DEBARK UNIVERSITY

Colleges Of Natural and Computational Science

Department Of Biology
Wild edible and semi-wild edible plants

Course Tittle: Introduction to Ethnobiology

Course Code:

Students Information
Group Members ID No
1) Degdeg Bany Bol………………………….1200514
2) Sara Boru Sara……………………………1200570
3) Adane Yibgeta Habte………………………1200883
4) Melkienew Tarekegn Tesfew ……………...1200374
5) Worksew Abay Mesfin …………………….1200336
6) Nebyu Amdesa Kider ………………………1200882

Submitted to: (Msc) Bekele G.

Submission date 12/2014 E.C

Debark, Ethiopia.
 Table of Contents
Contents page

1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………...

1.1. background …………………………………………………………………………………...

1.2. Objectives of the study ……………………………………………………………………….

1.3. General objective……………………………………………………………………………..

1.3.1. Specific objectives………………………………………………………………………….

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………………………….

2.1. Status of research and development on WEPs in Ethiopia ……………………………………….

2.2. Distribution of wild edible plant species across plant communities in Dugda Dawa District vegetation
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

i.Table 1 Parts of WEPs commonly consumed in the study area. …………………………………..

ii .Figure 1………………………………………………………………………………………

2.2.1. Plant parts used and mode of consumption …………………………………………..

iii.Figure 2………………………………………………………………………………………………..

3.0. Ethnobotany of Wild and Semi-wild Edible Plants of Konso Ethnic Community, South
Ethiopia…………………………………………………………………………………………………

vi.Table 2. Wild and semi-wild edible plants of Konso Wereda ethnic community in Ethiopia………

3.1.0 Ethnobotanical Study of Wild Edible Plants in Bule Hora Woreda, Southern Ethiopia…………………..

3.1.1. Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants of Kara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo
River Valley, Debub Omo Zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia…………………………………………………………………

v.Table 3. the list of wild edible plants reported by kara and kwego people……………………………………….

3.1.2. Ethnobotanical study of edible wild plants in Ensaro district, Amhara regional state, Ethiopia………….

xi.Table 4. the diversity of edible plants in each plant family……………………………………………………….

3.1.3. The bar graph for diversity of edible in each plant family…………………………………………………...

3.1.4. Ethno Botanical Study of Wild Edible Plants in Adola District, Southern, Ethiopia……………………….
xii.Table 5. Potential distribution of local name, scientific name, habit, part used, season of collection and
Preparation mode of WEPs in Adola district………………………………………………………………………..

3.1.5. Uses of wild edible plants in Quara district, northwest Ethiopia: implication for forest management…..

xiii.Table 6. List of marketable wild edible plants in Quara district………………………………………………………………..

4.0. Summary ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

5.0. References ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6.0. Appendices 1……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. background

Ethiopia is an important center of diversity for many domesticated crops (Harlan 1969). It is also
a reservoir of ancient farming systems, farmers’ varieties of many crops and the associated
ethnobotanical knowledge. However, the crop diversity is threatened through replacement of
existing farmers’ varieties with improved cultivars. Agricultural expansion and deforestation also
threaten local ecosystems. These situations exacerbate local food shortages and aggravate
widespread malnutrition in the country.

There is a need to focus on available and ecologically adapted food sources including the wider
pool of underutilized edibles in the wild-domesticated continuum. Ethiopia’s aspirations to create
healthy and productive environments, and food secure communities could well be supported by
the wide array of diversity in wild/semi-wild edible plants.

People of the world use the wild plant resources from the very beginning in ancient time to fulfill
their needs The use of wild plant resource still continued in different parts of the world. Because,
the wild plants play a crucial role for daily requirement of human beings such as medicine, food,
spices, fence and shelter construction timber production, etc. Utilization of wild edible plants as a
food source is an integral part of the culture of indigenous people that dwell in the rain forests of
Africa and South America who gather and consume wild edible plants as snacks and at times of
food scarcity.

Sixteen indigenous people inhabit the south western part of Ethiopia; Kara and Kwego are two of
these that live in Lower Omo River Valley. They are knowledgeable of traditional plant uses,
one of which is the use of wild edible plants as a food source. The Kara people live in the remote
section of the Lower Omo Valley on the eastern bank of Omo River. They have a well-kept and
distinct cultural identity, and speak the Omotic language. The Kara people use ornate body art,
intricate headdresses and body scarification to express beauty and significance in the
communities. Most rural communities are highly dependent on forest products including edible
wild plants.
 Thus, many plant taxa are under greater threats before they are documented and their nutritional
values are evaluated. This study was carried out to document edible wild plants and associated
indigenous practices, and the correlations with socio-demographic variables on edible wild plants
in Ensaro district, North Shewa Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. It also examined the
habitats and major threatening factors of edible wild plants. Wild edible plants defined as plants
that grow spontaneously in self-maintaining populations in natural or semi-natural ecosystems
and can exist independently of direct (Heywood, 1999).

They are the species that are neither cultivated nor domesticated, but they are available from
their wild natural habitat and used as sources of food (Beluhan and Ranogajec, 2011). Rural
communities that lack resilience and are highly sensitive to environmental perturbations tend to
rely on a range of strategies to minimize system vulnerability (Davies, 1993). Such practices are
still prevalent among rural and tribal communities in many parts of the world (Binu, 2010;
Bhogaonkar et al., 2010). Indigenous peoples of different localities in the country have
developed their own specific knowledge to use, manage and conserve of plant resources
(Pankhrust, 2000). Wild edible plants (WEPs) are all non-domesticated plants species used by
people which are a continuum results from co-evolutionary relationships between humans and
their environment.

1.2. Objectives of the study

1.3. General objective

To know about the wild edible and semi-edible plants.

1.3.1. Specific objectives

To know the best parts used as a wild food.

To know about parts consumed in WEPS.

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Status of research and development on WEPs in Ethiopia

WEPs have been a focus of research for many ethnobotanists in recent decades. Currently, there
is renewed global interest in documenting ethnobotanical information on neglected wild edible
food sources (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010). Since traditional knowledge on WEPs is being eroded
44 through acculturation and the loss of plant biodiversity along with indigenous people and their
cultural background, promoting research on wild food plants is crucial in order to safeguard this
information for future societies (Zemede Asfaw, 2009; Tena Regassa et al., 2014). A major
objective of ethnobotanical investigation into wild food plants is the documentation of
indigenous knowledge associated with these plants. Comparative studies on WEPs in different
cultures or ethnic groups of a country or among different countries, may contribute to the
identification of the most widely used species for further nutritional analysis (Getachew Addis et
al., 2001; Termote et al., 2009; De Caluwé, 2010a, b; Beluhan and Ranogajec, 2010). Nutritional
analysis results provide clues to aid the promotion of those species that have the best nutritional
values which helps to to ensure dietetic diversity and combat food insecurity (Tardio et al., 2006;
Ermias Lulekal et al., 2011) Status of research and development on WEPs in Ethiopia WEPs
have been a focus of research for many ethnobotanists in recent decades. Currently, there is
renewed global interest in documenting ethnobotanical information on neglected wild edible
food sources (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010). Since traditional knowledge on WEPs is being eroded
44 through acculturation and the loss of plant biodiversity along with indigenous people and their
cultural background, promoting research on wild food plants is crucial in order to safeguard this
information for future societies (Zemede Asfaw, 2009; Tena Regassa et al., 2014). A major
objective of ethnobotanical investigation into wild food plants is the documentation of
indigenous knowledge associated with these plants. Comparative studies on WEPs in different
cultures or ethnic groups of a country or among different countries, may contribute to the
identification of the most widely used species for further nutritional analysis (Getachew Addis et
al., 2001; Termote et al., 2009; De Caluwé, 2010a, b; Beluhan and Ranogajec, 2010). Nutritional
analysis results provide clues to aid the promotion of those species that have the best nutritional
values which helps to to ensure dietetic diversity and combat food insecurity (Tardio et al., 2006;
Ermias Lulekal et al., 2011) Status of research and development on WEPs in Ethiopia WEPs
have been a focus of research for many ethnobotanists in recent decades. Currently, there is
renewed global interest in documenting ethnobotanical information on neglected wild edible
food sources (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010). Since traditional knowledge on WEPs is being eroded
44 through acculturation and the loss of plant biodiversity along with indigenous people and their
cultural background, promoting research on wild food plants is crucial in order to safeguard this
information for future societies (Zemede Asfaw, 2009; Tena Regassa et al., 2014). A major
objective of ethnobotanical investigation into wild food plants is the documentation of
indigenous knowledge associated with these plants. Comparative studies on WEPs in different
cultures or ethnic groups of a country or among different countries, may contribute to the
identification of the most widely used species for further nutritional analysis (Getachew Addis et
al., 2001; Termote et al., 2009; De Caluwé, 2010a, b; Beluhan and Ranogajec, 2010). Nutritional
analysis results provide clues to aid the promotion of those species that have the best nutritional
values which helps to to ensure dietetic diversity and combat food insecurity (Tardio et al., 2006;
Ermias Lulekal et al., 2011).

2.2. Distribution of wild edible plant species across plant communities in

Dugda Dawa District vegetation
Out of the four identified plant communities in highest number of wild edible plant species (41
species) followed by community two which contains 28 species. Species richness, diversity, and
evenness values of each com presented in Table below.
 Table 1 Parts of WEPs commonly consumed in the study area.

Jibat District Chelia district Dendi district Combined district

Plant parts % Plant parts % Plant parts % Plant parts %
Fruit 42.16 Fruit 40 Fruit 43.05 Fruit 43.67
Leaves 16.86 Leaves 17.5 Leaves 20.83 Leaves 16.09
Tender shoot 12.04 Tender shoot 12.5 Young shoots 8.33 Tender shoot 11.49
Roots 6.02 Subterranean 8.75 Roots 6.94 Roots s5.74
organs
Inflorescence 4.81 Twing/buds 7.50 Inflorescence 4.16 Inflorescence 4.59
s s s
Seeds 3.61 Stems 5.00 Stems 4.16 Stems 3.44
Stems 3.61 Seeds 3.75 Tubers 2.77 Seeds 3.44
Bulbs 2.40 Inflorescence 3.75 Gum/ 2.77 Bulbs 2.29
s exudates
Tubers 2.40 Gum/exudate 1.25 Others 6.94 Gum/ 2.29
exudates
Others 6.02 tubers 2.29
Others 4.59
Total 99.93 100 99.95 99.93
% % % %

The majority of the reported WEPs were consumed as fruits either fresh or dried (50.55%) and
leafy vegetables mainly consumed cooked or boiled (16.09%) followed by use for seasonings
(11.49%). The latter includes uses as spices and condiments too. The other consumption patterns
or food use categories include uses in local alcoholic drink preparation, made into bread/injera
(in Ahmaharic)/porridge, tasty sugars consumed from flowers, as herbal tea, use of subterranean
organ raw or cooked and consumption of tasty exudates. Moreover, about 65% of WEPs in the
study area were consumed raw. Figure 1
 Bar graph of major food use categories of weps of
the study area
70%60%
60% 50%
50% 45%
40%
40% 35%
30%
30% 20%
20% 10%
Axis Title

10% 0%
0%
ts bl
e ng k ra es al an es
ui ta ni rin je nc rb ne at
Fr e s o c d
/ in e He a d
g a li d sc rr xu
Ve Se ho e a re bt
e /e
cl o Br flo Su m
l a In Gu
ca
Lo
Axis Title

Fruits Vegetables Seasoning Local alcohol drink Bread/injera

Inflorescences Herbal Subterranean Gum/exudates

2.2.1. Plant parts used and mode of consumption

Eighty-one plant parts were mentioned as food sources; 54 fruit types, eight root types, eight
bark types, seven leaf types and one each of seed, stem, nectar, and gum. Concerning their mode
of consumption 70 plant parts (86.4%) were consumed uncooked and seven (13.6%) were
consumed in their cooked form. Figure 2

Pie chart for plant parts used as a wild food

1.30% 1.30% 1.30% 1.30%

9.00%

10.20%

10.20%
65.40%

Fruits Barks Roots Leaves Gum Nectar Seed Stem

3.0. Ethnobotany of Wild and Semi-wild Edible Plants of Konso Ethnic
Community, South Ethiopia.
This ethnobotanical study was conducted in Konso Wereda (district) of south Ethiopia following
reconnaissance surveys conducted between February and March 2005. Konso Wereda is located
about 600 km south of Addis Ababa. The selection of Konso for this study was influenced by
reported presence of indigenous knowledge and practice on WEPS, high botanical diversity and
rich indigenous practices in natural resource management. Five rural kebeles (lowest government
administrative structure) were selected for the study following a stratified sampling method. The
administrative town was preferentially included to represent an urban setting. The stratification
variables were agro-ecological zones and fair distribution of study kebeles. Konso Wereda
ranges in altitude from 650 to over 2650 masl. It has an annual rainfall from 771 to 921 mm with
maximum precipitation being received from March to May and a short rainy season from
September to November (Official unpublished data of Ethiopian Metrological Agency 2008).
The population of the Konso ethnic community was estimated to be 219,004, the majority of
whom (211,498) dwell in the rural parts (Population Census Commission 2008). The Konso
community is maintaining indigenous knowledge of plants, and local cultural identities remain
intact. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
recently included the “Konso Cultural Landscape” in its list of World Heritage sites in
recognition of its importance as a global heritage and practice landscape. The settings of
traditional practices include terraced step land, with use of irrigation, water harvesting, mulching,
polyculture farming and agroforestry harboring diverse plants, integrated crop-livestock mixed
farming system, and use of wild plant resources. This mixture is likely unique to Konso. Despite
having well developed agricultural system, recurrent drought, and intermittent food shortages
and famine threaten the livelihoods of the people.

The 137 WEPS consumed in Konso are also documented as edible in other parts of Ethiopia
(Abbink 1993, Addis et al. 2005, Asfaw & Tadesse 2001, Balemie & Kebebew 2006, Feyssa et
al. 2011, 2012, Getahun 1974, Guinand & Lemessa 2001, Lulekal et al. 2011, Ocho et al. 2012,
Woube 1995, Wondimu 2007, Wondimu et al. 2006) and elsewhere in Africa (Lepofsky et al.
1985, Maundu et al. 1999, Ogle & Grivetti 1985, Zinyama 1990) and Asia (Gopalan et al. 1989).
According to Wondimu (2007), the dryland areas of Ethiopia alone host 287 edible wild plant
species. The studies made so far on wild edible plants of Ethiopia provide good indications of the
presence of a larger aggregation of plants (e.g., herbs, trees, shrubs, climbers, creepers) with
edible parts (e.g., fruits, leaves, roots/tubers, seeds). The present study presents a large
proportion of these plant species from a limited area. It can therefore be inferred that further
8complete database for Ethiopia could be built through a series of such studies. Among the wild
edible fruits, O. ficus-indica was the most preferred (with regard to taste) in Konso. The fruit of
O. ficus-indica is available for consumption throughout the year and its index of ingestion
compared to other WEPS is high (Addis 2009). Moreover, it is rich in its carbohydrate and
protein contents (Tegegne 2001). However, consumption of O. ficus-indica is usually limited to
children (Addis 2009). Problems associated with harvesting and preparation/peeling of the fruit
cover due to its prickly trichomes, and destruction of the plant to use the land for agriculture
have affected its consumption. The use of O. ficus-indica in northern Ethiopia is showing an
increasing trend as a result of support by modern processing and packaging technologies.
Expanding the cultivation and use of this plant in Konso would be a sensible undertaking. The
highly drought resistant nature of the plant also makes the fruit preferable in areas where there is
inadequate and erratic rainfall, as in Konso. All wild GLVs have high indexes of ingestion as
compared to fruits, which is directly associated with filling qualities and better nutritional
composition (Addis 2009). In Konso, wild GLVs are part of household menus but with varying
degrees of consumption depending on the season (availability of the GLVs and level of
conventional food stocks). The present study indicated that L. hastata is the most preferred wild
GLV in terms of its taste. The plant provides leaves throughout the year but its palatability varied
with seasons. Moreover, it is known for causing stomachaches.

Table 2. Wild and semi-wild edible plants of Konso Wereda ethnic community in Ethiopia.

Family name Species No of Habits Edible Preparation

species parts
used
Acanthaceae

Asystasia gangetica(L) 1 Shrub Leaf Vegetable

Berieteria longissiuma 1 Herb Flowe Ripe
Deflers r
Justicia flava 1 Herb Leaf Vegetable
Justicia calculata 1 Herb Leaf Vegetable
Justicia ladanoides Lam 1 Herb Leaf Vegetable
Amaranthacea
e

Amaranthus angusitfolius 1 Herb Leaf Vegetable

Lam
Amaranthus hybridus 1 Herb Leaf Vegetable
Seed Raw
AP Raw
Celosia argentea L 1 Herb Leaf Vegetable
Celosia trigyna L 1 Herb Leaf Vegetable
Digera muricata L 1 Herb Leaf Vegetable
Anacardiaceae

Lannea rivea 1 Tree Leaf Vegetable

Root Raw
Lannea schimperi 1 Tree Fruit Raw
Lannea triphylla 1 Tree Fruit Raw
 Annonaceae

Uvaria acuminata 1 Shrub Fruit Ripe

Apocynaceae

Acokanthera schimperi 1 Tree Fruit Ripe and

raw
Blyttia fruticulose 1 Shrub Fruit Raw
Bucullia sp. 1 Vine Root Raw

3.1.0 Ethnobotanical Study of Wild Edible Plants in Bule Hora Woreda,

Southern Ethiopia.
The study was conducted in the Bule Hora or poles, etc. These practices adversely affect wild
woreda, Borena zone, Oromia National Regional State, Southern Ethiopia. The study area is
composed of about 48 kebeles. Out of these, three kebeles were selected purposefully as
representative study sites based on their location, climatic condition and distance from each
other. The study sites (kebeles) were Didole Hara, Kilenso Mokonisa and Ropi Magada with
weather conditions of semi-arid (Qola), mid highland (Weinadega) and highland (Dega)
respectively. The indigenous people of the study area (called Guji. and Borana) are from the
Oromo ethnic groups. The study area is semi-arid, with mean annual bimodal rainfall ranging
between 400 mm and 500 mm with the main rainy season expected between March and May and
the short rain occurs between October and November. The vegetation of the study area is typical
of lowlands in some kebeles and also shows characteristics of highlands in the other areas.

The reported wild edible plants in the area were eaten indicates the ethnobotanical knowledge
similarity of the to combat against food scarcity and also taken as extra local people to use wild
edible plants in different parts of foods in addition to the cultivated plants. Similarly, eating the
world. Therefore, indigenous knowledge of wild food wild edible plants was common
throughout the country utilization is not restricted to only one place or country;This indicates the
widely use of wild instead it interrelated with the traditional knowledge in edible plants in the
country to fight against food scarcity various parts of the world. This indigenous knowledge
especially during the famine season. passes from the parents to the young generations Majority
of wild food plants in the area were eaten as traditionally. extra food instead of serving as regular
meal. This The additional roles of wild edible plants include indicates the uses of wild food
plants as optional food serving as raw materials for house construction, charcoal during sufficient
access of cultivated plants are available production, preparing of beehives, medicinal value, in
the area. Likewise, the optional consumption of wild providing pleasant smoke, preparing ax
holder, providing edible plants was happen in different parts of the world shade, timber
production and food for cattle. For instance. Although many wild edible plants got little
Syzygium guineense var. (Wild.) DC. serve as raw material emphasize by the local people, some
are crucial a lot for for house construction, used as a fuel and its natural hole their nutritional
contents. Because, some wild edible serve as a shelter for honey bees, Pappea capensis Eckl
plants are rich in essential amino acids, carbohydrate and and Zeyh, Teclea simplicifolia (Engl.)
Verdoorn, Psidium minerals like calcium, Copper, Iron, Magnesium, Zinc, etc. gujava L. and
Euclea divinorum Hiern serve as medicinal. value for human being as well as for domestic
animals. The growth habits of wild edible plants of the study plants in the area area were
dominated by shrubs and trees. Likewise, the in addition, Syzygium guineense var. (Wild.) DC.
was in the study area fruits, young shoots, tubers, roots harvested for construction and Cordia
africana Lam. was and gum were found to be eaten by the local people. harvested for production
of timber. Among these edible parts, fruits account about 79.31% In the study area, the local
people reported that some while the rest other parts cover about 20.69%. The other trees
conserved in the natural forest or agro-forestry studies conducted by also reported that fruits
were system. For example, Syzygium guineense var. (Wild.) DC. the dominant edible parts in
the country. However, edible conserved in natural forest while Cordia africana Lam. leaves were
not reported in the study area. But leaves conserved in agro-forestry near the home garden. In
were important edible parts in the other parts of the world addition some plants like Momordica
foetida Schumach. This might be correlated with the and Physalis peruviana L. grow with the
living fences near variation in the traditional knowledge of the local people the home garden. in
different areas. The people in some area adapted to eat Dried Momordica foetida Schumach. cut
by keeping and travelling. However, few plant parts farmers from coffee plant were consumed
by extracting the edible oil, by traditional. country. optional food serving as raw materials for
house construction, charcoal during sufficient access of cultivated plant are available production,
preparing of beehives, medicinal value, in the area. Likewise, the optional consumption of wild
providing pleasant smoke, preparing ax holder, providing edible plants was happen in different
parts of the world shade, timber production and food for cattle. For instance. Although many
wild edible plants got little Syzygium guineense var. (Wild.) serve as raw.

Rhus natalensis Krauss. and Ficus sur Forssk. used for wild edible plants during food scarcity
rather than the preparing of beehives, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata other time. The
marketability of wild edible plants was also (Wall. Ex G. Don) Cif. provide attractive smoke.In
addition revealed by the other studies. to the above functions, the wild edible plants may This
indicates the contribution of wild edible plants in contribute many purposes beside their use for
generating of income in addition to their use for consumption. Likewise, the study conducted by
Kebu [9] consumption. reported the use of wild edible plants for various the other wild edible
plants such as Olea europaea purposes in addition to consumption. Moreover, some of subsp.
cuspidata (Wall. Ex G. Don) Cif. and Cordia the wild edible plant parts used as a food source
were also africana Lam. were sold for other purposes. For example, ingested as a remedy. For
example, Saba comorensis Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Wall. Ex G. Don) Cif. (Boj.) Pichon,
Moringa stenopetala (Bak. f.) Cuf., Ximenia Was sold for its attractive smoke while Cordia
africana Americana L. and Grewia bicolor Juss. were also ingested Lam. sold for timber
production. Similarly, the study for medicinal value. The use of wild edible plants for conducted
by reported that the gum from Acacia various purposes might increase the harvesting of plants
Senegal is collected and sold in local markets. This for different functions. This may lead to the
extinction of indicates the selling of wild edible plants in the local the wild edible plants in the
area. Because, more targeted markets for various functions in addition to their plants become rare
in the local area. As a result, wise nutritional value. use of these plants required for sustainable
usage in the threats such as over grazing by domestic future. animals, deforestation for
agricultural practices and the wild edible plants of the study area have only settlement and
cutting for construction and preparation of the over dosage and dangerous spines side effects.
home furniture were reported in the area. Likewise, the These indicate little bit risks of
consuming wild edible study conducted by [30] reported the plants in the area. Therefore, the
wild edible plants in the agricultural expansions, overgrazing, deforestation, fuel area can be
eaten by the local community without fear of wood collection and urbanization as the major
threats of side effects except few. However, according to the study wild edible plants in the
country. This might cause the conducted by eye irritation, which in the worst cases depletion of
wild edible plants throughout the country. may lead to blindness during harvesting of Opuntia
Therefore, the awareness of the local community plays a ficus-indica, skin and mouth irritation
by Amorphophallus great role to proceeds these crucial wild edible plants and gomboczianus,
reversible joint paralysis due to their indigenous knowledge for the future generations.
consumption of Justicia ladanoides Lam. were the major the local people reported some
conservation adverse effects mentioned. strategies of wild edible plants in the natural forest, in
the wild edible plants in Ropi Magada and Kilenso agro-forestry system and near the home
garden. Similarly, Mokonisa kebeles are more or less similar while those in the study conducted
by [28] reported the conservation of Didole Hara kebele are relatively different. This might be
wild edible plants in agro-forestry and living fences. This correlated with the similarity of
climatic condition and indicates the similarity in the indigenous knowledge of the altitudes
between the Ropi Magada and Kilenso local people to conserve the wild edible plants in
different Mokonisa than that of the Didole Hara. The wild edible parts of the country. plants
which adapted to the semi-arid climate and high land areas found in Ropi Magada and Kilenso
Mokonisa.

3.1.1. Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants of Kara and Kwego semi-
pastoralist people in Lower Omo River Valley, Debub Omo Zone, SNNPR,
Ethiopia.
The study was conducted in Kara and Kwego are located in the Lower Omo River Valley, Debub
Omo Zone, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPR) at about 880
km south of Addis Ababa. The study site is ‘kola’ to ‘bereha’ (dry arid lowland), has 400 - 600
mm mean annual rainfall and 20.1 - 27.5°C mean annual temperature. The Kara people live in
three villages: Lebok (403.26 m.a.s.l., N 050 22′ 306′′, E 360 12′ 575′′), Duss (406.30 m.a.s.l., N
050 16′ 471′′, E 360 12′ 420′′) and Korcho (433.13 m.a.s.l., N 050 11′ 562′, E 360 12′ 428′′) on
the eastern bank of Omo River in Hamar Woreda (District). They are bordering Hamar and Bena
on the east, Nyangatom on the west, Mursi on the north, and Dasenech on the south. The total
population of the three villages is 1,472 (Fig. 1). The Kwego people live at six villages on the
western bank of Omo River in Kuraz Woreda and the total population is 584. The location with
the highest population and the prominent residential area is Kuchuru (406 m.a.s.l., N 050 25′
683′′, E 360 12′ 717′′), which is located at about 42 km from Kangaton. They live together with
Bumea/Nyangatom people. They are bordering Nyangatom on the south and west, Mursi on the
north and Kara on the east.

Thirty-eight wild plant species were reported as sources of food by Kara and Kwego informants;
three were unique to Kara, five to Kwego and fourteen had similar local names. The taxonomic
richness (families, genera and species, p > 0.05 was not significantly different between Kara and
Kwego people. The two people live in symbiotic relationship; share a similar type of ecology and
knowledge of wild edible plant uses. The Kara and Kwego people live in a semi-arid and arid
region. The total number of wild edible plants reported by Kara and Kwego informants was
pooled together in the analysis of the distribution of the species. The wild edible plants species
were distributed among 23 families and 33 genera. The families Capparidaceae and Tiliaceae had
four species each; Boraginaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, Salvadoraceae,
Sapindaceae, Solanaceae and Ulmaceae had two each. The remaining families had one species
each. One plant was only identified to a genus level. The number of plants reported in the study
area is comparable with those were reported.

Table 3. the list of wild edible plants reported by kara and kwego people

Family Species No Spp. Habit Plant parts Preparation

used
Annonaceae Uvaria 1 Tree Fruit Ripe and
 leptocladon raw
Olive.
Apocynaceae Saba 1 Tree Fruit Row
comorenis
(Boj).pichon
Araceae Borassu 1 Tree Fruit Ripe and
aethiopum raw
Mart
Asclepladaceae Lepadenia 1 Shrub Leave Vegetable
hastala
(Pers)
Decne.
Balanitaceae Balanites 1 Tree Fruit Ripe and
rotundifolia raw
Boraginaceae Cordia 1 Tree Fruit Raw
sinensis
Lam
Moraceae Ficus 1 Tree Fruit Raw
sycomous
L.
Fabaceae Fabaceae 1 Herb Leave/Shoot Vegetable
sp.

3.1.2. Ethnobotanical study of edible wild plants in Ensaro district, Amhara

regional state, Ethiopia.
The study was conducted in Ensaro district of North Shewa Zone Amhara Regional State (Fig.
1). The study site altitude ranges from 1200m-2700m above sea level. The area is highly
deforested except for some unsuitable places for agriculture. The climate is wet and dry tropical,
with an average annual rainfall of 1174mm (Harris et al., 2020). The District shows a unimodal
rainfall from late June to September with a peak in August. The mean annual temperature of
Ensaro district is 17.7 0c (Fig. 1). The administrative centre of Ensaro is Lemi town found
130km North of Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia. Geographically the district is located
between 9º 55N and 9 *56 indicate that 20% of the land area is mountainous, followed by plain
(50%) and the estimated total area of the district is about 44,217.6 m. The elevation of the study
area ranges from1200m to 2700m above sea level and the district falls within three major agro-
climatic zones, high lands, midlands and lowlands.

Forty-three (43) edible wild plant species distributed to 34 genera and 27 families reported by the
study participants as sources of wild foods by this study in Ensaro district. It was found that the
plant family Moraceae was very popular and represented by.

Table 4. the diversity of edible plants in each plant family.

No Family Number Percentage
of
species
1 Moraceae 5 11.6%
2 Fabaceae 4 9.3%
3 Tiliacaeae 3 7%
4 Boraginaceae 2 4.7%
5 Ebenaceae 2 4.7%
6 Myrtaceae 2 4.7%
7 Polygonaceae 2 4.7%
8 Olacaeae 2 4.7%
9 Solanaceae 2 4.75
10 Others 19 44.2%

3.1.3. The bar graph for diversity of edible in each plant family
47.50% 44.20%
42.50%
37.50%
32.50%
27.50%
22.50%
17.50%
11.60%
12.50% 9.30%
7.00%
7.50% 4.70% 4.70% 4.70% 4.70% 4.70% 4.70%
2.50%
Moracea Fabacea Tiliaceae Boragi- Ebe- Myr- Polygo- Ola- Solanace Others
e e naceae naceae taceae naceae caceae ae
F 11.60% 9.30% 7.00% 4.70% 4.70% 4.70% 4.70% 4.70% 4.70% 44.20%
a
m
il
y

Family Linear (Family)

In most of Ethiopia, edible wild plants are essential components of daily food intakes (Balemie
& Kebebew, 2006). These plants are important means to get a balanced diet and proper health for
poor people who are depending on them for their daily foods (Teketay et al., 2010). Some
reported species are edible during a food crisis. This study was not aimed to evaluate the
contributions of edible wild plants for the livelihood of people. However, about 30% of the
respondents were indicated that they are getting some income from the sales of these plants, like
Ximenia americana, Ziziphus spina-christi and, tamarindus indica are commonly traded in local
markets. In this study it was noted that the local name of three edible wild plant species varies in
different kebeles- for example, Tamarindus indica is known by Roema in Yidnoberessa, Doqma
in Gezawasha dalota kebeles; Grewia occidentalis in known by chirnchir in Yidnoberessa,
Betremusie in Gezawasha dalota, and Eleusine coracana (L.) Wanga in Yidnoberessa, Degelie in
Gezawasha dalota. The number of edible wild plants species recorded in this study is comparable
with the 46 species reported in the Southern part of Ethiopia (Ashagre et al., 2016). however, it is
higher than the 22 species reported in the eastern part of Ethiopia (Kebede et al., 2017) and 27
species in Uganda (Nyakoojo & Tugume, 2020). But it is also lower than 154 edible wild plants
species documented in Turkey (Cakir, 2017) and 354 species reported in Burkina Faso by Hahn
et al. (2018). This difference in the number of reported edible wild plants might be due to
variations in culture, vegetation cover of the area or climatic variation of the location (Bortolotto
et al., 2015). It also perhaps shows declining of edible wild plants species together with
associated indigenous knowledge of the communities. In line with the current the present.

3.1.4. Ethno Botanical Study of Wild Edible Plants in Adola District,

Southern, Ethiopia.
This study was conducted in Adola district in Guji zone, Southern Oromia, which is located 468
km away from Addis Ababa to the South. The location of the district is between 5o 44'10”N- 6 o
12'38”N and 38o 45'10”E - 39o 12'37”E (Figure 1). It has a total area of about 1401km2. Most
topography of the district is characterized by ups and down arrangement. Moreover, it has land
surface with an elevation ranging from 1500 to over 2000 meters (Aschalew Shiferaw, 2014).
The major soil of the district is Nitosols (red basaltic soils) and Orthc Acrosols. The percentage
coverage of the each soil is Red soils 80%, Brown soil 15% and Black5% (Aschalew Emire and
Zebene Asfaw, 2018). The district is characterized by three agro climatic zones, namely high
land, midland and lowland, highland (locally known as Bada) and midland (locally known as
Bada dare) lowland (locally known as Gamojji). The percentage coverage of each climate zones
are highland (11%humid), midland (29% sub humid) and lowland (60% Dry arid) and the type of
rainfall is bi-modal with longest rain season that has the maximum rainfalls which falls between
1200-1800mm annually and the shortest rainfalls records between 800- 1200mm with an erratic
distribution patterns (Aschalew Emire and Zebene Asfaw, 2018). High forests, broad-leafed
forests, woodland, bush and shrub land, grass land and plantation trees are available in the
district. Wood land is the most common type of natural vegetation in the area. The most
dominant tree species are Ficus sur, Ficus vast‚Cordia africana‚ Croton macrostachyus‚ Abezia
gummeferia, Mellitia furrigeua (Aschalew Emire and Zebene Asfaw, 2018). The total Population
of district is 130, 492 (64152 females and 66340 Males) (CSA, 2007). Agriculture is the main
economic activities of the peoples’ living in the district and the majority of the rural peoples are
engaged in crop cultivation and livestock rearing. The most widely cultivated crops in the district
are Wheat (Triticum aestivum), Barley (Hordeum vulgare), Maize (Zea mays), Sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor), fruits, and vegetables. One of the major cash crops produced in the district is
 coffee which is organic in nature, high quality coffee and supply to the central coffee market
(Aschalew Emire and Zebene Asfaw, 2018).

Diversity of Wild Edible Plants The result revealed that a total of 46 wild edible plants
representing 35 family and 41 genera used as edible plants in the study area were recorded. Out
of the collected plant species Anacardiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Flacourtiaceae families were
represented by 3 species (8.6%) were the highest wild edible plants followed by Myrtaceae,
Asteraceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae and Sapindaceae with 2 species (5.7%) in the study area The
study done in west shoa by (Feyisa Debela et al., 2010) a total of 37 wild edible plants were
identified. In India by (K.C. Kiran, 2019) reported 147 plant species of wild edible plants
belonging to 66 families were documented and in Pakistan by (Kayani S.et al., 2015) reported 47
wild edible plants belonging to 23 Families and 32 genera were identified.

Table 5. Potential distribution of local name, scientific name, habit, part used, season of collection
and Preparation mode of WEPs in Adola district.

Species Family name Preparation

LocalNa

Season
Habit
No.s

me

Pu

1 Ficus Moraceae Harbuu H Fr D Ripe fruit eaten fresh SD 001

2 Opuntia ficus-indica Cactaceae Adamii sh Fr D Ripe fruit eaten fresh SD 010
3 Flacoutia indica Flacourtiaceae Hagalaa Sh Fr D Ripe fruit eaten fresh SD 022
4 Ipomoea hildebrandtii Convolvulceaea Amborokke Sh Fr W Ripe fruit eaten fresh SD 026
5 Vepris dainelli Rutaceae Arabee T Fr W Ripe fruit eaten fresh SD 011
6 Balanites aegyptiaca Balanitaceae Baddanii T Fr/ W Ripe fruit eaten fresh SD 023

3.1.5. Uses of wild edible plants in Quara district, northwest Ethiopia:

implication for forest management.
The study was conducted in Quara district, North Gondar Province, northwestern Ethiopia

Geographically, it is located in 35°18′12″E, and 12°56′18″N. The vegetation of the district falls
in ecosystem complexes of Combretum–Terminalia Woodland with various habitats such as
intact scrublands ecosystem and escarpments. The dominant vegetation type is mixed woodland
vegetation where Combretum and Terminalia species are abundant. There are also other
vegetation types which include riverine vegetation, seasonal wetland vegetation, open wooded
 grass land vegetation types and hilly area woodland areas. Population and sociocultural Te total
population of the district is estimated and is composed of different ethnic groups: Amhara,
Agew, Gumuz, Tigirans and Qimant. Te people in the area uses Amharic, Gumuz, Datsien,
Agewigna, Arabic and Tigrigna and language, where almost 95% of the residents understand and
use Amharic. The population is growing by approximately 2.63% a year naturally and 0.25% of
migration rate and total growth rate of 2.92%. People from highland areas (Chilga) descend to
the district to graze animals during summer season. Topography and land use the general
topography of the district is fat to undulating plain with general slope inclination from south to
north interrupted by valleys, streams, scattered hills Tebkew et al. and seasonal wetland in the
lowland and highly steeply, gorgeous and rugged in the midland agroecology. Agricultural
production (sesame, sorghum and cotton) and livestock rearing (cattle, goat and equines) were
the main source of income. Climate The mean annual temperature and rainfall of the area range
from 25 to 35 °C and 600 to 1200 mm, respectively. It has midland and lowland agroecologist.
The lowland Map of the study area Tebkew et al. Agric & Food Secure (2018) area of the district
is one of the widely used investment corridors of Ethiopia.

Table 6. List of marketable wild edible plants in Quara district.

Scientific Names Vernacular Family Parts used Unit Main unit

name prce($US)
Adansana digitata L Diza Moracae Fruit Kg 0.33
Balanites aegyptiaca L Lalo Meliaceae Fruit Kg 0.48
Diospyros abyssinica(Hein)R.Wite Serkin Ebuenaceae Fruit Kg 0.22
Grewia Mollis Juss Betere Mussie Tiliaceae Fruit Kg 0.14
Saba comorenus(Bo). Pichon Ashama Apocynaceae Fruit Number 0.24
Tamarindus indica L Kumer(Degu) Fabaceae Fruit Kg 0.31
Ximenia americana L Enkuay Olacaceae Fruit Kg 0.10

4.0. Summary
This study showed that acceptance and preference of WEPS by the community, ecological
benefit they offer and safety vary among species. It is therefore suggested to promote WEPS in a
step-by-step manner taking the elites in the first line and subsequently bringing the others in to
the pipeline. Priority actions should mainly be directed to safety of the WEPS. After
understanding safety, plants with better cumulative characteristics (e.g., cultural acceptance for
consumption, sustainability, harvesting values gastronomic and organoleptic properties,
nutritional composition, tolerance to adverse environmental condition, multiplicity of uses,
ecological benefits and ease of production/collection) can be used as criteria for priority setting.
Accordingly, the WEPS are categorized into three priority levels considering the time and work
needed for promotion along with suggested actions. In the first line of action, elites can be
selected directly from the wider pool of the WEPS for utilization. Based on multiple criteria, S.
americanum, A. hybridus and O. ficus-indica are suggested to be considered for promotion as
source of vegetables, grain, and fruit, respectively. In order to improve production and food
value of these species, study of cultivation, storage and preservation, increasing sensory
acceptability, and breeding activities are suggested. Plants that are commonly consumed by the
communities but identified to have relatively low sensory acceptability and/or claimed to have
some side effects are suggested in the second line of promotion. A total of 29 wild edible plant
species belongs to 27 genera and 22 families recorded in the Bule Hora Woreda. These wild
edible plants especially consumed during the food scarcity and sometimes consumed as extra
food in addition to the cultivated plants. Moreover, the local communities have the indigenous
knowledge to use the wild edible plants in the area. Over seventy percent of the wild edible
plants are consumed when food scarcity is high and at times of starvation; consumption of these
plants increases as the stock of cultivated crops dwindles progressively. These plants are used as
substitutes and fill the gap of food deficiency. But information on the nutritional values and
possible toxic effects of most of the wild edible plants reported by Kara and Kwego, and others
in Ethiopia is not available. Therefore, the information documented on the wild edible plants of
Kara and Kwego may serve as baseline data for future studies on nutritional values and possible
side effect, and to identify plants that can improve nutrition and increase dietary diversity in the
study areas and elsewhere. All plant parts used as vegetable in Kara and Kwego are gathered
from the wild whilst some are grown in home gardens in other parts of Ethiopia. The edible wild
plants and associated traditional practices were still active in the study district. The study
revealed that most of the edible wild plants were shrubs found in shrub-land areas and fruits were
the main consumable parts. Furthermore, the age and family size of the respondents positively
correlated with the mentioned number of edible wild plants. This study support to preserve
indigenous knowledge associated with edible wild plants Accordingly total of 46 wild edible
plants which distributed in 41 genera and 35 families were recorded. Of the total the majority
were obtained from wild vegetation. From the collected plant species anacardiaceae,
euphorbiaceae, flacourtiaceae families were each by 3(8.6%) species were the highest plant
species. The growth form it were tree the highest proportion followed by shrubs. The most the
plants were collected in wet season. The study revealed that the Quara district supports a fair
number of WEPs and associated use knowledge. The local community support their basic needs
by consuming and selling WEPs. The consumption of these plant resources is associated with
easy access, economic comfortable and their associated use knowledge. WEPs are highly
threatened for anthropogenic factors (free, agricultural expansion, deforestation, free grazing and
fuel wood). Therefore, community-based forest management system should be designed. In
addition, migrants/ nomads, especially who come from other countries, should be controlled.
Given the available WEPs resource base, wise utilization and commercialization could support
local livelihoods while creating incentive for the conservation and management of the natural
forests. Value chain development for the WEPs, especially for species which have high market
potential, could help to link the producers in and around the natural forests to the local, regional
and international markets and improve their incomes. Growing of some WEPs in farms and
homesteads and protecting them from livestock, though challenging, is a great movement toward
domestication. Therefore, building on farmers existing practices, measures such as encouraging
domestication and in situ conservation through awareness creation, value addition and
commercialization of WEPs would help to maximize income and improve the livelihoods of
local people while contributing to sustainable forest management. Besides, designing appropriate
community-based forest management system would reduce resource conflict and destruction
between residents and outsiders.

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6.0. Appendices 1
Scientific name Family Parts used Habit Habitat Authors
distribution