UNIT 1: PERSONALITY

- DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY
- McCRAE & COSTA THEORY
- EYESENCK’S THEORY
- PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
- HUMANISTIC THEORY
- MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY

Personality has always been a topic of discussion among common people, but defining it and
outlining its nature has always been a difficult task for everyone including psychologists. When
we make statements like, “she is a good doctor”, or “I really like M.S. Dhoni”. Then, do we
really judge the competence of the doctor’s medical knowledge or her professionalism? Do you
like Dhoni because he plays very well or because he is really efficient in leading his team or due
to his down-to-earth attitude? So what do we actually look for while describing someone’s
personality? How do we actually define it?

The word personality has been taken from the Latin word persona – the mask used by actors to
represent characters during a theatrical play. As the character changes, so does the mask of the
actor. So, does this mean that the word personality refers to our ever changing persona? Yes, to
some extent. Our behaviour is not always constant or predictable. Sometimes we behave as
predicted, sometimes we behave quite differently in a familiar situation, and sometimes our
behaviour becomes completely unpredictable. Due to our ever changing yet stagnant behaviour,
there is a widespread confusion over the definition of personality. One can find many definitions
of personality.

The term personality is used in a number of ways including the apparent features of a person.
However, psychologists use it to refer to the characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting.
By characteristic pattern we mean the consistent and distinctive ways our ideas, feelings and
actions are organized. When we talk about personality we usually refer to the totality or whole of
the person. Thus, the enduring pattern expressed by the person in various situations is the hall
mark of personality. Interestingly the theories of personality go beyond the literal meaning of
“personality” which stands for large masks used by actors in ancient Greek drama. Contrary to
this the personality theorists view ‘personality’ as the essence of the person. It is a person’s
“true” inner nature. The unique impression that a person makes on others is equally important in
understanding personality. However the concept of personality has been defined by
psychologists in many ways and it is the theoretical perspective or position which directs our
attention to particular aspects of personality. We will start with the following definitions of
personality:

“Personality is a dynamic organisation, inside the person, of psychophysical systems that create
the person’s characteristic patterns of behaviour, thoughts, and feelings” (G.W. Allport, 1961).
“The visible aspect of one’s character as it impresses others” (Random House Webster’s College
Dictionary, 1991).

According to APA, “Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of

thinking, feeling and behaving.” It further states that “the study of personality focuses on two
broad areas: One is understanding individual differences in particular personality characteristics,
such as sociability or irritability. The other understands how the various parts of a person come
together as a whole.”

Personality is not static but dynamic, the organizational pattern determines the kind and degree
of adjustment of the individual to his environment, and this adjustment-pattern is unique to the
individual.

Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation of a person‘s character,
temperament, intellect, and physique that determine his unique adjustment to his environment...

Personality usually refers to the distinctive patterns of behaviour (including thoughts and
emotions) that characterize each individual‘s adaptations to the situations of his life or her
life. Personality is usually defined as individual‘s unique and relatively stable patterns of
behaviour, thoughts and emotions. (Baron, 1993).

There are numerous theories that try to resolve this question. We will focus on some on some of
the most famous and established theories of personality in the following section.

THE PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE

Founded by Sigmund Freud, this theory emphasizes the influence of the unconscious, the
importance of sexual and aggressive instincts, and early childhood experience on a person. This
theory has been very influential not only in psychology but also in literary circles, art, psychiatry
and films. Many of Freud’ s ideas have become part and parcel of every day usage. Freud started
his career as aneurologist. His theory developed in the course of his observations of his patients,
as well as, self-analysis. He used free association to help his patients recover forgotten
memories.

Freud discovered that mind is like an iceberg and we have limited conscious awareness. Freud
proposed that psychological forces operate at three levels of awareness:

- Conscious level: The thoughts, feelings, and sensations that one is aware of at the present
moment.
- Preconscious level: It contains information of which one is not currently aware,
however, they can easily enter conscious mind.
 - Unconscious level: It consists of thought, feelings, wishes, drives etc. of which we are
not aware. It, however, influences our conscious level of activity. Freud thought that
unconscious material often seeks to push through to the conscious level in a disguised
manner. It may be in a distorted manner and or it may take asymbolic form. Interpretation
of dreams and free association were used for analysisof the three levels of awareness.

A structural model of our personality

Freud proposed that our personality consists of three elements: id, ego, and superego. Before
explaining in details, it is important to mention here that id, ego, and superego are just concepts
and they do not have any physical or physiological basis.

Id: This part of personality operates unconsciously. It deals with basic instincts, biological needs,
and aggressive impulses. It is the most primitive part of human personality present since birth.
From id, other parts of the personality (ego and superego) develop. It works on pleasure
principle-tendency to avoid pain and seek pleasure. The aim of the id is to gratify one’s need
immediately without considering the moral values of the society and the individual. Eros and
Thanatos are the two driving forces of Id. Eros was the God of love in Greek mythology.
According to Freud, in the context of id, Eros is the life force. It is responsible for our life
instinct and survival, which includes sexual desire, reproduction desire, and pain avoidance. The
counterpart of Eros is Thanatos-the death force or instinct. It is responsible for violence,
aggression and hate like negative feelings. The aim of Thanatos is to balance the drive of Eros by
driving us towards death and destruction. When personality is dominated by id, then individual
tend to become more impulsive, such people will do what they want irrespective of time, place
and situation, just like a kid.

Ego: Suppose a 10-year-old child wants to eat a scoop of ice-cream kept in the refrigerator. But
he knows that eating ice-cream without seeking permission from parents will be punished. The
part of the personality responsible for this reality check is known as Ego. So, ego works on
reality principle-delaying id’s gratification need will be delayed until an appropriate and more
realistic situation is not found. This part of personality emerges from id and its main objective is
to strike a balance between id’s impulsive needs and the reality of this world. It is the decision-
making component of our psyche and works on logic only. In the words of Freud, “ego is that
part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the external world” (Freud,
1923). If ego would not be able to resolve the conflict between the impulsive demands of the id
and realistic demands of this world, then it would lead to the development of anxiety and stress.
To ward off this anxiety, individual will be motivated to use unconscious defense mechanisms
(we will talk about this in the later section).

Superego: It is the moral master or moral guru of our personality. Let us continue the same
example referred to in the last section. Whether that 10-year-old kid will ask permission from his
parents or not for eating a scoop of ice cream depends on the development of his superego. Since
seeking permission is morally correct behaviour; it will indicate the presence of superego in the
child. Role of the superego is to internalise the moral and ethical value of society through the
process of socialisation. It controls the impulsive urges of the id and pursues ego to choose
morally appropriate behaviour instead of only realistic behaviour. This part of our psyche
develops between the ages of three to five years. Further, according to Freud, our superego
consists of two systems: (i) conscience and (ii) ideal self. The conscience’s role is to punish or
reward ego, through the feeling of pride or guilt, depending on its behaviour. For example, if ego
allows in id’s demand and breaks the moral code of conduct, superego will make you feel guilty
about your behaviour. The second system, the ideal self-idealised picture of your own self, also
do the job of making you feel guilty or pride, depending on your behaviour.

Ego Defence Mechanisms

One of the role of ego is to protect the person from anxiety and stress. So when the anxiety and
stress from the forbidden desires and motives become overwhelming, we tend to use some
psychological strategies, known as ego defence mechanisms. According to Freud, the sole aim of
employing these ego defence mechanisms is to protect our psyche from anxiety. A brief
description of eight important defence mechanisms has been described below:

Repression Excluding from conscious awareness those impulses or memories that are
too frightening or painful
Rationalization Assigning logical or socially desirable motives to what we have done, so
that we seem to have acted rationally.
Reaction formation Concealing a motive from ourselves by giving strong expression to the
opposite motive.
Projection Assigning our own undesirable qualities to others in exaggerated amounts
Intellectualization Attempting to gain detachment from a stressful situation by dealing with it
in abstract, intellectual terms
Denial Denying that an unpleasant reality exists.
Displacement Directing a motive that cannot be gratified in one form into another
channel.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud (1900/1953) proposed that child development proceeds through a series of stages related
to physical development, and that adult personality is influenced by how crises are resolved at
each stage. Each stage is named after an erogenous zone, or area of the body that can experience
pleasure from the environment. Excessive gratification or frustration at any one stage can result
in the fixation of libido and subsequent disruption to normal personality development.

1. Oral Stage (birth to 18 months): Mouth is the source of pleasure during this stage.
Children completely depend on their caregivers, especially mother. They drive pleasure
 and understand the world around them through sucking and swallowing. Over
gratification or under gratification may lead to the fixation at this early oral stage
resulting in the development of overeating behaviour, drinking or smoking in adulthood.
Freud called these people as oral-incorporative or oral-ingestive. Later during this stage,
children experience pleasure from chewing and biting. If an individual is unable to
resolve the psychological conflict of this stage, then he/she may develop the habit of nail
biting and object chewing in adulthood. Freud further pointed out that these people are
more critical and sarcastic in nature. He referred to such people as oral-aggressive or
oral-sadistic.
2. Anal Stage (18 months to three years): During this stage, children face the demand of
their society for the first time to control and delay the expulsion of urine and faeces.
Children experience pleasure in this stage from their bowel and bladder movement. Freud
believed that too harsh or too lenient toilet training may cause fixation at this stage.
Resulting into either being messy, lesser self-control but generous (called as anal-
expulsive characters by Freud) or being tidy, orderly but mean (called as anal retentive
characters by Freud).
3. Phallic Stage (three to five years): Genitals become the erogenous region during this
stage. Children knowingly or unknowingly touch their genitals for pleasure. During this
stage, they understand the difference between males and females. Freud proposed that
male child experience Oedipus complex – which involves sexual feeling towards their
mother, feeling of rivalry for the father, as well as a threat of getting punished by the
father for having a desire for mother. The counterpart of the Oedipus complex is Electra
complex: experienced by the female child. It involves the sexual attraction for father,
feeling of rivalry for mother and a threat of getting punished by the mother for having
this feeling towards father. Successful resolution of this complex develops a mature
sexual identity. According to Freud, by the end of this stage personality is formed
completely.
4. Latency Stage (six to twelve years): The sexual energy during this stage is channelised
towards educational, sports and social activities. This leads to no or little interest for the
opposite gender.
5. Genital Stage (thirteen years to adulthood): The sexual energy returns again in this
stage. Successful completion of previous stages will help in developing a mature intimate
relationship with the opposite sex. Whereas, unresolved issues of previous psychosexual
stages will start exhibiting during adulthood; leading to difficulty in establishing a
healthy intimate relationship with the opposite sex.

Critical evaluation

Contributions of the theory

1. The theory produced a great heuristic impact.

2. It was the first to highlight the role of unconscious factors in personality development
 3. It was the first to propose and ply the concept of defense mechanisms to explain various
behaviours.
4. It is a very comprehensive theory that could account for a variety of behvaiours including
some unpredictable behaviours.
5. He was the first to introduce energy concept to the theory of personality and motivation

Limitations of the theory

1. It is a male centric theory. Male bias

2. It is phallo-centric
3. Overly pessimistic view of man. Man as a bundle of sexual and aggressive impulses.
4. Over emphasis on childhood experiences and their impact on adult personality
5. Role of conscious factors has been underplayed.
6. It is a biological approach that neglects the role of cultural factors in personality
development
7. It is retrospective in nature. It does not consider the role of current life factors and
importance of future goals
8. It is not parsimonious and the constructs used are not empirically verifiable
9. Ego has no energy of its own. It appears to be at the mercy of id and has the orientation
which is antagonistic to id.
10. The theory has been built on data collected through interviews with the patients. A
question can always be raised as to how logical it is to generalize the findings obtained
from the case studies of patients.
11. The theory does not explain behaviours that are influenced by non-conflicting factors.

Trait Theories of Personality

Traits are characteristic behaviours and conscious motives. They represent a relatively stable
and enduring predisposition to behave in a given way. Traits are frequently used in describing
people. Trait is a property within the individual that can account for his unique but relatively
stable reactions to stimuli. Thus, trait is being used as a hypothetical construct to explain
behaviour. There are certain assumptions of traits:

1. Individual differences with respect t their location on semi-permanent personality

dispositions are called traits
2. They are assumed to be general underlying dispositions that account for the consistencies
in behaviour.
3. Some traits are considered to be relatively superficial and specific and others are more
basic and widely generalized.
4. The interactive influence of traits and situations produce transient internal conditions
called states.
 5. Traits and states are intervening/mediating variables that explain individual differences in
behaviour.

The focus of trait approach is very common and involves enumerating list of personal
characteristics. Trait theories of personality identify, describe and measure individual
differences. what makes the trait approach to understanding personality different from the other
theories?

First of all, while most theories represent attempts at better understanding the development of
personality, trait theorists typically talk very little about development. Second, predicting a
person's behavior in a given situation is also not a concern for trait theorists. Third, unlike many
other theoretical orientations, trait theorists are interested in the comparison of people through
based on not just aspects, but also degrees. And finally, and likely the biggest difference, trait
theory does not inherently provide a medium of personality change

Eysenck’s Trait Theory

Hans Eysenck was a contemporary psychologist of Cattell. Even though he was a behaviourist,
he believed that our personality is largely innate and genetically based. He also used factor
analysis to understand the underlying personality traits. Initially, he proposed that our personality
is comprised of two major personality dimensions: extroversion vs. introversion and neuroticism
vs. stability. According to his theory, different combinations of these dimensions lead to the
development of different personalities. Later, he added the third dimension to his model and
named it as psychoticism vs. socialisation.

He is the propounder of dimensional approach to the study of personality. In addition to

providing a set of descriptive dimensions, they have studied the associations between people’s
status on these dimensions and their scores on a variety of other personality and intelligence
measures.

Eyesenck’s typology is hierarchically organized. He recognized 4 levels of behavioural

organistion. At the lowest level are the specific responses. These may/may not be the
characteristics of the individual. At the second level are the habitual responses that re-occur
under similar conditions. They are more reliable and consistent. Several habitual responses form
a trait. It is a semi-permanent personal disposition. The forth level, is represented by types/super
factors. They represent inter-related traits. Eyesenck is different from other trait theorists because
he has gone beyond traits into types and his types are unimodal.

1. Introversion-extroversion: It is a bipolar trait. People with predominance of

introversion are self centered. Such people are idealistic, imaginative, shy and
secluded. Predominance of thoughtfulness steers them in the world of brooding, fantasy
and daydreaming. These people take considerable time in reaching decision and are
 worried in relation to the future. Such people are theoretical and often are philosophers,
poets, scientist and professors.
Extroverts are more inclined to social activities. They are gregarious and social through
nature. Such people are realistic, practical, talkative, and active. They show more
interest in leadership. Though, very few people are totally extrovert or introvert.
Majority of the people fall in flanked by that is, they exhibit some degree of
introversion and some degree of extroversion in their behaviour and hence are
described Ambiverts. Now the question is why are some people introvert and some
extrovert? Are there any physiological correlates of it? Researches reveal that
introvert and extroverts differ in cortical excitation level. Extroverts have lower
cortical excitation threshold, so, small amount of stimulation is enough to activate them.
This fact creates them sensation seeking. On the other hand cortical excitation level
of introverts is quite high as a result they remain unaffected through stimulation from
external environment.
2. Neuroticism stability dimension: This too is a bipolar dimension. People high on
neuroticism exhibit scrupulous traits and behavioral tendencies. They show lack of
emotional control and will power with an added characteristic of slowness in
thought process and activity. Even small things perturb them. People with high
neuroticism are high on suggestibility and low on sociability. Though, such people
are also characterized through increased emotional impulsiveness. Contrary to
neuroticism, people high on stability are cool and do not get easily disturbed or perturbed
through conflicting issues. They are able to keep themselves under control even in most
hard circumstances. They can detach themselves and think over the problem in a
balanced manner so as to arrive at a right decision. This quality of them creates them
realistic and problem solution oriented. As for the physiological correlates of
neuroticism and stability, it is whispered that autonomic nervous system of people with
high neuroticism is more reactive. These people are vulnerable to reaction to
environmental incentive. Researches reveal that people with high cortical excitation
threshold and increased autonomic reactivity show more acute and explicit symptoms of
disorders like phobia, anxiety disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
3. Psychoticism dimension: People with this trait show lack of concentration power and
weak memory. They are also characterized with insensitivity. They are more
worried for themselves than for others. Element of cruelty and sensation seeking
marks their behaviour and they are unable to protect themselves from danger and
dangerous situations.

Critical evaluation

Contributions of the theory

1. They are empirical, precise and have generated substantial research.

2. They serve as a useful guide to the researchers and theory builders.
Limitations of the theory

1. They represent a composite picture of people in general, and resemble no single

individual.
2. They have failed to produce a single uniform description of human personality.
3. They have not been that successful in guiding the action of the practitioners. It is less
useful as they look forward to a sound and simple theoretical system to answer everyday
questions
4. Traits are held to be enduring and consistent but the behaviour is variable. Trait theorists
increasingly regard that an adequate approach to the study of traits must also deal with
low the situations influence the behaviour of the individual.

McCrae and Costa’s Big-five Factor Theory

Many psychologists believe that the total number of personality traits can be reduced to five
factors, with all other personality traits fitting within these five factors. According to this model,
a factor is a larger category that encompasses many smaller personality traits. The five factor
model was reached independently by several different psychologists over a number of years.

Investigation into the five factor model started in 1949 when D.W. Fiske was unable to find
support for Cattell's expansive 16 factors of personality, but instead found support for only five
factors. Research increased in the 1980s and 1990s, offering increasing support for the five factor
model. The five factor personality traits show consistency in interviews, self-descriptions, and
observations, as well as across a wide range of participants of different ages and from different
cultures. It is the most widely accepted structure among trait theorists and in personality
psychology today, and the most accurate approximation of the basic trait dimensions (Funder,
2001).

Because this model was developed independently by different theorists, the names of each of the
five factors and what each factor measures-differ according to which theorist is referencing it.
Paul Costa's and Robert McCrae's version, however, is the most well-known today and the one
called to mind by most psychologists when discussing the five factor model. The acronym
OCEAN is often used to recall Costa's and McCrae's five factors, or the Big Five personality
traits: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and
Neuroticism.

The big five structure captures a broad level abstraction the commonalities among most of the
existing systems of personality and provides and integrative and descriptive model of personality
research. One of the most significant advances of five factor model was the establishment of
common taxonomy that demonstrates order in a previously scattered and disorganized field. It is
not based on a theory of a particular psychologist, rather on a language that people use to
communicate their understandings with one another.
Characteristics of the theory

1. These factors are dimensions and not types. Therefore, people vary continuously on them
with most people falling in between the extremes.
2. These factors are stable over a long period of time
3. These factors and their specific facets are heritable, at least in part.
4. These factor probably had an adaptive value in prehistoric environment
5. They are considered universal as they have been recorded in diverse languages
6. They provide useful insight into one’s nature and also for the purpose of therapy.

Openness to Experience(inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious)

This trait includes appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety
of experience. Openness reflects a person's degree of intellectual curiosity, creativity, and
preference for novelty and variety. It is also described as the extent to which a person is
imaginative or independent; it describes a personal preference for a variety of activities over a
strict routine. Those who score high in openness to experience prefer novelty, while those who
score low prefer routine.

Conscientiousness(efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless)

This trait refers to one's tendency toward self-discipline, dutifulness, competence,

thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving (such as goal-directed behavior). It is distinct from the
moral implications of "having a conscience"; instead, this trait focuses on the amount of
deliberate intention and thought a person puts into his or her behavior. Individuals high in
conscientiousness prefer planned rather than spontaneous behavior and are often organized,
hardworking, and dependable. Individuals who score low in conscientiousness take a more
relaxed approach, are spontaneous, and may be disorganized. Numerous studies have found a
positive correlation between conscientiousness and academic success.

Extraversion (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved)

An individual who scores high on extraversion is characterized by high energy, positive

emotions, talkativeness, assertiveness, sociability, and the tendency to seek stimulation in the
company of others. Those who score low on extraversion prefer solitude and/or smaller groups,
enjoy quiet, prefer activities alone, and avoid large social situations. Not surprisingly, people
who score high on both extroversion and openness are more likely to participate in adventure and
risky sports due to their curious and excitement-seeking nature (Tok, 2011).

Agreeableness (friendly/compassionate vs. cold/unkind)

This trait measures one's tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious
and antagonistic towards others. It is also a measure of a person's trusting and helpful nature and
whether that person is generally well-tempered or not. People who score low on agreeableness
tend to be described as rude and uncooperative.

Neuroticism (sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident)

High neuroticism is characterized by the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions, such as

anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability. Neuroticism also refers to an individual's degree of
emotional stability and impulse control. People high in neuroticism tend to experience emotional
instability and are characterized as angry, impulsive, and hostile. Watson and Clark (1984) found
that people reporting high levels of neuroticism also tend to report feeling anxious and unhappy.
In contrast, people who score low in neuroticism tend to be calm and even-tempered.

Critical evaluation

Contributions of the theory

1. The theory has been subjected to massive research. A number of meta-analysis researches
have confirmed the predictive vale of big five across wide range of behaviours.
2. They factors have been extremely useful in predicting disorders, occupational
inclinations and social interactions.

Limitations of the theory

1. Limited scope: the model does not explain all of human personality. It has neglected
some of the crucial domains of personality such as religiosity, humour, etc. the model
refers to the traits that are relatively easy to observe in a stranger.
2. Theoretical status: a frequent criticism is that the model is not supported by an underlying
theory. It is merely an empirical finding that certain descriptors cluster together.
3. Methodological issues: a large number of factors underlie these five factors and this has
lead to the dispute about the exact number of factors and their relative significance
4. Much of the evidence is based in self report questionnaires. This implies that there is
always a chance of subjective reporting by the sample under consideration. Therefore,
there is always a possibility that differences in the scores obtained may not be a result of
the genuine personality difference but infact is an artifact of the way the subjects
answered the questions.

Humanistic Theory – Carl Rogers

Humanistic, or phenomenological, theories of personality present a positive and optimistic view
of human behaviour. In complete contrast to theories from the psychodynamic tradition, people
are viewed as experiencing beings rather than victims of their unconscious motivations and
conflicts. So the emphasis here is on individual experiences, relationships and ways of
understanding the world. Fundamental to these theories are the beliefs that everyone’s
experience is unique, and the individual’s perception of the world is critical to their
understanding and behaviour.

Carl Rogers (1902–87) saw humans as intrinsically good and as having an innate desire for self-
improvement. He believed that self-concept is critical to our experience of the world, and that
this develops from the child’s perceptions of his parents’ approval. Rogers believed that all
people have a basic need for positive regard–approval and love. How we feel about ourselves is
determined by how others react to or approve of us, and we tend to be unhappy if we feel that
others are not happy with us. According to Rogers, children develop conditions of worth–criteria
for what we must or must not do in order to gain approval. Although this is essential to the
socialization of children, Rogers also argued that conditions of worth may interfere with personal
development if our sole objective is to gain approval from others.

Rogers’ theory of personality has three core concepts: self-concept, incongruence, and
unconditional positive regard.

1. Self-concept: Self-concept refers to an individual’s perceptions and beliefs about themselves.

It includes their thoughts and feelings about their abilities, personality traits, and values.
Rogers believed that self-concept is developed through interactions with others, and that it is
constantly evolving throughout a person’s life. He emphasized the importance of self-
awareness in developing a positive self-concept.
2. Incongruence: Incongruence refers to the discrepancy between an individual’s self-concept
and their actual experiences. When there is a significant gap between the two, it can lead to
feelings of anxiety, guilt, and self-doubt. Rogers believed that people have a natural drive
towards reducing this incongruence by adjusting their self-concept or their experiences.
3. Unconditional Positive Regard: Unconditional positive regard is the acceptance and support
of another person without any conditions or judgement. Rogers believed that providing this
type of support is crucial in the development of a healthy personality, as it allows individuals
to feel valued and accepted for who they are, which in turn allows them to develop a positive
self-concept.

Experiencing unconditional positive regard–love and affection–enables us to grow and to satisfy

our core tendency, whichis to fulfil our potential by developing our capacities and talents to the
full. This is called self-actualization. Activities that are self-actualizing are perceived as
satisfying, says Rogers, whereas activities that are incompatible with self-actualization are
frustrating. From a scientific perspective, the tendency to self-actualize is vague and untestable.
While we may all have the same capacity to self-actualize, the form that actualization takes will
be unique to each individual,making it impossible to establish objective criteria for measurement.

According to Rogers, within each individual is an innate motivation called the self-actualising
tendency. It is an active controlling drive towards the fulfillment of our potential that enables us
to maintain and enhance oneself. He identifies in the patients the organismic value in process in
which they use actualizing tendency as a criterion in judging the worth of a given experience.
Experiences that promote actualization are positively valued and vice-versa.

Rogers found that in adults this valuing process is much more complex than it is in children.
Adults make complicated judgements about numerous issues and the value judgement in these
areas often change. In addition, adults unlike infants, are exposed to a variety of opinions and
come to incorporate them into their value systems

If they use their organismic value in processes fully, they experience personal growth and move
towards realizing their potential. In Roger’s terminology, they become fully functioning
individuals. Such individuals have the following characteristics:
1. They are creative
2. They trust their organisms
3. They live richer lives than other individuals i.e. more exciting, challenging, meaningful
and rewarding.
4. They are open to experiences, fully aware of experiences, and they accept them
5. They are characterized by existential living. They try to live their experiences as they live
in the present without trying to superimpose preconceived meaning on them.

Evaluation of theory

1. It offered a new approach to understand human behaviour and motivations and led to t he
development of a novel therapeutic approach
2. Emphasis on internal consistencies of behaviour
3. The theory gives the unique interpretation of human potential that how a human
recognizes their potential and behaves accordingly.
4. It stresses on the importance of growth and self actualization
5. The theory keeps on empowering individuals, enhance well-being, push people towards
fulfilling their potential and improving communities all over the world.

Limitation of the theory

1. The theory is completely subjective in nature. The importance of the individual

experience makes it difficult to study objectively, and measure humanistic phenomena.
 2. Observations are unverifiable, there exists a lack of ways to measure these qualities.

Concluding thoughts on Rogers' theory

Rogers' theories were influenced by Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler. They had similar views on
the importance of understanding yourself. However, Rogers thought that these theories didn't go
far enough. He wanted to help people understand their feelings and emotions.

Rogers believed that everyone wants to be happy. But many people struggle to achieve happiness
because they're not aware of who they truly are. To find out who you are, you need to learn about
yourself.

In conclusion, Carl Rogers was a psychologist who believed that everyone had the potential to
heal themselves. He also believed that if someone wanted to improve their mental state, they
should first look within themselves to find out why they were feeling bad.

This approach allowed him to develop his famous client-centered therapy, which he used to treat
patients suffering from depression, anxiety, and phobias. His work continues to
influence psychologists today.

Rogers believed there are four basic needs that drive human behavior. These needs are safety,
belongingness, self-esteem, and freedom. People strive to meet these needs.

People often try to fill their lives with things that give them pleasure. But when they fail to
satisfy these needs, they may experience stress. Stress causes unhappiness.

Personality Assessment

Personality assessment is conducted through behavioral observations, paper‐and‐pencil tests, and

projective techniques. To be useful, such assessments must be constructed using the established
criteria of standardization, reliability, and validity. The information can be used in several areas,
including clinical work, vocational counseling, education, and research.

1. Behavioral observations. Most people use behavioral observations to form impressions of

others. Such observations are also an important part of clinical assessments by clinical
psychologists and other professionals.
2. Interviews, during which subjects' behaviors are observed, may be structured or
unstructured. The examiner may ask a standardized set of questions (structured interview)
or engage in a conversational interchange with the subject (unstructured interview).
During the interview, the examiner forms an opinion about personality characteristics (as
is done, for example, also in the nonclinical setting of a job interview).
3. Paper‐and‐pencil tests. The many and various paper‐and‐pencil tests are used for a
variety of purposes. To be useful, such tests must be reliable (that is, they must yield very
 close scores each time they are administered to a particular individual) and valid (that is,
they must measure what they are designed to measure). The Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI) (multiphasic, many phased, because the test
simultaneously measures a number of personality dimensions) is widely used to identify
personality problems. The California Personality Inventory (CPI) is also used
extensively, generally with people who do not have personality problems. Some tests
assess personality as defined by a particular theory. For example, Cattell's 16
PF (personality factor) questionnaire assesses the personality traits defined in Cattell's
trait theory.
4. Projective techniques. Projective techniques assess personality by presenting ambiguous
stimuli and requiring a subject to respond, projecting his or her personality into the
responses.
 The ambiguous inkblots in the well‐known Rorschach inkblot test, developed by
Hermann Rorschach, are perceived differently by different people, and those
perceptions are believed to be related to the subjects' problems.
 The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), developed by Henry Murray, consists of a
series of ambiguous pictures, which the subject is requested to describe and tell a
story about. The test is used to identify a person's emotions, motives, and problems.

Scoring and interpreting projective tests requires special training, but the tests can be very
helpful in identifying personality problems.

Projective techniques

They are based on the defense mechanism of projection i.e. holding others responsible for one’s
shortcomings. It involves the use of unstructured stimuli because it allows for projection. The
most important assumption of projective techniques is that while responding to an unstructured
stimuli an individual projects his own needs, feelings, emotions, motives, etc. without being
aware of doing so. Such latent and concealed experiences are generally incapable of exposure by
questionnaires.

The two distinguished features which sets projective techniques apart from other personality
measures are:

1. Projective techniques always uses an unstructured and indirect situation for assessing the
personality traits
2. Projective techniques are characterized by global approach i.e. the attention is focused
upon measurement of personality as a whole.

Advantages
 1. Faking and malingering is minimum
2. Good measures of diagnostic purpose
3. Easy to administer and retain interest in subjects
4. They use global or holistic approach
5. Measures deep and unconscious aspects of personality besides conscious aspects

Disadvantage

1. No consistent theories underlie the projective techniques

2. There is no standardized measure of administering them
3. There is no empirical evidence to support the theory
4. They cannot be easily applied to an average person
5. The scoring method is highly subjective and dependent on the examiner
6. There are logical flaws, full of statistical errors and are ill designed.
7. They have poor ability to predict failure or success in different fields of life

Among the projective techniques, one of the most popular test is the Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT)/ it consists of 30 black and white picture cards depicting people in ambiguous situations
and one blank card. The examinee is asked to tell a story for about 10 cards selected as
appropriate for the age and sex. An expert examinee then obtains info about the dominant needs,
emotions, complexes, conflicts and pressures.

The interpretation is fairly subjective, impressionistic process centering on the main character
who presumably represents the examinee and the environmental forces impinging on the
character. However, the story may be influenced by the environmental context in which test is
taken. Also, the test does not always differentiate by normal and mentally disordered people.
Furthermore, many psychologists maintain that amorphous stimuli are more effective than
pictures in revealing the unconscious and repressed desires.

Nonetheless, TAT has been used with a range of ethnic and chronological age groups.
Sometimes stories are closely related to the personality of the storyteller and sometimes they are
fantasy productions. Even when the story relates to the inner state, these inner states may change
over time. For these reasons, TAT is used to look for themes that surface many times in different
pictures.

Rating Scales

A rating scale is defined as a technique through which the observer or rater categorizes the
objects, events or persons on a continuum represented by a series of continuous numerals. A
rating scale usually has 2,3,5,7,9 or 11 point on a line with descriptive categories at both ends.
The rating scale has 2 components; stimulus variable and response option. The stimulus variable
consists of trait names to be rated and the response options consists of numerical/descriptive
categories. The rater is a trained personal and rates the objects, event or persons on a given scale
according to his observations. Ratings may either be retrospective or concurrent.

There are certain factors that limit the effectiveness of ratings:

1. Willingness of the rater

2. Rater’s ability to rate effectively may be influence by vagueness and subjectivity, and the
opportunity to observe the individual being rated
3. Rater’s biases may come into play

As a result, ratings are subject to many types of errors:

1. Halo effect: it refers to raters being unduly influenced by a single favorable or

unfavorable factor, which colors the judgment of other traits. It was discovered by Wells
and so named by Thorndike. It can be reduced by
a. Defining traits in observable units
b. Using forced choice technique
c. Rating one trait fro all subjects before moving to the next
2. Error of severity: it is the general tendency of the rater to rate all the individuals low on
all the characteristics. It can be reduced by forced choice technique
3. Error of Leniency: is the tendency to rate all the individuals too high. They are easy
raters.
4. Error of Central Tendency: is the tendency of the rater to avoid extremes and place his
ratings on the middle or average category.
5. Contrast error: is the tendency of the rater to rate in a direction which is in contrast to the
trait he himself possesses.
6. Proximity error: occurs due to proximity or nearness of two traits being rated. It can be
concentrated by allowing a sufficient time interval between the ratings of various traits.
7. Logical error: is one where the rater gives more or less similar ratings to traits which
seem to be logically related. It is more likely to occur where traits are abstract and
semantically overlapping.

Personality Inventory

It is self report measure in which the individual describes his own feelings, environment and
reactions of others towards himself. The person reports about himself in the light of the
questionnaire put there-in. there are classified into five types:

1. Those attempt to measure social and certain other traits

2. Those which evaluate the adjustments of the person in different aspects of the
environment eg: adjustment inventory
 3. That attempt to evaluate pathological traits. Eg; depression inventory
4. That attempt to screen individuals into two-third group
5. That attempt to measure attitudes, interests and values.

There are several aspects which limit the degree of trust that can be placed in the responses:

1. Lack of knowledge or insight

2. Due to ambiguity of test items, they can be interpreted in a wring direction
3. Response sets may also operate, most common one being faking good and faking bad.

Advantages:

1. Saves time
2. Immensely economical
3. Reliability and validity are high
4. Can be scored and administered easily

Disadvantages:

1. Problems of faking and malingering

2. Behaviour measurements are changeable as a result reliability is affected
3. Search for adequate criterion data or establishing validity has proved to be less successful
4. There is greater specificity of responses which is related to difficulty of grouping items
into clearly defined categories of personality traits.