designed to guide the reflection process.
Within the timeframe of the study, the 20 participants generated 16 reflections
each, one per week, totaling 320 reflections. Of the 320 reflections, half were in the
traditional journaling format and half were in the weblog format. Reflections were
retrieved for analysis every other week of the semester, beginning with week two.
Spacing data retrieval throughout the semester allowed the researchers to conduct
an in-depth study of each reflective narrative and provided an opportunity to track
changes in student reflections during the semester.

Data analysis
The use of critical incidents was the method chosen to elicit qualitative data for this
Downloaded by [Universite De Paris 1] at 14:10 29 August 2013

study. Woolsey (1986) indicated that the critical incident technique is an exploratory
qualitative method of research that has been shown to be both reliable and valid in
generating a comprehensive and detailed description of a situation. The emphasis
was on incidents (things which actually happened and were directly observed),
which were critical (things which significantly affected the outcome) (Woolsey,
1986). All participants were asked to reflect on one incident each week that appeared
to be critical to them. Analysis of each critical incident involved an examination of
language used by participants in their written narratives. Participants responded to
eight prompts when reporting their critical incidents. The prompts were designed to
lead participants to discuss a specific teaching/learning event they experienced or
observed, and then to reflect on the educational significance of the event.
Each critical incident narrative was coded looking first for preliminary categories
then reread and altered as additional themes and patterns emerged (Straus & Corbin,
1990). Analysis was informed by Strauss and Corbin’s (1990) open and axial
coding procedures. Open coding allowed for an examination of the data as a whole,
with repeating elements and recurring themes noted and categorized. Once initial
themes had been identified, they were isolated for further analysis in a second stage.
This second stage of analysis proceeded through iterative reviews, beginning in the
first review to code comments as they related to the language used by participants.
This descriptive coding identified initial categories of reflection. Once the
descriptive coding established these initial categories, subsequent reviews of all
comments were used for validation. This “respondent triangulation” (Hammersley
& Atkinson, 1993) enabled the adjusting of categories or the creation of new ones
to accommodate all assertions relative to the emergent themes.
Analysis of the language used by both groups of participants revealed a pattern
of expression that allowed the researchers to identify five distinct themes. These
themes are described in this study as phases of reflection. The term phase was
utilized to denote a stage of thinking employed by the participants. Phase as
defined by Merrian-Webster on-line is an aspect or part (as of a problem) under
consideration. Building on former research, reflections were analyzed initially using
themes that had emerged from previous research (Harris, Bruster, Peterson, & Shutt,
2010). The five themes or phases used in this study had been generated using open
coding. The phases applied to the data were: (1) the descriptive phase, (2) the
inquisitive phase, (3) the investigative phase, (4) the interdependent phase, and (5)
the global phase. Each phase is defined and outlined below. Following the definition
 Reflective Practice 175

of each phase of reflection is a quote from one or more of the participants that
demonstrated evidence of each specific phase. These quotes offered insight into
each phase and featured language that was representative of each.

Descriptive phase
Participants who demonstrated language at the descriptive phase often limited their
perceptions to describing events and interactions between others. Descriptions
involved situations, lessons, projects, or actions and included the setting and obser-
vations of a situation. Participants complied with the basic directions; that is “to
reflect on a critical incident”. There appeared to be no evidence of critical thought
in their writing. As we read and analyzed reflective entries, examples that illustrated
the descriptive phase emerged. A particular student from the weblogging group
wrote the following reflection:
Downloaded by [Universite De Paris 1] at 14:10 29 August 2013

“This week my mentor teacher began TCAP review. I did more observing this week.
This was good for me since I haven’t had a lot of opportunity to just observe my
mentor teacher. TCAP review can sound very boring and overwhelming. However,
my mentor teacher likes to make things fun and interesting for her students. She
turned review into a game for the class to identify areas in which students needed
extra practice and reinforcement. The school’s PTO group has raised money this year
to purchase a responder computer system to work with the smart boards the school is
adding to the classrooms. The responder system has a computer keyboard “responder”
in which they can type an answer and send it to the smart board. The system will
show how many correct and incorrect responses there was to each question. The
students love to use this technology. They couldn’t wait to come to class to use the
computers, not even knowing they were reviewing for TCAP”.

The descriptive phase is represented in this entry because this participant explained
classroom events but failed to provide theory or analysis to support the description.
Although this participant fulfilled the requirement to reflect, this entry was strictly
descriptive in nature and there was no introspective element evident in this narrative.

Inquisitive phase
Language at the inquisitive phase involved evidence of questioning or pondering
professional practice. Participants examined pedagogical decisions and made
inquiries about professional actions. They began to question their ability to be effec-
tive in the classroom while some questioned their decision to teach. Participants
appeared to demonstrate an awareness of multiple problems and dilemmas in the
classroom. Many participants expressed concerns about their limited knowledge and
lack of skills to confidently resolve classroom issues. Reflection at the inquisitive
phase included many elements of the descriptive phase; however, these reflections
still did not exhibit evidence of linking theory to practice. Initial thoughts and ques-
tions at this phase appeared to be based on limited experiences in the classroom
and narrow understandings of teaching. Upon analyzing weblogs and journal
narratives, we identified entries that illustrated the inquisitive phase. A student from
the journaling group wrote:

“I feel really in the dark because I feel that I haven’t observed my mentor teacher’s
interaction with the students enough to get a feel for their schedule or their abilities
yet. I know this is what teachers go through at the beginning of the year, but they do
 176 B.G. Bruster and B.R. Peterson

have the benefit of familiarizing themselves with records, grades, TCAP scores,
discussions with other teachers, IEP records, etc. that I haven’t had.

The main thing that makes me uneasy is planning for next week. I know these classes
are ability grouped for instruction which makes it somewhat easier, but I don’t know
what this class has covered this year, how much time they have spent discussing cer-
tain concepts, or their individual abilities. How am I going to know which students
need extra support or attention?”

This narrative demonstrated awareness of an element of effective teaching, the

importance of using students’ prior knowledge to inform instruction: “I know these
classes are ability grouped for instruction … but I don’t know what has been cov-
ered this year.” The participant has moved beyond description, to include evidence
of concern for students. Evidence of inquiry in this narrative provided a more
critical examination of the classroom situation, but no alternatives were sought. The
Downloaded by [Universite De Paris 1] at 14:10 29 August 2013

language of this entry remained at the inquisitive phase.

Investigative phase
Participants at the investigative phase of reflection began to explore alternatives for
problems after concerns were identified. Feedback was sought from experienced
teachers and outside resources to uncover alternative practices, choices, and meth-
odologies to resolve dilemmas. They began to investigate theories and applications
based on their knowledge or the knowledge of others. Schön (1983) referred to this
type of reflection as retrospective thinking or “reflection-on- action” and “reflection-
in-action.” As we analyzed journal and weblog entries, examples that exemplified
the investigative phase emerged. A participant from a kindergarten placement who
wrote using the weblogging format provided this example of a reflection at the
investigative phase.

“It wasn’t until my drive home that I was able to reflect on what I had learned from
this experience. First, I shouldn’t have let her use so much instruction time. I should
have nipped it in the bud, respectfully but immediately. I was trying to appease her
and it just urged her on. Second, I should not have let her be sassy to me for the rest
of the day. Lastly, I know better than to get into a battle of wills with a kindergartener.
That is a battle a grown-up cannot win. Next time, I will assert myself respectfully
and not waste instructional time.”

The reflections of this student demonstrated focused attention on the management

of the class and facilitation of instruction. The participant described the situation
and moved to the investigative phase to search for credible solutions that would
allow for better use of instructional time. A distinct shift in professional judgment
occurred when the participant was able to look beyond “self” to the well-being of
the students in the classroom.

Interdependent phase
Participants at the interdependent phase were able to combine an understanding of
theory with practice. This application of theory into practice was clearly demon-
strated through choices, actions, and decisions. Classroom environments, social
environment, the community, and academic programs were considered when
 Reflective Practice 177

planning for the best interest of the student. Social, emotional, and physical needs
were also considered essential to the total education of the student. Participants at
this phase considered the contextual factors of cultural diversity of the class, eco-
nomic differences, characteristics of the students, and knowledge of how the content
relates to students. Through analysis of the narratives, we classified entries that
illustrated the interdependent phase. A participant from a fourth grade classroom
wrote the following journal entry:

“On Friday, I was asked to join the other fourth grade teachers, school administrators
and special education representative for an IEP meeting with his father. I immediately
began to understand some of the issues that have faced the school staff for years with
this child. His father was immediately on the defensive because of things the student
had told him at home. When all was discussed and issues put out on the table, it was
apparent that different things were being told and done at home and school. It was
noted that better home to school communication was needed. By listening, I became
Downloaded by [Universite De Paris 1] at 14:10 29 August 2013

aware of some of the special needs of this student that I was not aware of before. I
felt that this meeting made me better prepared for him to come into my class, it
helped me to prepare him for what was expected of him so that he could be success-
ful, and it helped me be able to understand things from his perspective so that I was
more sensitive to his behavior and ready to help defuse problems and guide him
through how to better deal with situations. When the meeting was over, I felt like
many positive things had been accomplished. The teachers and administration asked
the father what things he thought could be done on this end better and they outlined
things which needed to be handled better at home. The student was brought in and
made aware of what had been discussed and how things would be handled going
forward. With everyone on the same page I feel and hope things will be better next
week.”

This participant clearly demonstrated an understanding of the student, the school

environment, and how family dynamics are all interdependent factors for the suc-
cess of the student. The importance of positive home and school relationships was
recognized as a critical component in planning for the future success of the student.

Global phase
At the global phase, participants seemed to consider ethical, moral, and political
issues when making professional decisions. Participants at this phase considered
issues in relation to their knowledge of teaching and learning. Social action and
political influences to policies may result from reflections at this phase. Participants
at this level appeared confident in their teaching ability and their pedagogical focus
expanded beyond the classroom to include the community and the world. Individu-
als at this level often consider moral and ethical issues that directly relate to teach-
ing practices and their profession. A participant who wrote in a journal commented:

“I need to make sure I work to empower students to live above the pressure in the
world. I need to be aware of where they come from and what they are dealing with so
that I can help give them the strength they need to survive in the world.”

The language of this narrative speaks to an understanding of the far-reaching influ-

ence of the larger community and the world. The participant seemed to be clearly
focused on the teacher’s responsibility of preparing students to be successful in a
global workplace.
 178 B.G. Bruster and B.R. Peterson

Figure 1. Participants’ responses and phases of reflection.

Downloaded by [Universite De Paris 1] at 14:10 29 August 2013

Graphic representation of the number of responses from all participants in the study and the
phases of reflection are displayed above. The participants reflected using traditional journals
or online weblogs. The phases of reflection are represented with numbers 1 thru 5.
description = 1, inquisitive = 2, investigative = 3, interdependent = 4, and global = 5.

Additional findings
Comparison of the weblog reflections and the journal reflections revealed distinct
differences in the way in which language was used in each type of reflective
method. For example:

• Reflective language used in the journaling group was formal and structured.
Participants in this group appeared to view the journal reflections as a course
assignment and not as a tool to inform instructional practice.
• Reflections from the weblogging group were more informal and conversa-
tional. These participants appeared to offer suggestions and ideas as a form of
support for each other. The weblogging format seemed to allow participants
to interact with each other informally in a social-networking style.
• Weblog entries were supportive in nature, especially among participants who
had previously worked together in other university courses. These entries
contained affirmative or supportive language.
• Participants who weblogged appeared comfortable asking questions and
seeking advice from one another.

Reflective practice and critical thinking were intentionally promoted through

the use of the critical incident technique. Analysis of the reflective narratives from
the weblogging group and the journaling group are reported in Table 1. Each of

Table 1. Number of reflections vs phases and types.

Source df Ss Ms f p
Phases of Reflection 4 4486.6 1121.65 2.58 0.190
Types of Reflection 1 6400.9 6400.90 14.73 0.018
Error 4 1738.6 434.65
Total 9 12626.1
 Reflective Practice 179

the phases (descriptive, inquisitive, investigative, interdependent, and global) and

the two reflection formats, weblogging and journaling, were analyzed. Analysis
was conducted using a Two-way ANOVA.
The results of the Two-way ANOVA clearly indicated a significant difference
between the reflections of those who weblogged and the reflections of those who
wrote in traditional journals, with p = 0.018 < 0.05. From this data, we con-
cluded that the method of reflection, either weblogging or journaling, created a
difference in the results of the reflections written by the participants. There was
no interaction between the two reflection formats. The results of the data on the
phases of reflection indicated that there was no significant difference among the
phases, with p = 0.190, for either the webloggers or for those who wrote in
journals.
Participants who wrote in weblogs reflected more extensively than those who
wrote using journals. There were 30% more written narratives from the participants
Downloaded by [Universite De Paris 1] at 14:10 29 August 2013

who weblogged.
There are several possible explanations for the extensive narratives from the
weblogging participants. Participants who weblogged used the technology as a
social space in order to seek advice from classmates, to support each other in diffi-
cult times, and to celebrate accomplishments. When using this venue, the social
context must be described in detail in order for other webloggers to understand and
be able to contribute opinions and/or help. The analysis revealed that the greatest
difference was seen in the descriptive phase, where almost five times more
descriptive narratives were written by those who weblogged. Reflections of all par-
ticipants exhibited a consistent pattern of response at the inquisitive, investigative,
and interdependent phases and accounted for 45% of all reflections. Participants
from both groups reflected at the global phase less often; however, the participants
in the weblogging group demonstrated more global awareness in their written narra-
tives. The quantity of responses at the global phase for participants who wrote using
weblogs was considerably more than the responses from participants who wrote
using the traditional journaling format. For example, the webloggers responded five
times more at the global phase compared to those who wrote in journals. When
analyzing this significant difference, we referred back to the definition and language
that described the global phase in relation to the webloggers. In the global phase,
participants referred to ethical and moral issues related to the teaching profession
and considered issues related to their teaching. The weblogging venue provided the
social experience for additional dialogue necessary to process the critical incident.
The socially constructed dialogue used among the webloggers produced opportuni-
ties for participants to process the dilemmas of the critical incident. Participants
who weblogged asked for opinions, got suggestions on classroom and behavioral
issues, and actively invited other webloggers to weigh-in on ideas, issues, and
classroom concerns. According to Bohn (1990), people who think together in a
coherent movement have tremendous power. Individuals, who know each other and
engage in dialogue, have the potential to experience a coherent movement of
communication. The participants who reflected using the weblog had an implicit
shared process of communication. The weblogging provided a venue for these
participants to share their consciousness and to be able to think and work together.
Weblogging allowed the opportunity to have a shared collective understanding and
the forum to openly dialogue.
 180 B.G. Bruster and B.R. Peterson

Conclusion
There is little argument that reflective writing is a good way to foster critical thinking,
encourage self expression, and give students a sense of ownership of their work. A
goal of teacher preparation programs is to ensure that new teachers emerge as
successful reflective practitioners. Reflective practice cannot be assumed in teacher
education programs; it must be a construct that is purposefully integrated into the cur-
riculum of an entire program. A synthesis of the findings suggests that opportunities
for dialogue through social media provide an increased generation of inquiry that
leads to critical reflection. What was essential for this work was that dialogue gener-
ated through the use of web-logs was spontaneous and inquisitive in nature. Without
the introduction of a mechanism for reflection like the critical incident technique, it
could not be assumed that reflection beyond the descriptive phase would be gener-
ated. This technique afforded participants the opportunity to systematically identify
Downloaded by [Universite De Paris 1] at 14:10 29 August 2013

and analyze the day-to-day challenges inherent in teaching. Whether participants

were discussing teaching dilemmas using traditional journals or the weblogging for-
mat, the critical incident technique provided a forum for in-depth reflection. Analysis
of the language used by participants in their reflective narratives revealed five discrete
themes that were consistent throughout this study. The critical incident technique
afforded participants the venue to move beyond descriptive reflection to engagement
in a more critical reflective approach. Participants were able to move from merely
describing an incident to questioning and investigating alternatives that allowed them
to take ownership of their teaching. Data also revealed evidence of the participants’
awareness of their students and an increased understanding of the teaching process.
Some participants were able to connect their reflections to a global awareness
expanding their pedagogical focus beyond the classroom.
One of the unexpected outcomes of this study was the insight gained by the
researchers into participants’ thought processes. For example, both researchers were
impressed when a participant connected the importance of the family/school partner-
ship and the impact that partnership had on the success of a child in the classroom.
This depth of understanding was rarely evident in the reflective writing of teacher
candidates prior to this study.
Regardless of the medium of reflection, it is imperative that teacher educators
embed opportunities for critical reflective practice throughout their programs. In
order to generate stronger critical analysis of teaching, teacher education programs
need to incorporate a technique that fosters reflection through increased opportuni-
ties for dialogue. There is considerable empirical work needed to establish a full
understanding of reflective thinking.
Acknowledging the need for increased opportunities for reflection, it is essential
that teacher education programs examine new ways to promote reflective practice
among teacher candidates. This study was limited by the sample size; future studies
are necessary with a larger pool of participants to extend this body of research.
If we are serious about preparing teacher candidates to succeed in a world with
high accountability, it is imperative to provide them with tools to reflect critically
and think analytically about the context of their teaching.

Notes on contributors
Benita Bruster is an associate professor in the Department of Teaching and Learning at
Austin Peay State University, 601 College Avenue, Clarksville, TN 37044; e-mail
brusterb@apsu.edu. She is the current editor of the Tennessee Reading Teacher Journal and
 Reflective Practice 181

the coordinator for Literacy and Reading. Her research interests include literacy, critical
thinking, and reflective practice.

Barbara Peterson is an associate professor in the Department of Teaching and Learning at

Austin Peay State University, 601 College Avenue, Clarksville, TN 37044; e-mail
petersonb@apsu.edu. Her research interests include reflective practice, transformative
learning, school-university partnerships, and mentoring and teacher induction.

References
American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. (November, 2010). Teacher
performance assessment consortium. http://aacte.org/index.php?/Programs/Teacher-
Performance-Assessment-Consortium-TPAC/teacher-performance-assessment-consortium.
html
Bohn, D. (1990). On Dialogue. Ojai, CA: David Bohn Seminars.
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the
Downloaded by [Universite De Paris 1] at 14:10 29 August 2013

educative process. Boston: Heath.

Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (1993). Ethnography: Principles in practice. New York,
NY: Routledge.
Harris, E.A., Bruster, B.G., Peterson, B.R., & Shutt, T.R. (2010). Examining and facilitating
reflection to improve professional practice. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publish-
ers, Inc.
Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC). (1992). Model stan-
dards for beginning teacher licensing, assessment and development: A resource for state
dialogue. Washington, DC: Author.
Merrian-Webster. on-line. http://www.merrian-webster.com
Merrian-Webster. on-line. http://www.merrian-webster.com.
National Board of Professional Teaching Standards. (2007). http://www.nbpts.org
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. (2000). Program standards for ele-
mentary teacher preparation. National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education:
Author.
Piaget, J. (1967). Six psychological studies. London: London University Press.
Schön, D.A. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books.
Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching
and learning in the professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sen, B., & Ford, N. (2009). Developing reflective practice in LIS education: The SEA-
change model of reflection. Education for Information, 27, 181–195. doi: 10-3233/EFI-
2009-0884.
Shoffner, M. (2009). Personal attitudes and technology: Implications for per-service teacher
reflective practice. Teacher Education Quarterly, 36(2), 143–161.
Stiller, G.M., & Philleo, T. (2003). Blogging and blogspots: An alternative format for
encouraging reflective practice among pre-service teachers. Education, 123(4),
789–797.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures
and techniques. California: SAGE.
Thuynsma, B. (2001). Caring in teaching: Critical incidents in preservice teachers’ field
experiences that influence their career socialization. Unpublished dissertation: State Uni-
versity of New York at Albany.
Tripp, D. (1993). Critical incidents in teaching: Developing professional judgment. New
York: Routledge.
Woolsey, L.K. (1986). The critical incident technique: An innovative qualitative method of
research. Canadian Journal of Counseling, 20(4), 242–254.
Valli, L. (1992). Reflective teacher education: Cases and critiques. New York: SUNY Press.
 182 B.G. Bruster and B.R. Peterson

Appendix A

Reflection on Critical Incidents in Teaching

Respond to at least one critical incident each week. Submit each critical incident to
Milestone IV under clinical teaching “extras.” In addition, submit one Critical Incident
under Standard 1. Share your critical incident with your university mentor at each
weekly seminar

(1) Give a brief description of a teaching/learning incident you experienced recently.

This can be something you observed or something you participated in.
(2) What were the consequences (effects or outcomes) of this event?
(3) Did an educational dilemma exist? If so, describe it.
(4) Is this incident significant enough for you to reinforce it? Why or Why not?
(5) What, if anything, would you have done differently? Why?
(6) What do you expect the students learned from this event?
Downloaded by [Universite De Paris 1] at 14:10 29 August 2013

(7) What did you learn from this event?

(8) What further thoughts or questions were generated from this event?
(9) What in your training helped you respond to the critical incident?

What is a critical incident?

In order to define a critical incident, think of an interaction with a learner in which a signifi-
cant step in learning occurred. “Critical” in this usage means “significant” or “relevant”. It
may also be interpreted to mean clearly effective or ineffective interaction. For example: a
learner discovers a new topic for study and adjusts goals accordingly. A learner asserts that
certain tasks or materials are not useful to his or her goal; a learner sets a different pace or
scope for learning as a result of encountering an unexpected obstacle. These are critical inci-
dents because they clearly contribute to the evolution of an educative experience.
An incident is not intended to tell the whole story of a complex relationship. Rather it is
intended to describe a single specific exchange, some particular activity done on a particular
occasion, notable or interesting in itself regardless of the eventual outcome.
The purpose or intent of the described incident should be fairly clear to you. Your
description of the incident should include the intention of the response and its apparent
effects on the learner. In other words, what difference did your assistance or the assistance
of the person you observed make to the progress of the learner toward the goal? When
assessing the significance of the incident, you should trust your own perceptions. You are
encouraged to select critical incidents from current experiences, but any detailed report of
significant past interactions is appropriate. The important criterion for a critical incident is
that you must find it significant to teaching and learning.