PRODUCT DESIGN AND ERGONOMICS CHAITHRA B K

|| Jai Sri Gurudev ||

Sri Adichunchanagiri Shikshana Trust®

S J B INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi
&
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Accredited with NAAC ‘A’ grade)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Course Material

Semester & Section: 7th Semester

Subject Name : Product Design and ergonomics
Subject Code : 21ME744
Faculty Name : Chaithra B K
Designation : Assistant Professor

Academic year: ODD Semester-2024 -25

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CONTENTS

1. Vision, Mission

2. POs, PSOs & PEOs

3. Blooms Taxonomy

4. Objectives and Outcomes

5. Course Syllabus

6. Lecture Notes (Unit-wise)

a. Notes

b. Assignment Question with self-learning Materials

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Vision of the Institute

• To become a recognized technical education center with global perspective.

Mission of the Institute

To provide learning opportunities that fosters students ethical values,
intelligent development in science & technology and social responsibility
so that they become sensible and contributing members of the society.

Vision of the Department

• To become a center of excellence and a platform in diversified fields for the
aspirants in Mechanical Engineering.

Mission of the Department

• To impart comprehensive education in the field of mechanical engineering to
produce highly accomplished graduates
• To endow high profile technical & soft skill trainings to foster professionalism
and ethical values among students
• To inculcate innovative thinking among students through projects and research
work

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PROGRAM OUTCOMES
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an
engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems
reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system
components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods including
design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT
tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal ,health,
safety ,legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and
environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
engineering practice.
9. Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and
in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community
and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation,
make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and
management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects
and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-
long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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Program Educational Objectives (PEO’s)

Enable the Graduates in Mechanical Engineering to:

PEO-1: Progress their career as a professional in mechanical engineering and

Inter-disciplinary fields.
PEO-2: Become successful entrepreneur with social responsibilities and ethical
values.
PEO-3: Pursue higher education and involve in research of allied areas in
Mechanical Engineering.

Program Specific Outcomes (PSO’s)

After successful completion of Mechanical Engineering program, the graduates will be able
to:

PSO1: Apply the Knowledge & Skill of Mechanical Engineering on Design, Manufacturing
and Thermal platforms to address the real-life problem of the society.
PSO2: Design and implement new ideas with the help of CAD/CAM and Industrial
Automation tools.

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Blooms Taxonomy

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Credit System (CBCS) and Outcome Based Education (OBE)
SEMESTER – VII

Product Design and Ergonomics

Course Code 21ME744 CIE Marks 50
Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P) 3:0:0 SEE Marks 50
Credits 03 Exam Hours 03

Course Learning Objectives:

Course objectives:
Understanding the user-centred design process including form and colour theory.
Understanding product metamorphosis, and ergonomics..
Implement the principles of ergonomics and how to apply the principles to industrial design.
Understand the importance and techniques of human biological data collection and experiments.
Obtain a knowledge and ability towards Accident Investigation and Safety Management.

Module-1

Introduction to Product Design: Asimows Model : Definition of product design, Design by Evaluation, Design by
Innovation, Essential Factors of Product Design, Flow and Value Addition in the Production-Consumption Cycle.The
Morphology of Design (The seven Phase), Primary Design phase and flowcharting, role of Allowance, Process
Capability.

Module-2

Ergonomics and Industrial Design: Introduction -general approach to the man- machine relationship- workstation
design-working position. Ergonomics and Production: ergonomics and product design –ergonomics in automated
systems- expert systems for ergonomic design. Anthropometric data and its applications in ergonomic, design-
limitations of anthropometric datause of computerized database. Case study..

Module-3

Aesthetic Concepts: Concept of unity- concept of order with variety - concept of purpose style and environment
Aesthetic expressions. Style components of style- house style, observation style in capital goods, case study.

Module-4

Visual Effects of Line and Form: The mechanics of seeing- psychology of seeing general influences of line and form.

Module-5

Office Systems and Ergonomics, Ergonomics of Technology Management. Consumer Ergonomics, Ergonomics
Quality and Safety, Quality of Life

Course Outcomes: At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

C01: To learn the concept of product design and ergonomics.

C02: Design the various controls and displays by knowing the anthropometric data’s.
C03: To learn the psychology of visuals effects.
C04: Learning the different colour combinations for optimal design of engineering equipment’s.
C05: Realize the importance of environmental factors and aesthetics in industrial design. operation.

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Question paper pattern:

The question paper will have ten full questions carrying equal marks.
Each full question will be for 20 marks.
There will be two full questions (with a maximum of four sub- questions) from each module.
Each full question will have sub- question covering all the topics under a module.
The students will have to answer five full questions, selecting one full question from each module.

Textbook/s
1.Human Factors in Engineering and Design By Sanders & Mccormick (McGrawHill Publication)
2. Occupational Ergonomics – Principles and Applications By Tayyari & Smith (Chapman & Hall Publication)
3. The Power of Ergonomics as a Competitive Strategy By Gross & Right (Productivity Press)
4. Industrial Design for Engineers - Mayall W.H. - London Hiffee books Ltd. -1988.
5. Applied Ergonomics Hand Book - Brain Shakel (Edited) - Butterworth scientific. London - 1988. 6. Introduction
to Ergonomics - R. C. Bridger - McGraw Hill Publications - 1995.
6. Human Factor Engineering - Sanders & McCormick – McGraw Hill Publications – 6th edition, 2002.
7. Ulrich, Karl T, Eppinger, Steven D, ‘Product Design and Development’, McGraw-Hill, 2004.
8. Bridger RS, ‘Introduction to Human Factors & Ergonomics’, Fourth Edition, Taylor & Francis, 2010.
9. Dul. J and Weerdmeester B, ‘Ergonomics for beginners, a quick reference guide, Taylor & Francis, 2008

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Module 1
What is Product Design?

Product design is the process designers use to blend user needs with business goals to help brands make
consistently successful products. Product designers work to optimize the user experience in the solutions
they make for their users—and help their brands by making products sustainable for longer-term business
needs. The definition of product design describes the process of imagining, creating, and iterating products
that solve users’ problems or address specific needs in a given market. The key to successful product
design is understanding the end-user customer, the person for whom the product is being created. Product
designers attempt to solve real problems for real people by using empathy and knowledge of their
prospective customers’ habits, behaviors, frustrations, needs, and wants. Ideally, product design’s execution
is so flawless that no one notices; users can intuitively use the product as needed because product design
understood their needs and anticipated their usage. Good product design practices thread themselves
throughout the entire product lifecycle. Product design is essential in creating the initial user experience and
product offering, from pre-ideation user research to concept development to prototyping and usability
testing. But it doesn’t end there, as product design plays an ongoing role in refining the customer
experience and ensuring supplemental functionality and capabilities get added in a seamless, discoverable,
and non-disruptive manner. Brand consistency and evolution remain an essential product design
responsibility until the end of a product’s lifespan. Product design is sometimes confused with (and
certainly overlaps with) industrial design, and has recently become a broad term inclusive of service,
software, and physical product design. Industrial design is concerned with bringing artistic form and
usability, usually associated with craft design and ergonomics, together in order to mass-produce goods.

PRODUCT DESIGN – THE BENEFITS “..a good design starts from the principle that living is more
than just a matter of existing and that everyday things which are both effective and attractive can raise the
quality of life”- Terence Conran creator of the Habitat chain. Product design is all around us and it has now
become such a necessity that we would struggle to survive without it. However, the way in which we
design products has changed over the years. The impact of new technologies and manufacturing systems
has altered the way we approach design. Thanks to new computer technology and miniaturisation the
aesthetics of a product is no longer dictated by the way it works. Aesthetics, appearance and style have
become such important parts of our lives that consumers often sacrifice quality, ease of use and value for
money in their quest to remain ‘in vogue’. The products we choose to surround ourselves with say
something about us and indicate our values, customs and culture. In this century, the potential offered by
product design promises a lot for the consumer. However, designers must take more responsibility for the
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products they create and the impact these will have on our lives. Designers need to have a social conscience
and consider the way their products integrate and interact with everything that they come into contact with.
Products have the ability to enhance our existence or to hinder it. Ultimately, they should be easy and
enjoyable to use. They should provide benefits to the users and because they play such an important part in
our lives, it is critical that they are well designed.

Some of the benefits product design can offer include: • improve the quality of life of the user; • give an
improved performance over previous models; • provide the user with status; • minimise manufacturing
costs; • create new markets or expand existing markets; • increase the manufacturer’s profitability; • make
economic use of resources; • create a new or better aesthetic.

What is the History of Product Design? Product design is an outgrowth of a very similar discipline called
industrial design. According to the Industrial Designers Society of America: “Industrial design is the
professional practice of designing products used by millions of people worldwide every day. Industrial
designers not only focus on the appearance of a product but also on how it functions, is manufactured and
ultimately the value and experience it provides for users.” Before the mass-production era of
manufacturing, craftspeople built products primarily by hand. This meant there were fewer products
available for sale and that they cost more. Then, the industrialization of manufacturing allowed businesses
to mass-produce products inexpensively. To help sell their products to the millions of people who could
now afford them, manufacturers enlisted the help of industrial designers to create products that were not
only functional but also aesthetically pleasing. Over time, a subset of industrial design has evolved into its
own category: product design. This is because industrial design today connotes physical products such as
furniture and household appliances. In contrast, product design can refer to any product—even digital,
virtual products such as software apps.

HISTORY OF PRODUCT DESIGN • In the 15th Century, as the Middle Ages were transitioning into the
Renaissance, people in European population centers wanted to have the same items in their homes and
workplaces. • News of these useful or desirable items soon spread along trade routes to the far corners of
the civilized world.

Emerging Design Centers:

Large workshops began to emerge in places such as Florence, Venice, Nuremberg, and Bruges where
groups of collocated artisans replicated designs in larger volumes. • Apprentices took 7 to 14 years to learn
and become a Master. Demand growth quickly outpaced this approach as a solution.

Pattern Books: • The use of drawings to act as instructions on how to construct something was first
developed by architects and shipwrights during the Italian Renaissance. • By the early 16th Century
competitive pressures led to the emergence of “pattern books” in Italy and Germany, which were
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collections of engravings illustrating decorative forms and motifs for application to a wide range of
products. • And, importantly, the design took place well in advance of manufacturing.

Emerging Industrial Centers: • In the 17th Century, growth in monarchies led to large government-
operated centers epitomized by the Gobelins Manufactory, opened by Louis XIV in Paris in 1667. •
Hundreds of craftsmen, artists, decorators, and engravers turned out everything from tapestries and
furniture to metalwork and coaches. • This model was replicated in many cities, including the famous
Meissen porcelain factory near Dresden in 1709. • As long as reproduction remained craft-based, however,
quality declined as scale increased.

The Industrial Age: • The emergence of industrial design as a discipline mirrored the growth of
industrialization and mechanization in Great Britain in the mid-18th Century. • The term “industrial design”
was first used in 1839 to describe how the school of St. Peter instructed draftsmen how to prepare patterns
for silk manufacture. Industrial Design: • The first attributed use of the term “industrial design” in 1919 is
credited to Joseph Claude Sinel, a self-proclaimed

“industrial designer.” • However, many argue that the discipline began at least a decade before.
Christopher Dresser is generally considered the first independent industrial designer. • Then there is the
Practical Draughtsman's Book of Industrial Design, printed in 1853. • Together, these data points anchor
the beginning of design as a profession between 1850 and 1900

Common Design Skill Sets: • The Rhode Island School of Design was founded in 1877. But, it was not
until the Carnegie Institute of Technology opened its design program in 1934 that historians began to
recognize design as a profession. • For the next 50 years, until the appearance of consumer electronics
devices, the profession remained in the hands of individuals whose talents were sought as employees or
consultants.

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DESIGN BY EVOLUTION

• In the past, designs used to evolve over long spans of time.

• change reduced the risk of making major errors.
• The circumstances rarely demanded analytical capabilities of the designer.
• This was design by evolution.
• Development of the bicycle from its crank operated version to its present day chain and sprocket
version over a period of about a century is a typical example of design by evolution.
The disadvantages of evolutionary design are:

Unsuitability for mass production:

• An evolved design is rather crude and is more oriented towards design by masses for Production
by masses (Gandhian philosophy) rather than mass production.
• It is acceptable at village level but unacceptable at urban level.
Difficulty in modification:
• A design by evolution is shaped by demands of time.
• On the other hand, design by invention and creative process uses sophisticated tools and
techniques such as CAD (Computer-Aided Design) workstation.
• The CAD workstation helps generate a large number of design alternatives within minutes.
Inability to tap new technologies:
• A new technology can result in a totally new design based on a different working principle
as compared with evolutionary design which relies heavily on small modifications in an
existing design.
• It is well known that the new technology has made artisans and craftsmen of certain
categories redundant.

DESIGN BY INNOVATION:
• Following a scientific discovery, a new body of technical knowledge develops rapidly; the
proper use of this discovery may result in an almost complete deviation from past
practice.
• Every skill, which the designer or the design team can muster in analysis and synthesis,
is instrumental in a totally novel design.
Examples of design by innovation are:
1. Invention of laser beam which has brought about a revolution in medical and engineering
fields. Laser based tools have made surgical knife in medicine and gas cutting in engineering
obsolete.
2. Invention of solid state electronic devices resulting in miniaturization of electronic products,
which has made vacuum tubes obsolete.

ESSENTIAL FACTORS OF PRODUCT DESIGN

(i) Need.
A design must be in response to individual or social needs, which can be satisfied by
the technological status of the times when the design is to be prepared.

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(iii) Economic worthwhileness.

• The goods or services, described by a design, must have a utility to the consumer which
equals or exceeds the sum of the total costs of making it available to him.
• For example, a bulb with luminous intensity 3 and life 4 on a ten-point scale has a lower
utility than a bulb with luminous intensity 2.5 and life 5.
(iv) Financial feasibility.
• The operations of designing, producing and distributing the goods must be financially
supportable, i.e., a design project should be capable for being funded by suitable
agencies or people.
• The method for assessment of financial feasibility could be ‘Net present value’ which
states that the present worth of cash flows in the project when added up during the
useful life of the product should be greater than the initial investment for the project.
(v) Optimality.
• The choice of a design concept must be optimal amongst the available alternatives; the
selection of the chosen design concept must be optimal among all possible
design proposals.
• Optimal design, in theory, strives to achieve the best or singular point derived by calculus
methods.
• In the context of optimization under constraints for mechanical strength, minimum weight
and minimum cost are usually taken up as criteria for optimization.
(vi) Design criterion.
• Optimality must be established relative to a design criterion which represents the
designer’s compromise among possibly conflicting value judgements which include
those of the consumer, the producer, the distributor, and his own.

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(ix) Subproblems.
• During the process of solution of a design problem, a sublayer of subproblems appears; the
solution of the original problem is dependent on the solution of the subproblems.
• The “Design Tree” of Fig 1.1 reveals the concept of subproblems.
(x) Reduction of uncertainty.
• Design is derived after processing of information that results in a transition from
uncertainty, about the success or failure of a design towards certainty.
• Each step in design morphology from step (i) to step (x) enhances the level of confidence of
the designer.
(xi) Economic worth of evidence.
• Information gathering and processing have a cost that must be balanced by the worth of the
evidence, which affects the success or failure of the design.
• Authentic information should be gathered to make the design project a success.
• Today, information is regarded as a resource which is as valuable as money, manpower and
material.

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(xii) Bases for decision.

• A design project is terminated when it is obvious that its failure calls for its abandonment.
• It is continued when confidence in an available design solution is high enough to indicate
the commitment of resources necessary for the next phase.
(xiii) Minimum commitment.
• In the solution of a design problem at any stage of the process, commitments which will fix
future design decisions must not be made beyond what is necessary to execute the
immediate solution.
• This will allow maximum freedom in finding solutions to subproblems at the lower levels of
design.
• A model of design problem, subproblems etc. is developed through a design tree (see Fig.
1.1).
(xiv) Communication.
• A design is a description of an object and prescription for its production; it will exist to the
extent it is expressed in the available modes of communication.
• The best way to communicate a design is through drawings, which is the universal language
of designers.
• Three dimensional renderings or cut-away views help explain the design to the sponsor or
user of the design.
• The present day impact of computer aided modelling and drafting has resulted in very
effective communication between the designer and the sponsor.

PRODUCT DESIGN PROCESS OVERVIEW:

EXPLORE (PROJECT FOUNDATIONS)

Every project is different - it can originate as an idea or invention of yours or your boss’ it
could come from a client or brand; or it may be born from the requirements of a manufacturer
who can only produce certain things in certain ways. A project’s beginning depends on the
source and the amount of innovation expected and the first thing designers need to do is
scope out the project, to define what you’re going to do and outline your approach to the
project. Learn to ask the right questions to understand the user, market, production options; to
establish user needs, goals and criteria; and to anticipate risks and roadblocks.
SKETCH (BEGINNING THE DESIGN)
The next phase of product design is expansive. The team takes the research and raw ideas and
generates a wide spectrum of ideas to create a broad field of options from which to choose.
Designs at this stage show variations on form and function, in materials and processes, and
perhaps even of target users and customers. Rough sketches and models allow a design to be
tested and expanded, as well as presented to users and the client for feedback. This phase of
the process concludes with the selection of one product design to move forward into
development.
DEVELOP (FOCUS AND TEST THE DESIGN)
Having selected a concept and chosen a path, the next step is to refine and perfect the design -
define its form and dimensions, explore colors and graphics, choose materials, solve basic
engineering issues and resolve production obstacles. With this work done, take the complete
working sketch, generate a digital 3D model, and create a functional prototype of your
product design to be used for testing with users, the client, manufacturers, and for health and
safety requirements. Now is also the time to look ahead to a product’s life out in the market
and in users’ hands, and think about packaging, instructions, graphics, advertising narrative
and other elements.
DELIVERY (FINALIZE PRODUCT AND MANUFACTUING)
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With a tested and refined prototype, the design will be ready for production. In order to hand
over the design to a manufacturer, all the product specifications will need to be finalized and
put into precise documentation which will communicate the specifications during fabrication.
A designer must clearly communicate how every individual piece of the product looks and
works. Finalizing the engineering details plays a crucial role in product development, but
marketing, sales, and costing are also pivotal - a successful product is the result of insights
from all sectors.
POST PRODUCTION (RESULTS AND REVIEW)

After the design is in production, you need to look back to move forward. Look back at the
entire process: What went right? What went wrong? What should we do differently next
time? Did we get the results we wanted? What worked well? The wealth of insights available
to analyze post-project should help you in the next project: revising documentation, refining
metrics, and revamp marketing and promotion. This review process prepares you for a simple
question for everything: what’s next? Next for the client, next for you, next for the
profession, what’s the next project? Every project, every design moves you forward as a
designer and a crucial part of this reflection concerns your own professionalization.

THE DESIGN PROCESS

The design process is an activity that seeks to recreate invention in an orderly and controlled
manner. Designers cannot afford to wait for inspiration; instead they must be able to produce
ideas on demand and in a systematic way: “Ideas never come in a flash; they come as a result
of months, even years of hard work.” Barnes Wallis inventor of the ‘bouncing bomb’. There
are many approaches to design but it is important to realise that any design team will work
through a series of planned stages towards a final proposal. Throughout this process the team
will consult the client / consumer and evaluate then updated their work as required. The
Design Chain is shown below; this is just one example of the approach to the design process:
The design process begins with a design brief (based on a problem, need or market
opportunity) and ends with an evaluation of the solution.

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PRODUCT DESIGN TEAMS: All new commercial products are developed not by one
individual but by a design team made up of a number of specialised professionals. The exact
makeup of a design team is not fixed and will vary from product to product and company to
company, however some of the key personnel include:
DESIGNER- They normally carry the lead role in the team and will have overall
responsibility for the development of the new product. This will involve producing
sketches/drawings/models and developing the final proposal in order to satisfy the
specification. In a small project a single designer will normally both coordinate and carryout
most of the design work.
MARKETING- The marketing specialists will initially liase with the sales staff to identify
potential niche markets for the product. This will usually involve market research
(questionnaires, focus groups, user trials etc) in order to see what the market actually wants
and needs. As the design nears completion they will use advertising to inform the public
about the product. After the launch the emphasis of the advertising will shift to promote the
product’s features etc.
SALES- The sales specialist has detailed knowledge of the company’s customers and will be
involved in providing information on the market place, competitors’ products and future
trends. They know the company’s existing consumers well, but many also commission
market research to survey consumers on their thoughts about existing products and their
future requirements. Their knowledge is critical when establishing the brief and specification
and will normally be able to suggest the price bracket into which the product will have to fit.
ACCOUNTANT- Company accountants will supply ongoing advice on the research and
development (R&D) budget and other project costs, as well as providing detail of the
financial constraints for the production and marketing of the product with regard to predicted
sales and the company’s financial position.
ENGINEER- Various engineering specialists will be required to bring technical expertise
(electrical, mechanical, computing, material, production etc) to the team. The company may
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have a product engineer who will accept overall responsibility for the manufacturer of the
product. Once the project is completed the product may be manufactured wholly in-house,
parts sub-contracted to specialised companies, or standard components sourced and brought
in for assembly. The choice of manufacturing/assembly technique to be used will depend on
the equipment available, staff skills, and volume of production.

MANUFACTURER- The manufacturer, like the engineer, brings detailed technical

information to the team; they will provide detail on the expertise and equipment that the
company currently has. They will advise on the workforce’s training needs, investment in
new equipment and the production method (batch, line, mass, flow etc). This is especially
important if the designer is not in-house but a freelance design consultant (not permanently
employed by the company and brought in just for the project).

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THE DESIGN BRIEF
The design brief is usually the starting point for any creative project. It normally contains
enough information to put the problem or need in context, define the market segment and
indicate the main requirements of the solution. The design brief will state WHAT the
problem is, WHY there is a need and WHO are the target market.
When writing a design brief the following points should be addressed:
• What is the nature of the problem/need?
• Why has the problem/need arisen?
• What is the target market?
An example of a design brief is shown below:
Garden tools such as spades, rakes, forks, etc come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The
storage of these items in a garage or shed can cause a variety of problems. The tools get
tangled up or stuck behind each other. You may require only one tool which is behind the
others. Or you could stand on a tool and injury yourself. The main reason that the tools are
difficult to store is that they vary in length and that the ends and handles are all different
shapes and sizes. A device is required which will store the above items in a space saving
manner whilst allowing easy access to each item at any time. Such a device would prevent
accidents with such tools whilst making the task of gardening more efficient and enjoyable.
The product will retail in the UK’s leading DIY store B&Q and will be priced at around £20
A client or end user usually supplies the design brief. However, the way in which the brief is
written can have a major influence on the design of the product:
OPEN BRIEF An open brief is one which sets out what has to be designed in fairly general
terms. This type of brief leaves a lot open to interpretation by the designer and hence allows a
wide range of possible solutions. One advantage of this type of brief is that truly original
solutions can be explored, however it has the potential disadvantage in that much time and
money can be wasted on proposals that may be unacceptable to the client.
CLOSED BRIEF A closed brief sets out the requirements in fairly specific terms. This type
of brief will highlight major restrictions, areas for research and direct the designer towards
what the client and users want. This gives the client greater control over the process but it
does tend to limit the design team’s freedom and can reduce the chance of developing a
groundbreaking design.
ANALYSIS (analysis, an-al’is-is, breaking up of a thing in to its parts) If we analyse
something then we gain a better understanding of what is going on. So, when faced with a
problem, the designer will break it up into its element and look at these in greater detail.
Initially a brainstorming session may be used to suggest all the possible aspects that will
influence the design. This is started by writing the name of the problem area in the centre of
the page and then noting down all of the possible design aspects around it (mind map). The
following aspects may provide a useful starting point:
• function;
• performance;
• aesthetic;
• ergonomics;
• market;

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• economics.
The mind map below shows the initial analysis of the aspects influencing the design of a
child’s chair:

MIND MAP
Historically it was assumed that the mind worked in a linear manner. Note taking, for
example, is usually in the form of vertical list. However, the complex process of selecting,
sorting and categorising information quickly and effectively is an important skill which can
be improved by mind mapping. The advantage of mind mapping is that the information is
‘slotted in’ easily, eliminating the need to alter or rewrite. Network of ideas and words are
interlinked and added to as they are analysed, coded and criticised naturally during the
process. Starting at the centre, jot down ideas branching out from the main theme. This
creates a pattern which is easy to remember. It also helps to link concepts, enabling new
connections to be made more readily. Then select, sort and categorise. The production of a
mind map involves critical analysis, integration of information, easier recall and a better
overall understanding.

LIFESTYLE BOARD
Producing a lifestyle board can be a very easy way of providing an aesthetic direction for the
product. It should be full of visual images which give a snapshot of the lifestyle of the target
market. There are no rules for producing a lifestyle board but it is useful if certain guidelines
are followed so that the information gained from the board can be used effectively.
The first step is to identify the intended market group and then find out as much as possible
about them (age range, gender, socio-economic group, culture hobbies etc). The next step can
be more difficult and may involve people watching. The purpose of this is to get a general
picture of the target market, where they go, what they wear, what food they eat and other
relevant observations. Finally once an overall impression of the target markets’ lifestyle has
been captured the lifestyle board can be produced which may include:
• the food they eat;
• the clothes they wear;

where they go on holiday;

• the houses they live in;
• the cars they drive;
• the music they listen to;
• the leisure activities they undertake;
• the style of furniture in their home;
• the products they own and aspire to own.
These visual images can be photographs or taken from magazines, newspapers, brochures or
movies and may include textiles and swatches of material. The result can be viewed as a
visual snapshot of the intended market group’s life. The designer can use the colour, shapes,
patterns and styles found in the lifestyle board when creating ideas. One of the evaluation
tests that can be carried out is to place a picture of the finished product in the lifestyle board
to see if it looks out of place with the rest of the images.
MOOD BOARD
A mood board is similar to a lifestyle board in that it brings together visual images from a
range of sources and it is used as a stimulus for new ideas. The difference is that a mood
board should create an atmosphere which reflects a chosen mood and it can be used to help
give a product a particular image. Many adjectives can be used to describe a mood. It may be
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useful to apply these to a product and then explore and experiment with colour, shape, form
and the other aesthetic features:
Happy Sad Aggressive Sexy Cool Fun Efficient Immature Relaxed Confident Outgoing
Lonely Stressed Frantic
A mood board can also be a way of visual brainstorming where the images created by a mood
are recorded and then pictures are found to illustrate them. In contrast, a lifestyle board is the
result of a much more analytical process where the product’s market segment is studied and
visual images are then collected.

DESIGN SPECIFICATION
There are many different types of specification; product design, performance, marketing,
technical and maintenance. For example, technicians would refer to a maintenance
specification for a wind turbine to tell them when and how to lubricate parts, tighten bolts,
apply paint, and replace rubber fittings. Although specifications can be boring to read, they
account for every detail affecting the product. A product design specification (PDS) is a
statement of the features that the finished product must possess in order to satisfy the design
brief. It is written by the designer and is based on all the key research information gathered.
The PDS should be unambiguously and list all the requirements of the product including any
numeric detail including tolerances. The client, who set the design brief, should be fully
consulted as their needs are of paramount importance. A product design specification is
normally structured using the relevant design aspects:
• Function
• Ergonomics
• Performance
• Materials
• Aesthetics
• Manufacturing
• Marketing
Several points could be made under each heading. For example, the specification for a child’s
chair is given below:
Design Specification EXAMPLE: Child Chair Project
Performance:
1. The design must support the weight of a child up to the age of four years old.
2. The design must incorporate some form of table of tray for eating, playing etc.
Ergonomics:
3. The design must suit the anthropometric data of one to four year olds.
4. The design must be easy to lift by an adult.
Safety:
5. The design must have no sharp edges.
6. The finish on the design must be non-toxic.
7. The design must have no loose small parts that could be swallowed.
Materials:
8. The materials used must withstand scrapes, bashes, food spills etc.
9. The materials used should not splinter or chip easily.
Manufacture:
10. The design should be easy to manufacture in an average workshop with basic wood,
metal and plastic tools/machinery.
Aesthetics:
11. The aesthetics of the design must appeal to the age group it is aimed at (primary colours,
simple shapes etc).
Marketing:
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12. The design must be affordable by a typical young family.
13. The design will be sold in toy departments in large department stores.
14. Whilst the design must be aimed at children between the ages of one and four, their
parents who will buy it must also be made aware of its benefits.

PRIMARY & SECONDARY FUNCTIONS

In any specification there are always some aspects that are more important than others. These
needs can be divided into either Primary or Secondary function. The primary functions are
those that are vital for the product to do its job, whilst the secondary functions are those
which although important could be compromised for the benefit of the primary functions.
Dividing your specification up in this way helps you to prioritise, especially in the early
stages of a design, and allows you to focus on the important aspects of the product. For
example, the primary functions of a kettle could be listed as; boil 1.5 L of water and pour
safely. These functions will allow the designer to produce a range of sketch ideas without
getting bogged down with such things as a water level indicator, cordless feature, etc.

GENERATING IDEAS
When faced with a blank sheet of paper many people find it difficult to come up with new
and innovative ideas so a number of techniques have been developed to help provide a
starting point. The main aim of each of these techniques is to guide the designer away from
conventional thinking or existing solutions and help suggest new, original and creative ideas.

BRAINSTORMING
Brainstorming is a group activity in which people focus their attention on a specific issue or
problem and generate a large number of ideas in a short space of time. One advantage of
working in a group is that others may see the problem from a different perspective and
suggest a fresh approach. This in turn stops the others from becoming too focused on a single
train of thought. The rules of brainstorming are:
• the problem must be defined in fairly simple terms to encourage a variety of solutions;
• no criticism of any suggestion is allowed - judgment should be kept until later;
• all ideas should be welcomed, however bizarre they may appear;
• the emphasis should be on producing a large number of ideas;
• building on others ideas should be welcomed. Insisting on these rules leads to a relaxed
environment where people feel uninhibited and open to free thought.
The suggestions are recorded in note or sketch form or a combination of both. Once the
session is over however, it will then be necessary to sift through all the ideas and select those
which show potential for further development.

ANALOGY
Analogies are very good for discovering things you had not realised about the problem or
product and thus enable you to develop new solutions. Often an analogy will include the
words "... is like ..." The first step is to make up an analogy:
• What does the problem or product remind you of?
• What other areas of life/work experience similar situations?
Analogy’s success depends upon your ability to identify useful lines of thought. For example,
engineers faced a problem when designing a new aircraft carrier for the Sea Harrier jets. The
decks were too short for the planes to take off with a full load, unless the carrier steamed at
full speed into the wind. It was the analogy which likened this problem to water-ski jumping
that provided the breakthrough and led to the ramp take off being successfully developed.

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TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
New products, ideas and inventions are often the result of a process called associative
thinking. This means that a designer will make a link with the technology in one field of
design and use it to provide a new idea or solution in another. There are many examples, such
as:
• Laser technology developed for space and defence programmes is now used in DVD
systems.
• Dyson adapted the technology found in a sawmill dust extraction system for use in his
vacuum cleaners.
• The principle of ski bindings is now used in bicycle SPD pedals and shoes.
These examples show how a technology which already exists can be transferred without
further development and used in the design of a completely new product.

LATERAL THINKING
We all have habits in the way we think. These habits can often block our ability to correctly
perceive a problem and create a solution. Lateral thinking is about looking at the problem in a
different way and avoiding our everyday vertical type approach to thinking. In lateral
thinking, it is not necessary to be right at every step since it is sometimes desirable to be
wrong in order to organise and alter information or ideas. Challenging accepted concepts and
information is what makes lateral thinking so important. Like a young child, lateral thinking
constantly asks `why?’
For example, lateral thinking could be used to generate ideas for supporting a table top (note
that the word leg is not used):
• hang it from the ceiling;
• the top is the support;
• use magnets to support the top;
• attach the top to a wall;
• support the top with water.
As before these are starting points which need to be analysed and developed further using
sketches.
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INITIAL IDEAS

At the start of the initial ideas a designer would use an idea generation technique to suggest
possible designs. These are sketched or modelled in 3D and annotated to highlight how they
address the key points in the specification. In order to make this stage easier the designer
should concentrate on generating ideas which meet the primary functions of the specification.
These are sometimes called Sketch Ideas because that is what they are - simple sketches or
models. During this process the aim is to create a large number of good ideas rather than a
few well presented designs. It should therefore be a quick and spontaneous process with just a
few minutes spent on each sketch. For example, a page of sketch ideas for a CD holder is
shown below:

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DEVELOPING IDEAS

Having produced a wide range of initial ideas the most promising are selected (using the
design specification) for development. Aspects such as ergonomics, aesthetics and function,
along with at least three other design aspects must be considered. It is at this stage that the
secondary functions may be incorporated into the designs.
During the development the design may alter slightly or even completely changed. Modelling
can be a very effective method of developing the ideas, particularly when ergonomic aspects
are being considered. Clay, card and polystyrene are suitable materials as they allow ‘sketch’
models to be quickly made. Models can also be used to test out mechanisms such as pivots or
linkages where clearances have to be worked out.
It is useful to be aware of the main aspects which influence a designer’s thinking and how
concentrating on developing one area too much will affect the other aspects. For example, in
the development of a certain product the following four aspects are considered:
• Functional requirements • Aesthetic requirements • Economic constraints • Environmental
concerns
These are each divided into specific topics that can be considered in depth during the
development of the ideas:
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