UDAMUN 2024 Presents

United Nations Women (UNW)

Agenda: Addressing economic inequality and employment
discrimination in sociopolitical and STEM fields with special
emphasis on education and women’s entrepreneurial
representation.
 United Nations Women

Table of Contents

Letter from the Executive Board Page 3

About the Committee - Mandate, History, Functions and Notable

Page 5
Actions

What is Employment Discrimination? Page 9

Key Forms of Discrimination Page 10

Strategies for Mitigation Page 11

Historical Struggle of Women for Employment Opportunities Page 12

Current Challenges Page 13

Current Status Page 15

Factors Contributing to Discrimination Page 18

Global Programs Aimed at Increasing Women’s Participation in

Page 19
Technical Fields

Increase in Women in Leadership Roles in Fortune 500 (1999-

Page 22
2023)

Current Economic Status of Women Globally Page 27

Women’s Underrepresentation in Leadership Roles Page 30

UN Initiatives Aimed at Women in Business Page 31

Extended Readings Page 33

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Letter from the Executive Board

Dear Delegates,

We welcome you all to the United Nations Women at United Diplomats’

Association Model UN 2024. It is our honour and privilege to serve as your
Executive Board for the duration of the conference. Please find the research
folder as shared by the secretariat for purposes of this conference. The research
folder contains essential readings and documents which will aid in not only your
research but also to build fundamental expertise, which will stay with you for
periods much after the ending of this conference.

This guidance document remains extensive in nature as it aims to introduce

delegates to the many vast topics of significance that can be looked into as part of
our agenda. You will find many topics beyond the course of the agenda at face
value as well, which aim to expand your understanding beyond the bare minimum
of what is expected. You do not have to cover every topic of the readings,
however covering those which are of relevance according to you is of utmost
importance. The purpose of giving readings directly instead of taking our portions
from them and giving them here, is to allow the creation of holistic and more
importantly, contextual knowledge. The various types of rights as given to us on
forums such as the UN remain largely relative, and need to be understood in
context of larger rights, thus the readings.

The research folder at hand will help you throughout the course of your
preparation for the conference from now on. However, we need to stress on the
importance of conducting your own research, prior to the committee’s sessions,
especially given the technicalities of the agenda and its broad timeline. This guide
will provide you with a background that will form the basis for your research. We
would highly recommend that you do a good amount of research beyond what is
covered in the study guide.

We have to underline that we will firmly seek the engagement of all of you in the
debate and the committee work, so please, do not hesitate to disturb us for
anything you may need. We can assure you that we will remain at your disposal
during your preparation and your time in the committee, for any inquiries that
may arise.

First-time delegates are advised to read the MUN Rules of Procedure prescribed
by the conference and consult with informative videos demonstrating the
manner/conduct of the committee. Rest, the same aspect for research applies as
well.

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Do not feel taken aback on the research, foreign policy and other details of the
allotted country. Furthermore, you all are entrusted upon a task greater than
winning a trophy, that is, to do justice to the responsibility of finding solutions to
one of the most critical and challenging problems the world is facing today.

We hope that this conference turns out to be a great learning experience for all of
us, and we have substantive discussion and debate on the two days of the
conference.

Best,

Eshaan Gulati Uday Chandak

Director Deputy Director

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About the Committee - Mandate, History,

Functions and Notable Actions
UN Women, formally known as the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and
the Empowerment of Women, has a specific mandate focused on promoting
gender equality and empowering women globally. Established in July 2010 by the
United Nations General Assembly, UN Women works to accelerate progress on
meeting women's needs worldwide. Here are the key components of UN Women's
mandate:

Eliminating discrimination against women and girls involves promoting gender

equality and women's rights at international, national, and local levels, and
assisting governments in developing and implementing policies and legislation
that support gender equality. Empowering women encompasses supporting their
access to economic resources and opportunities, such as employment,
entrepreneurship, and financial services, and promoting their full and equal
participation in decision-making processes. Ending violence against women and
girls requires implementing programs and policies to prevent violence, providing
support services for survivors, and raising awareness about gender-based
violence. Ensuring women's participation in peace and security processes involves
promoting their inclusion in peace negotiations, peacekeeping, and post-conflict
reconstruction efforts, and supporting initiatives that address their specific needs
in conflict settings. Enhancing gender mainstreaming and accountability includes
strengthening the capacity of UN entities, governments, and other partners to
integrate gender perspectives into their work, and tracking progress on gender
equality commitments to hold entities accountable. Promoting global standards
and coordination involves supporting the development and implementation of
international norms on gender equality and ensuring coordinated efforts among
UN agencies, member states, and other stakeholders.

UN Women's work is guided by key international frameworks, including the

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW) and the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action.

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UN Women's history is filled with actions that paved the way for progress in
gender equality. Here are some highlights:

UN Women has played a pivotal role in creating landmark agreements such as the
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, a global blueprint for women's
empowerment, and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), an international treaty promoting
women's rights. Additionally, UN Women has fostered initiatives to connect and
empower women in leadership positions, exemplified by the Regional Women's
Lobby for Reconciliation, Peace, and Security in the Western Balkans. They also
actively support countries in implementing national plans addressing gender
equality concerns, providing training and resources to nations like Kyrgyzstan in
developing their National Action Plan on Women, Peace, and Security.

United Nations Women and United Nations Committee on status of

women. What makes them distinct?
The United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (UNCSW) and UN Women
are integral to the UN's gender equality framework. Established in 1946, UNCSW is
a functional commission of the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC),
focusing on policy-making, monitoring, and evaluating global progress on gender
equality. It conducts annual sessions with representatives from member states,
civil society, and other stakeholders to discuss advancements and challenges,
producing agreed conclusions, reports, and resolutions to guide policies on
women's rights. Comprising 45 elected member states, UNCSW sets international
norms and standards through these sessions.

In contrast, UN Women, established in 2010, is the UN entity for gender equality

and the empowerment of women, merging functions of several former UN bodies.
Its mandate includes operational activities like implementing programs for
women's empowerment across various sectors, including economic
empowerment, political participation, ending violence against women, and peace
and security. UN Women also engages in advocacy, policy development, and
capacity building, providing funding and technical assistance to support gender
equality initiatives.

While UNCSW primarily functions as a policy-making and monitoring body, setting

international norms and providing a platform for dialogue, UN Women acts as an
operational and advocacy entity, implementing projects and translating policies
into action at the grassroots level. Together, they complement each other in
advancing global gender equality and women's empowerment.

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UNCSW's annual sessions in March at the UN Headquarters in New York gather

representatives to discuss and review gender equality progress. These sessions
produce agreed conclusions on priority themes, offering specific
recommendations for implementation. The CSW also issues reports and
resolutions with comprehensive analyses and policy recommendations. Engaging
diverse stakeholders through expert panels and interactive dialogues, the CSW
encourages member states to submit national reports on their progress.
Collaborating closely with UN Women and other UN entities, the CSW plays a
crucial role in advancing global gender equality and women's empowerment.

Approaching this agenda

Addressing economic inequality and employment discrimination in STEM fields
represents an agenda of profound significance, offering immense potential to
deepen our understanding of issues that affect us all in various ways. As young
debaters engaged in Model United Nations, it is crucial to recognize that our
primary goal is to enhance our knowledge, hone our communication skills, and
avail ourselves of the valuable opportunities that this platform and the United
Nations offer.

In examining this agenda, which centres on employment discrimination and

income inequality, delegates have the opportunity to expand their knowledge
base. Beginning with a foundational understanding of unemployment and
inequality lays the groundwork for comprehensive research. Moving forward, the
analysis delves into the intersection of STEM disciplines with socio-political
factors.

This exploration prompts critical questions. Why do STEM fields, which demand
high technical proficiency, struggle to attract diverse talent across genders?
Answers to these questions emerge not only through rigorous research but also
by observing and reflecting on everyday experiences and interactions within our
communities.

As we endeavour to grasp the implications of this agenda in a real-world context—

within our personal lives, families, and broader society—we aim to bridge the
understanding gained in conferences with tangible, real-world impacts. This
transition underscores our commitment to effecting meaningful change beyond
theoretical discussions.

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Education emerges as a pivotal aspect of addressing these challenges. It stands

out as the most potent tool in our arsenal, capable of profoundly influencing the
outcomes of our agenda. The term "education" itself remains open to
interpretation by the committee, encompassing critical areas such as primary
education in developing nations, technical education for women and other
marginalised groups, government incentives, and global upliftment programs. The
potential solutions here are vast, offering fertile ground for innovative ideas and
approaches that have proven successful in different global contexts.

One of the remarkable aspects of this agenda is its borderless nature. Delegates
need not confine their research solely to their own member states but should
adopt a global outlook. It is imperative to analyse proposed solutions, arguments,
and their potential impacts comprehensively.

Throughout this research process, I urge all delegates to aim for a "complete
argument" or a "closed loop" in their deliberations. This entails presenting a well-
rounded argument structured around identifying the problem ("fact"), analysing
its implications ("analysis"), and supporting their arguments or solutions with
concrete examples or data ("example"). Following this structured approach will
not only strengthen our arguments but also enhance the clarity and effectiveness
of our proposals.

In conclusion, as we embark on this journey of exploration and debate, let us

approach this agenda with rigour, empathy, and a commitment to finding
innovative solutions that can drive real-world change. By embracing the
complexities of economic inequality and employment discrimination in STEM
fields, we can contribute meaningfully to creating a more equitable and inclusive
global community

Introduction to the agenda

In the realm of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM),
economic inequality and employment discrimination pose formidable barriers to
inclusive participation and innovation. These issues are underscored by stark
statistics and real-world disparities that highlight the urgent need for systemic
reform and targeted interventions to level the playing field. Access to quality
education serves as a cornerstone for entering STEM fields, yet economic
disparities significantly impact educational outcomes. According to a report by
the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (Item number.
Attached below) , students from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds
are more likely to underperform in science subjects compared to their peers from
affluent families. This disparity in educational attainment perpetuates throughout
higher education, where marginalised groups face challenges in accessing STEM
programs and resources essential for career advancement.

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Moreover, employment discrimination within STEM industries exacerbates

economic inequality.Marginalised communities are further underrepresented in
STEM occupations compared to their share of the overall workforce, despite
comparable educational achievements. Women, too, face significant challenges; a
study by the National Science Foundation found that women earn only 82 cents
for every dollar earned by men in STEM fields, reflecting pervasive gender pay
gaps.

Internationally, countries are recognizing the imperative to address these

inequalities through targeted initiatives. Addressing economic inequality and
employment discrimination in STEM fields requires concerted efforts across
multiple fronts. Policymakers must prioritise equitable access to STEM education
and support initiatives that provide resources and mentorship to students from
underrepresented backgrounds. Corporate leaders and academic institutions
must commit to transparent hiring practices and inclusive workplace cultures that
value diversity of experience and perspective.

By leveraging real-world data and statistics to inform policy decisions and

strategic interventions, societies can unlock the full potential of diverse talent in
STEM fields. Through collaborative efforts at the local, national, and international
levels, we can build a future where STEM disciplines serve as catalysts for social
mobility, economic prosperity, and global innovation.

What is Employment Discrimination?

Global Perspective on Employment Discrimination
Employment discrimination is a pervasive issue that transcends national
boundaries, affecting labour markets, economic productivity, and social cohesion
worldwide. This phenomenon involves the unfair treatment of individuals in the
workplace based on characteristics such as race, gender, age, disability, religion,
sexual orientation, and other protected attributes. Despite varying legal
frameworks and cultural contexts, the underlying principles and impacts of
employment discrimination remain strikingly consistent across the globe.

Legal Frameworks and International Standards

Globally, numerous countries have enacted legislation to combat employment
discrimination, drawing on international standards set by bodies such as the
International Labour Organization (ILO) and the United Nations (UN). The ILO’s
Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111), is a
pivotal instrument that defines discrimination and mandates member states to
promote equality of opportunity and treatment in employment. The UN’s
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, particularly Articles 23 and 26, also
underscores the right to work and the importance of non-discrimination.

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Data and Statistics

Employment discrimination remains a significant barrier to economic
participation and equality. According to a report by the World Economic Forum,
gender gaps in labour force participation contribute to an estimated global GDP
loss of $12 trillion. Similarly, the ILO reports that women, on average, earn 20%
less than men globally. The disability employment gap is also stark, with
individuals with disabilities being twice as likely to be unemployed as those
without disabilities, according to the UN.

Key Forms of Discrimination

Gender Discrimination
Gender discrimination is one of the most prevalent forms, manifesting in wage
gaps, unequal access to job opportunities, and workplace harassment. The global
gender pay gap averages around 20%, and women are underrepresented in
leadership positions, holding less than a quarter of senior roles globally. The
World Bank highlights that nearly half of the world’s economies have laws that
constrain women’s economic opportunities.

Racial and Ethnic Discrimination

Racial and ethnic discrimination significantly affects hiring, promotion, and
compensation practices. Studies show that job applicants with ethnic-sounding
names are less likely to be called for interviews compared to those with dominant
culture names, even when qualifications are identical. Ethnic minorities often
experience wage disparities and are overrepresented in low-paying, insecure jobs.

Age Discrimination
Age discrimination impacts both younger and older workers. Younger individuals
face challenges due to perceived inexperience, while older workers encounter
biases regarding their adaptability and technological skills. The OECD reports that
older workers are often pushed out of the labour market prematurely,
exacerbating social security burdens and reducing economic output.

Disability Discrimination
Individuals with disabilities face significant barriers to employment, including
physical accessibility issues, discriminatory attitudes, and lack of reasonable
accommodations. The employment rate for people with disabilities is significantly
lower than for those without disabilities, often leading to higher poverty rates
among disabled populations.

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LGBTQ+ Discrimination
LGBTQ+ individuals frequently encounter discrimination in hiring, job retention,
and workplace environment. Despite legal protections in many jurisdictions, social
stigma and prejudices persist, resulting in lower job satisfaction and higher
turnover rates among LGBTQ+ employees.

Economic and Social Impacts

Employment discrimination not only harms individuals but also has broader
economic and social repercussions. Economies that fail to fully utilise their human
capital suffer from reduced productivity and innovation. The International
Monetary Fund (IMF) estimates that eliminating gender gaps in the workforce
could increase global GDP by 35%.

Socially, discrimination fosters inequality, social unrest, and health disparities.

The stress and exclusion associated with workplace discrimination contribute to
mental and physical health issues, which in turn affect overall societal well-being
and healthcare costs.

Strategies for Mitigation

Policy and Legislation

Effective anti-discrimination laws are crucial. These laws should encompass
comprehensive definitions of discrimination, robust enforcement mechanisms,
and provisions for affirmative action where necessary. Countries with stringent
anti-discrimination frameworks tend to have better outcomes in reducing
workplace inequality.

Corporate Practices
Corporations play a pivotal role in combating discrimination through inclusive
policies and practices. Initiatives such as diversity training, transparent
recruitment processes, equitable pay structures, and employee resource groups
can foster an inclusive workplace culture.

Global Initiatives
International cooperation and the adoption of global standards are essential for
addressing employment discrimination. Organisations like the ILO and the UN
continue to advocate for policies and practices that promote equality.
Multinational corporations also have a responsibility to uphold these standards
across their global operations.

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Historical Struggle of Women for Employment

Opportunities
The journey of women towards gaining equal employment opportunities is a long
and arduous one, marked by significant socio-legal milestones and persistent
challenges. Historically, women’s roles were largely confined to domestic spheres,
influenced by deep-seated patriarchal norms. However, the progression from the
industrial revolution to the modern era has seen a gradual yet impactful
transformation in women’s participation in the workforce.

Early Industrial Era

During the early industrial era in the 18th and 19th centuries, the demand for
labour led to increased employment of women, albeit in highly exploitative
conditions. Women worked long hours in factories, mines, and textile mills, often
for significantly lower wages than men. Despite their critical contributions, women
were denied basic labour rights and protections. The labour movements of the
late 19th and early 20th centuries began to address some of these disparities,
advocating for improved working conditions and the introduction of protective
labour legislation.

The World Wars

The World Wars catalysed a significant shift in women’s employment. With men
conscripted into military service, women stepped into roles traditionally occupied
by men, working in factories, offices, and other essential services. This period
demonstrated women’s capabilities in diverse and skilled professions, challenging
prevailing gender stereotypes. However, post-war periods often saw women
pushed back into domestic roles, reflecting societal reluctance to sustain these
advancements.

The Mid-20th Century and Women's Liberation Movement

The mid-20th century marked a pivotal era with the emergence of the women’s
liberation movement. This period saw a concerted push for gender equality,
driven by advocacy groups, feminist theorists, and legislative changes. Key
milestones included the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in
1948, which emphasised equal rights for men and women, and the establishment
of the Commission on the Status of Women by the United Nations.

Legislation such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964
played crucial roles in addressing gender discrimination in employment. These
laws aimed to eliminate wage disparities and ensure equal opportunities for
women in the workplace. The 1970s and 1980s further witnessed the
implementation of affirmative action policies and the establishment of workplace
anti-discrimination regulations globally.

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Late 20th Century to Present

The late 20th and early 21st centuries have seen continued progress and ongoing
challenges. Women’s participation in the labour force has increased significantly,
and more women are attaining higher education and entering professional fields
traditionally dominated by men. The rise of women in leadership roles, though still
limited, represents a positive trend towards gender parity.

Current Challenges
Despite these advancements, women continue to face substantial
challenges in achieving equal employment opportunities globally. These
challenges are multifaceted, encompassing structural, cultural, and
institutional barriers.

Wage Gap
The gender wage gap remains a pervasive issue. On average, women earn
approximately 20% less than men globally. This disparity is influenced by
factors such as occupational segregation, where women are
overrepresented in lower-paying sectors, and the undervaluation of work
traditionally performed by women.

Occupational Segregation
Women are often concentrated in specific industries and roles, such as
healthcare, education, and administrative positions. These sectors tend to
offer lower wages and fewer opportunities for advancement compared to
male-dominated industries like technology and engineering.

Glass Ceiling
The glass ceiling effect continues to hinder women’s career advancement. Women
are underrepresented in senior leadership positions, with only about 24% of
senior roles globally held by women. This is partly due to implicit biases and
organisational cultures that favour male leadership traits.

Work-Life Balance and Care Responsibilities

Women disproportionately bear the burden of unpaid care work and household
responsibilities, which can limit their availability for full-time employment and
career advancement. The lack of affordable childcare and supportive family leave
policies exacerbates this issue.

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Sexual Harassment and Workplace Discrimination

Sexual harassment and discriminatory practices remain significant obstacles.
Women often face hostile work environments and are subjected to harassment,
which can deter them from pursuing certain careers or advancing within their
fields.

Legal and Policy Gaps

While many countries have enacted anti-discrimination laws, enforcement
remains inconsistent. Inadequate legal protections and weak enforcement
mechanisms fail to provide sufficient recourse for women facing discrimination
and harassment.

Global Efforts and Future Directions

International organisations, governments, and advocacy groups continue to work
towards addressing these challenges. Initiatives such as the United Nations’
Sustainable Development Goal 5 aim to achieve gender equality and empower all
women and girls by 2030. Policies promoting pay transparency, gender quotas in
leadership, and comprehensive family support services are being implemented in
various regions to mitigate disparities.

Education and Training

Investing in education and training for women is critical. Enhancing access to
STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education and
vocational training can open up higher-paying career opportunities for women
and reduce occupational segregation.

Corporate Responsibility
Corporations play a vital role in fostering inclusive workplaces. Implementing
diversity and inclusion initiatives, conducting bias training, and establishing
robust reporting and support systems for harassment can create a more equitable
work environment.

Legislative Reforms
Strengthening and enforcing anti-discrimination laws, along with adopting policies
that support work-life balance, such as paid parental leave and flexible work
arrangements, can help women balance career and family responsibilities.

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Current Status
Wealth and Asset Comparison between Men and Women

The disparity in wealth and assets between men and women is a critical aspect of
economic inequality that has significant implications for financial security,
economic independence, and overall well-being. This inequality is influenced by
various factors, including income disparities, differences in labour force
participation, access to financial resources, and socio-cultural norms.

Income Disparities
Income is a primary driver of wealth accumulation. The gender wage gap remains a
pervasive issue globally, with women earning significantly less than men for
comparable work. According to the World Economic Forum's Global Gender Gap
Report 2023, the global gender pay gap stands at approximately 20%. This wage
gap is particularly pronounced in high-paying sectors such as STEM fields.

Wealth Accumulation
Wealth accumulation involves the acquisition of assets such as property,
investments, and savings. Studies show that women generally have lower net
worth compared to men. According to a report by the World Bank, women’s
wealth is, on average, about 40% lower than men’s globally. This disparity is
attributed to lower lifetime earnings, career interruptions due to caregiving
responsibilities, and limited access to financial resources and investment
opportunities.

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Access to Financial Services

Access to financial services is crucial for wealth building. Despite improvements,
women in many regions still face barriers to accessing banking services, credit,
and investment products. The World Bank's Global Findex Database 2021
indicates that 72% of men have bank accounts compared to 65% of women
globally. This gap restricts women's ability to save, invest, and manage financial
risks.

Wage Comparison in STEM Fields

The wage gap is particularly evident in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering,
and Mathematics) fields, which are critical for economic advancement and
innovation. Here is a detailed comparison of wages earned by men and women in
various STEM fields:

Men (Avg. Annual Wage) Women (Avg. Annual Wage)

Engineering $85,000 $75,000

Computer Science $92,000 $82,000

Mathematics $78,000 $71,000

Biological Sciences $70,000 $65,000

Physical Sciences $75,000 $68,000

Discrimination Against Women in Technical and STEM Fields: A summary

overview
Despite significant progress in gender equality, women continue to face
substantial discrimination in technical and STEM (Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics) fields. This discrimination manifests in various
forms, including hiring biases, wage disparities, underrepresentation in leadership
roles, and workplace culture issues. Analysing real-world data and figures reveals
the depth and complexity of these issues.

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Hiring Biases
Hiring biases against women in STEM fields are well-documented. Studies have
shown that gender biases affect the recruitment process, often resulting in fewer
opportunities for women. A notable study published in the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences found that science faculty members rated male
applicants as significantly more competent and hireable than identically qualified
female applicants. This bias extended to offering higher starting salaries and more
career mentoring to male applicants.

Source: Moss-Racusin, C. A., et al. (2012). Science faculty’s subtle gender biases
favour male students. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(41),
16474-16479.

Wage Disparities
Wage disparities between men and women in STEM fields are a persistent issue.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, women in STEM jobs earn, on average, 79
cents for every dollar earned by men. This wage gap is even wider in certain STEM
occupations. For example, women in engineering and computer science earn
significantly less than their male counterparts, even after controlling for
education and experience.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2020). Women in STEM: 2019. American Community
Survey Reports.

Underrepresentation in Leadership Roles

Women are significantly underrepresented in leadership roles within technical
and STEM fields. A report by McKinsey & Company highlights that women hold
only 24% of senior leadership positions in STEM companies. This
underrepresentation is often attributed to the "glass ceiling" effect, where women
encounter barriers to advancement due to biases and lack of support.

Source: McKinsey & Company (2020). Women in the Workplace 2020.

Workplace Culture
The workplace culture in many technical and STEM environments can be
exclusionary and hostile towards women. The 2020 Global Gender Gap Report by
the World Economic Forum indicates that women in STEM fields frequently report
experiencing gender-based discrimination, including microaggressions and sexual
harassment. These negative experiences contribute to higher attrition rates
among women in STEM compared to their male counterparts.

Source: World Economic Forum (2020). Global Gender Gap Report 2020.

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Educational Barriers
Educational barriers also play a significant role in the underrepresentation of
women in STEM. While women have achieved parity or even outnumber men in
some scientific disciplines, they remain underrepresented in critical areas such as
engineering and computer science. According to UNESCO, women account for
only 35% of all students enrolled in STEM-related fields of study globally.

Source: UNESCO (2017). Cracking the code: Girls’ and women’s education in
STEM.

Factors Contributing to Discrimination

Implicit Bias
Implicit biases are unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that affect
understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner. In STEM fields,
these biases often manifest as assumptions about women’s capabilities and
interests, leading to discriminatory practices in hiring, promotions, and everyday
interactions.

Source: Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2013). Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good
People. Delacorte Press.

Stereotype Threat
Stereotype threat refers to the risk of confirming negative stereotypes about an
individual’s own group. This psychological phenomenon can undermine women’s
performance and interest in STEM fields. Research has shown that women
exposed to stereotypes about gender and STEM performance tend to perform
worse in STEM-related tasks.

Source: Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape

intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613-629.

Lack of Role Models

The scarcity of female role models in STEM fields can discourage young women
from pursuing STEM careers. Role models provide critical mentorship and can
help counteract negative stereotypes. According to a report by the National
Center for Women & Information Technology, the presence of female mentors and
role models significantly increases the likelihood that young women will pursue
and persist in STEM careers.

Source: National Center for Women & Information Technology (2016). Women in
IT: The Facts.

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Global Programs Aimed at Increasing Women’s

Participation in Technical Fields
Several global initiatives have been launched to promote women's participation in
technical fields such as STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics). These programs aim to address the gender gap by providing
education, training, mentorship, and support to women and girls. Below are
examples of such initiatives, along with their outcomes and the benefits
experienced by women.

The Athena SWAN Charter focuses on advancing gender equality in academic and
research settings within STEM fields. It has proven effective in increasing the
representation of women in senior academic positions and enhancing support
systems for career development among female researchers. By implementing
rigorous assessment frameworks and advocating for policy changes, the Charter
encourages institutions to prioritise gender equity as a fundamental aspect of
their organisational culture.

Similarly, the Science in Australia Gender Equity (SAGE) initiative collaborates

closely with universities and research organisations to foster gender equity and
diversity within STEM disciplines. Through evidence-based strategies and targeted
policy interventions, SAGE has successfully improved workplace cultures and
expanded opportunities for women in scientific research and leadership roles.
This initiative underscores the importance of data-driven decision-making and
institutional commitment to achieving tangible outcomes in gender equity.

In Canada, the Dimensions: Equity, Diversity and Inclusion Canada program

mandates post-secondary institutions to develop comprehensive strategies
aimed at promoting equity, diversity, and inclusion in research environments. By
requiring institutions to address systemic barriers that impede the advancement
of underrepresented groups in STEM fields, Dimensions fosters a more inclusive
and innovative research ecosystem. This initiative emphasises the integration of
equity considerations into all aspects of institutional policies and practices,
thereby creating a supportive environment where diverse talents can thrive.

These initiatives collectively highlight the transformative potential of targeted

interventions in tackling disparities within STEM fields. By adopting holistic
approaches that encompass policy reform, cultural change, and institutional
accountability, countries around the world are actively working towards building
equitable and inclusive STEM communities where all individuals have equal
opportunities to contribute and succeed.

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Girls Who Code

Overview: Girls Who Code is a non-profit organisation working to close the gender
gap in technology by providing young women with coding skills and encouraging
them to pursue careers in computer science.

Impact:
Since its inception in 2012, Girls Who Code has reached over 500,000 girls
through its programs.
Participants have shown a significant increase in interest and confidence in
pursuing careers in technology. According to a 2020 report, 80% of alumni
declare a major or minor in computer science or related fields, compared to
the national average of 37%.

Benefits:
Alumni of the program are landing internships and jobs at leading tech
companies like Google, Microsoft, and Facebook.
The program has contributed to narrowing the gender gap in computer science
education and careers.

UNESCO’s STEM and Gender Advancement (SAGA)

Overview: SAGA aims to improve the participation of women in STEM fields by
supporting the development of policies that foster gender equality in science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics.

Impact:
The SAGA project has influenced policy development in over 30 countries,
providing tools and guidelines to measure and address gender disparities in
STEM.
Several countries have reported increased enrollment of women in STEM
courses and improved retention rates in STEM careers following the
implementation of SAGA-influenced policies.

Benefits:
Women in countries participating in the SAGA project have better access to
STEM education and career opportunities, contributing to greater economic
empowerment and gender equality.

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Technovation Challenge
Overview: Technovation Challenge is a global technology entrepreneurship
program for young women, encouraging them to develop mobile apps that solve
real-world problems.

Impact:
Since 2010, over 23,000 girls from more than 100 countries have participated
in the Technovation Challenge.
Participants have created over 2,000 mobile apps addressing issues ranging
from healthcare to environmental sustainability.

Benefits:
Many participants go on to pursue further education and careers in
technology and entrepreneurship.
The program fosters skills in coding, problem-solving, and business
development, empowering young women to become leaders in tech
innovation.

African Women in Agricultural Research and Development (AWARD)

Overview: AWARD is a career-development program that equips top women
agricultural scientists across sub-Saharan Africa to accelerate agricultural gains
by strengthening their research and leadership skills.

Impact:
AWARD has supported over 500 women scientists from 11 African countries
since 2008.
Fellows have reported increased confidence, improved research skills, and
greater recognition in their fields.

Benefits:
AWARD fellows have secured leadership positions in research institutions,
influencing agricultural policies and practices.
The program has contributed to increased agricultural productivity and food
security in their respective countries.

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Women in Science (WiSci) STEAM Camps

Overview: WiSci STEAM Camps are organised by the U.S. Department of State and
various partners, providing girls from around the world with hands-on training in
science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics.

Impact:
Since 2015, WiSci camps have reached over 600 girls from more than 20
countries.
Participants have reported increased interest in STEAM fields and have gained
practical skills in coding, robotics, and design thinking.

Benefits:
Alumni of the camps have pursued further education and careers in STEAM,
often becoming advocates for gender equality in their communities.
The camps have fostered international collaboration and cultural exchange,
broadening the participants' perspectives and networks.

Increase in Women in Leadership Roles in Fortune

500 (1999-2023)
The representation of women in leadership roles within Fortune 500 companies
specialising in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) has
shown a notable increase over the past 25 years. In 1999, women occupied
approximately 1.5% of these leadership positions. By 2023, this figure had risen to
around 13.5%, reflecting significant progress toward gender diversity and
inclusion in senior management.

The data indicates a steady upward trend in the representation of women in

leadership roles. In the early 2000s, the increase was gradual, as initial diversity
and inclusion initiatives were implemented. The mid-2000s to early 2010s saw an
acceleration in growth as more companies recognized the benefits of gender
diversity and introduced high-profile initiatives and policies to support women's
advancement. The period from 2015 to 2020 marked substantial progress, driven
by global movements advocating for gender equality and greater visibility of
women leaders. Companies adopted more robust measures to ensure equal
opportunities, contributing to this growth.

From 2020 to 2023, the growth rate moderated slightly, reflecting ongoing
challenges such as work-life balance issues and persistent biases. Nevertheless,
the positive trend persists, underscoring continued efforts to close the gender
gap.

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Several factors have contributed to this increase. Policy changes, including

mandatory diversity reporting, gender pay gap analyses, and targeted leadership
development programs, have played a crucial role. Corporate initiatives such as
mentorship programs, sponsorship opportunities, and specialised leadership
training for women have also been instrumental. Cultural shifts towards greater
gender equality, supported by male allies and champions, have further facilitated
this progress. Additionally, the rising participation of women in higher education,
particularly in STEM fields, has expanded the talent pool available for leadership
roles, contributing to their greater representation in the workforce.

Challenges Faced by Women

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Africa
In Africa, women in technical fields face substantial challenges stemming from
deeply entrenched cultural norms and gender biases. Societal expectations often
prioritise domestic responsibilities for women over professional aspirations,
limiting their participation in STEM careers. Educational barriers also play a
significant role; many girls lack access to quality education and are often
discouraged from pursuing technical subjects. Additionally, the economic
instability in various regions hampers investments in education and professional
development programs, further disadvantaged women. Workplace environments
can be unwelcoming, with limited opportunities for mentorship and advancement,
contributing to high attrition rates among women in technical roles.

Asia
Asia presents a complex landscape for women in technical fields, where cultural
stereotypes and societal expectations heavily influence career choices. In many
Asian cultures, traditional gender roles dictate that women prioritise family and
caregiving responsibilities, which often conflict with the demanding nature of
technical careers. This societal pressure results in fewer women pursuing STEM
education and careers. Moreover, workplace cultures in many Asian countries are
male-dominated, creating an environment where women may feel undervalued
and excluded. The lack of flexible working arrangements and insufficient childcare
support further exacerbate the challenges, making it difficult for women to
balance professional and personal responsibilities.

Europe
Despite having one of the highest representations of women in technical fields,
Europe still faces significant challenges. Gender pay gaps and the
underrepresentation of women in senior leadership roles remain persistent issues.
Cultural stereotypes about gender roles in science and technology contribute to
these disparities. Women in Europe often encounter subtle biases and
discrimination that hinder their career progression. Additionally, work-life balance
issues, particularly for women with families, pose a considerable barrier. While
many European countries have implemented policies to support gender equality,
the practical implementation of these policies varies, and cultural attitudes
towards women in technical fields continue to evolve slowly.

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North America
In North America, women in technical fields face challenges related to workplace
culture and advancement opportunities. Despite numerous diversity and
inclusion initiatives, women often encounter gender biases in hiring and
promotion processes. High attrition rates among women in STEM are a significant
concern, often driven by unwelcoming workplace environments and lack of career
advancement. The "leaky pipeline" phenomenon, where women leave STEM
careers at higher rates than men, is prevalent. Additionally, balancing work and
family responsibilities remains a significant challenge due to inadequate parental
leave policies and limited access to affordable childcare. These factors contribute
to the underrepresentation of women in technical leadership roles.

South America
Women in South America face socio-economic barriers and cultural norms that
limit their participation in technical fields. Access to higher education, particularly
in STEM disciplines, is often restricted by economic constraints. Cultural attitudes
that prioritise traditional gender roles discourage women from pursuing technical
careers. Moreover, the professional environments in many South American
countries are male-dominated, with limited support for women in the form of
mentorship and networking opportunities. Gender biases and discrimination in the
workplace further hinder women's career advancement. Efforts to improve gender
diversity in technical fields are ongoing, but progress is slow and uneven across
the region.

Women’s Entrepreneurial and Business Participation Globally

Women's entrepreneurial and business participation has emerged as a pivotal
force in global economic development. Across all six continents, women are
increasingly establishing and leading businesses, contributing to innovation, job
creation, and economic growth. Despite facing numerous challenges, women
entrepreneurs have demonstrated resilience and resourcefulness, driving
significant change in various sectors.

Global Overview and Statistics

North America stands out with one of the highest rates of female
entrepreneurship. In the United States, women own 42% of all businesses,
accounting for nearly 13 million firms that employ 9.4 million people and generate
$1.9 trillion in revenue annually . Similarly, Canada has seen a rise in women-
owned businesses, with approximately 16% of all small and medium-sized
enterprises (SMEs) being female-owned.

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Europe has also witnessed substantial growth in female entrepreneurship. In the

European Union, women constitute around 34.4% of the self-employed and 30%
of start-up entrepreneurs . Countries like Germany, the United Kingdom, and
France have implemented policies and support programs that have boosted
female business ownership.

In Asia, the landscape is diverse, with countries like China and India showing
significant progress. China is home to over 50 million women entrepreneurs,
representing nearly 25% of all entrepreneurs in the country . India, despite
cultural and socio-economic barriers, has seen a rise in women-owned businesses,
driven by government initiatives and increasing access to education and
microfinance .

Africa presents a dynamic picture of female entrepreneurship. Women make up

58% of the continent's self-employed population, with many engaged in the
informal sector . Countries like Nigeria and South Africa are notable for their high
rates of women-led businesses, driven by necessity and supported by various
local and international programs aimed at empowering female entrepreneurs.

South America shows promising trends in women’s entrepreneurial participation.

In Brazil, women own approximately 30% of all businesses, contributing
significantly to the economy . The region's growing focus on gender equality and
women's empowerment has fostered an environment where female
entrepreneurship can thrive.

The Impact of Employment Discrimination

The consequences of employment discrimination extend beyond the individuals
directly affected. It can lead to reduced employee morale, increased turnover,
and lower productivity. Organisations that fail to address discrimination may face
legal liabilities, including costly lawsuits and damage to their reputation. On a
broader scale, systemic discrimination can contribute to economic disparities and
social inequality.

Global Perspective on Employment Discrimination

Employment discrimination is a pervasive issue that transcends national
boundaries, affecting labour markets, economic productivity, and social cohesion
worldwide. This phenomenon involves the unfair treatment of individuals in the
workplace based on characteristics such as race, gender, age, disability, religion,
sexual orientation, and other protected attributes. Despite varying legal
frameworks and cultural contexts, the underlying principles and impacts of
employment discrimination remain strikingly consistent across the globe.

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Legal Frameworks and International Standards

Globally, numerous countries have enacted legislation to combat employment
discrimination, drawing on international standards set by bodies such as the
International Labour Organization (ILO) and the United Nations (UN). The ILO’s
Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111), is a
pivotal instrument that defines discrimination and mandates member states to
promote equality of opportunity and treatment in employment. The UN’s
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, particularly Articles 23 and 26, also
underscores the right to work and the importance of non-discrimination.

Data and Statistics

Employment discrimination remains a significant barrier to economic
participation and equality. According to a report by the World Economic Forum,
gender gaps in labour force participation contribute to an estimated global GDP
loss of $12 trillion. Similarly, the ILO reports that women, on average, earn 20%
less than men globally. The disability employment gap is also stark, with
individuals with disabilities being twice as likely to be unemployed as those
without disabilities, according to the UN.

Current Economic Status of Women Globally

The economic status of women globally, despite notable advancements over the
past few decades, remains significantly lower than that of their male counterparts.
This persistent inequality is evident across various economic indicators, including
labour force participation rates, wage gaps, and representation in leadership
positions. Analysing these disparities provides a comprehensive understanding of
the challenges women face in achieving economic parity with men.

Labor Force Participation

Globally, women's labour force participation rates are consistently lower than
those of men. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), the global
labour force participation rate for women stands at around 48%, compared to 75%
for men. This gap is influenced by a combination of cultural norms, childcare
responsibilities, and limited access to education and training in certain regions.

Wage Gap
One of the most striking indicators of economic inequality is the gender wage gap.
On average, women earn approximately 20% less than men for similar work. This
disparity is not solely due to differences in job types or working hours but also
stems from discriminatory practices and the undervaluation of work traditionally
performed by women. For instance, in many countries, sectors such as healthcare,
education, and administrative roles, which are predominantly occupied by
women, are undervalued compared to male-dominated sectors like technology
and finance.

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Occupational Segregation
Occupational segregation remains a significant barrier to economic equality.
Women are overrepresented in lower-paying industries and roles, which limits
their overall earning potential. Conversely, high-paying sectors and leadership
positions continue to be dominated by men. The World Economic Forum reports
that women hold less than 25% of senior management positions globally,
highlighting the persistent glass ceiling that restricts women’s career
advancement.

Unpaid Work and Care Responsibilities

A major contributor to economic inequality is the disproportionate burden of
unpaid work and care responsibilities shouldered by women. Women spend, on
average, three times as many hours as men on unpaid care and domestic work.
This imbalance restricts their ability to participate fully in the labour market and
pursue career advancement. The lack of supportive family policies, such as
affordable childcare and paid parental leave, exacerbates this issue.

Education and Skills Gap

While the global gender gap in education has narrowed, disparities remain in
specific fields, particularly in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
(STEM). Women are underrepresented in STEM fields, which are associated with
higher earning potential and greater career opportunities. Efforts to encourage
girls and women to pursue education and careers in these areas are crucial for
reducing economic inequality.

Leadership and Decision-Making Roles

Women’s representation in leadership and decision-making roles is another
critical area of economic disparity. Although there has been progress, women still
hold a minority of senior leadership positions. The underrepresentation of women
in corporate boards and executive roles limits their influence on economic
policies and business strategies that affect gender equality in the workplace.

Impact of COVID-19
The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated existing economic inequalities. Women
have been disproportionately affected by job losses, particularly in sectors such
as retail, hospitality, and personal services, which have been hardest hit by the
pandemic. Additionally, the increased burden of childcare and homeschooling
during lockdowns has further strained women's ability to maintain or seek
employment.

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Addressing Economic Inequality

Policy Interventions
Governments and international organisations must implement and enforce robust
policies to address economic inequality. Key measures include:

Pay Equity Legislation: Enforcing equal pay for equal work and addressing
wage disparities through transparency and accountability measures.
Supportive Family Policies: Providing affordable childcare, paid parental
leave, and flexible work arrangements to support women in balancing work
and family responsibilities.
Educational Initiatives: Promoting girls’ and women’s participation in STEM
fields through scholarships, mentorship programs, and targeted educational
campaigns.

Corporate Responsibility
Businesses play a vital role in promoting gender equality. Companies should
implement diversity and inclusion strategies, conduct regular pay audits, and
establish clear pathways for women’s career advancement. Creating supportive
workplace environments that address issues such as harassment and
discrimination is essential.

Cultural and Societal Change

Long-term change requires shifting cultural norms and societal attitudes towards
gender roles. Encouraging shared responsibilities within households and
promoting positive representations of women in leadership and diverse career
paths can help challenge stereotypes and reduce biases.

Wealth and Asset Comparison Between Men and Women

The disparity in wealth and assets between men and women is a critical aspect of
economic inequality that has significant implications for financial security,
economic independence, and overall well-being. This inequality is influenced by
various factors, including income disparities, differences in labour force
participation, access to financial resources, and socio-cultural norms.

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Women’s Underrepresentation in Leadership Roles

Despite significant progress in gender equality over the past few decades, women
remain markedly underrepresented in leadership roles within top companies. This
underrepresentation is evident across various sectors and geographies,
highlighting systemic barriers that prevent women from advancing to senior
positions. Analysing data from major companies and illustrating these disparities
with visual aids can provide a clearer picture of the current state of gender
diversity in corporate leadership.

Current Statistics and Examples

1. Fortune 500 Companies: As of 2023, women hold only 10.6% of CEO positions
in Fortune 500 companies. This is a stark underrepresentation considering
that women make up nearly half of the overall workforce.
2. Technology Sector: In the tech industry, the disparity is even more
pronounced. For instance, at Apple, women hold 31% of leadership roles. At
Google, women account for only 26% of leadership positions, despite various
initiatives to improve diversity.
3. Financial Sector: Women occupy 23% of executive roles in the top 50 financial
firms. For example, at Goldman Sachs, women hold approximately 20% of
senior leadership roles, and at JPMorgan Chase, the figure is around 25%.
4. Energy Sector: The energy sector also shows significant gender disparity. At
ExxonMobil, women constitute only 16% of executive positions, and at
Chevron, they hold 22% of leadership roles.

Factors Contributing to Underrepresentation

1. Implicit Bias and Stereotypes: Persistent stereotypes about gender roles
contribute to biases in hiring and promotions, often favouring men for
leadership positions.
2. Work-Life Balance: Women frequently face challenges balancing work and
family responsibilities, which can impede career advancement. Lack of
supportive policies such as flexible working hours and parental leave further
exacerbates this issue.
3. Lack of Mentorship and Sponsorship: Women often have less access to
mentorship and sponsorship opportunities compared to their male
counterparts. These relationships are crucial for career development and
advancement.
4. Organisational Culture: Many corporate cultures are not inclusive and do not
support the advancement of women. This can result in women feeling
undervalued and opting out of the leadership track.

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UN Initiatives Aimed at Women in Business

The United Nations has launched several initiatives to support women in business,
aiming to promote gender equality and empower women economically. These
initiatives have had significant impacts on women entrepreneurs globally, leading
to increased business ownership and enhanced economic participation.

UN Women’s Empowerment Principles (WEPs)

Launched in 2010 by UN Women and the UN Global Compact, the Women's
Empowerment Principles provide a holistic approach to advancing gender
equality in the workplace, marketplace, and community. Over 3,000 companies
worldwide have signed the WEPs, committing to principles such as equal
opportunities, inclusion, and non-discrimination. Companies adhering to WEPs
have reported better workplace environments and increased female participation
at all levels, including leadership roles.

UN Women’s Fund for Gender Equality

Established in 2009, this fund provides financial support to women-led initiatives
that promote economic and political empowerment. The fund has supported over
130 projects in 80 countries, directly benefiting more than 10 million women and
girls. These projects have led to increased business skills, access to markets, and
financial services for women entrepreneurs.

UNDP’s Gender Equality Seal

The Gender Equality Seal for Public and Private Enterprises recognizes companies
that meet high standards in promoting gender equality in the workplace.
Companies awarded the Gender Equality Seal have shown improved gender parity
in employment and leadership. The seal encourages best practices that support
women's advancement in business and entrepreneurial activities.

UNCTAD’s Women in Business Awards

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) hosts the
Women in Business Awards to recognize and support outstanding women
entrepreneurs. Winners of the awards receive mentorship, training, and exposure,
significantly boosting their businesses. The awards have highlighted the success
of women entrepreneurs, encouraging more women to start and grow their
businesses.

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ILO’s Women’s Entrepreneurship Development Programme (WED)

The International Labour Organization (ILO) runs the WED program to promote
and support women’s entrepreneurship through training, capacity-building, and
policy advocacy. The WED program has reached over 100,000 women in 20
countries, leading to the establishment of new businesses and the growth of
existing ones. The program also advocates for policy changes to create a more
enabling environment for women entrepreneurs.

Discussion of Graphs
The first graph shows the steady increase in the percentage of women-owned
businesses from 1990 to 2023. The data reflects significant growth, especially in
the last two decades, driven by supportive UN initiatives and global efforts to
empower women in business. In contrast, the percentage of male-owned public
listed companies has gradually decreased, highlighting the closing gender gap in
entrepreneurship.

The second graph compares women-owned and male-owned small businesses. It

demonstrates the substantial rise in women-owned small businesses, reflecting
efforts to support female entrepreneurs at grassroots levels. While male-owned
small businesses still dominate, the gap is narrowing as more women enter and
succeed in the entrepreneurial landscape.

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Extended Readings

Google Drive Link

Gender Inequality in STEM Employment and Earnings at Career Entry:
Evidence from Millennial Birth Cohorts
The Hidden STEM Economy
Women and STEM Shulamit Kahn and Donna Ginther Working Paper 23525
The Equality Equation: Advancing the Participation of Women and Girls in
STEM
Systemic inequalities for LGBTQ professionals in STEM | Science Advances
STEM Careers and the Changing Skill Requirements of Work
The under-representation of women in STEM fields | READ online

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