INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS IN EDUCATION

TEACHING AND LEARNING.

Teaching
Teaching is a process of telling or showing someone how to do something either
through talking, telling, explaining, showing, illustrating and demonstrating. That
‘something’ is either content, facts, skills and processes. Although teaching is a
process, the word is sometimes used to represent a system. In this connection, when
one refers to another as a teacher’, we automatically take this to mean someone
involved in teaching. This involves a series of steps which the teacher has to go
through for effective teaching to take place. Some of the steps are;

• consultation of the syllabus.

• Choice of the topics to teach.
• Interpretation of the objectives.
• Selection of the teaching methods.
• Selection of resource materials and
• Actual classroom presentation of the lesson.

For teaching to take place, there must be harmony among the various components
involved. The teacher should be motivated to teach and adequately equipped with the
necessary knowledge and skills, the learner should be interested to learn.

Therefore, for one to be able to teach, there must be at least a learner, content and a
teacher as a facilitator of the learning process (with his intentions or objectives). It is
commonly said that learners are taught by a teacher, but they also acquire information
from other sources such as books. In a teaching-learning situation, resources are very
useful.

The teacher’s role in a teaching situation.

A teacher plays several roles in a teaching situation. It is very important that we
consider some of these roles.

The teacher as a student.

It is important that you know the teacher’s role while teaching is taking place. You
should realise that the needs to continually improve himself or herself in terms of
knowledge of his subject matter. This is particularly so as new knowledge is coming
up every now and then. However, the teacher is also a student of the following;

a. The students.
A good teacher needs to know the students’ development, their characteristics and
behaviour. From this knowledge, the teacher will be able to tell about the students’
ages, what they already know, what types of homes they come from. This
information will assist the teacher to make his explanations and examples clearer and
relevant to the students.

b. The society.
The students belong to a society which has a certain structure, characteristics,
aspirations and is also evolving. The teacher will need to know the major
characteristics of the Kenyan society and what types of education it wants for its

children. This will enable the teacher to contextualise the content according to the
needs of the society.

c. The Nation’s educational policy

The teacher needs to know the objectives of the National policy document
and be able to interpret them correctly. The teacher will be trying to
answer the questions:
• What exactly does the National policy document say on each aspect of
education?
• How can these be implemented?
• How can this be implemented in a learning encounter ( class room
situation)

d. Subject matter.
The various fields of knowledge he/she has to teach. Here, the teacher
will be trying to find out.
• What specific aspects of subject matter should be taught and to
what depth?

It is important to note that knowledge is not static, as new information is being

generated continuously. The organisation of school subjects is also constantly
changing. Teachers are required to teach new subjects for which, they were not
prepared for at the colleges they attended. For example, in Kenya, Aids Education and
drug abuse demand that teachers have to employ all available methods of self-
improvement to learn these new subjects and how to teach them.

The teacher as a planner.

In this sub-section, we are going to see the teacher as a planner. What the teacher does
in the classroom, has to be carefully planned to ensure that teaching is not done in a
haphazard manner. For the teacher to plan well, he/she has to make major decisions
based on major questions which he/she has to seek answers to.

Some of the decisions which the teacher has to make.

i. The teacher has to consider;
the meanings and implications of the national educational
goals and objectives. What for example does “promotion of national
lessony mean in relation to the subject matter.

ii. Specific activities should be carried out, by the

teacher and the students both inside and outside the
classroom?

iii. Who should carry out each form of activity and what form
[writing, collecting, observing etc] should each activity
take?

iv. How long should each activity last [a period, a week, a

term, a few minutes] ?

To arrive at appropriate decisions on any of these, the teacher will be guided by his
/her earlier study of the learners, their society, the general educational policy, and the
relevant subject matter.

The teacher as a craftsman

As a craftsman, the teacher has to assist the students to learn. To achieve this, he/she
has to play the role of a skilled craftsman. He/she does this in a variety of ways.
Below are some of the ways by which the teacher acts as a skilled craftsman.

i. By presenting learning materials in an interesting way.

ii. By illustrating, demonstrating and explaining.
iii. By asking and answering questions.
 iv. By giving assignments.
v. By correcting assignments.
vi. By praising learners who behave properly and helping or punishing those
who do not behave properly.

A teacher who has planned adequately, will know precisely the most appropriate
means of interacting with the students and helping them learn. If the teacher has
studied his learners well, his/her society and his nation’s educational goals and
objectives correctly, his/her plan will tend to work better than it would have done if
he/she had not previously performed all these tasks.

The teacher as decision – maker.

The teacher is constantly making decisions. As he studies his society, the school
system and the subject matter, he has to decide on how to relate these to one another.
Out of a variety of possible procedures, he has to decide on which one. At the end of
the learning, he has to decide if learning has actually taken place.

A diagrammatic representation would help illustrate the decision making

process.
Objectives

evaluate deliberate and on alternative solutions

implement choose the most feasible alternatives

In this Lesson, we have seen the definition of teaching and the role of the teacher in a
teaching episode. Let us now define learning and see how it relates to teaching.

Learning.
Psychologists have been investigating the subject of learning over the years. They
have given a psychological definition of learning as a change or modification of
behaviour or response as a result of some form of experience’. From this definition,
several key words have to be understood.

As a teacher you should know which changes in behaviour will signify that learning
has taken place. It is therefore very important that we examine the meaning of change
in behaviour as a result of learning.

The word “change”

The word ‘change’ implies that the learner goes out of a learning situation as a
different person from the one he/she was before he/she went into it. If we look at the
learner as a different person at two different extremes of a continuum in a learning
situation, then it will help us to understand what the teacher does during the
teaching/learning process. Let us now examine what ‘change in behaviuor’ means.

i. Change in behaviour
The change in behaviour referred to does not mean a change in physical
characteristics such as the child growing bigger or stronger. Rather, it refers to change
in intellectual and emotional functioning. For example, as a result of some new form
of experience, the individual reasons in a different way, and looks at a problem from a
different perspective or becomes aware of the complexity of a particular problem and
interacts in a more socially acceptable way with others in his environment.

ii. The change in behaviour is the result of some form of experience.

A person’s behaviour can deviate from normal because of the effects of drugs. For
example a quiet person can become noisy and quarrelsome after smoking marijuana.
Similarly, an individual can change in behaviour as a result of fatigue.

You will therefore need to understand that ‘experience’ as used in learning means that
the individual will have been helped to:

• Realise that a particular activity can be carried out in a variety of ways.

• Realise that it is possible to arrive at the solution to a particular problem,
by adopting a new method.
• See the other side of an argument,
• Appreciate the beauty of a poem, a piece of music or a work of art.

Our focus therefore is on a positive change in behaviour as a result of learning.

For example, a child who has been violent or withdrawn due to drug abuse and has
stopped the habit as a result of effective counselling, will interact in a friendly manner
with other people. This friendly relationship is a positive change in behaviour.

The learner’s encounter with a new experience will involve his interacting with other
persons for example by way of listening to a talk and act, by asking and answering
questions or perhaps by arguing with people. Interaction with others may also take the
form of observing natural scenes eg forests, rivers, situations such as people drinking
together or dancing or phenomena such as thunder, rainfall, the individual carrying
out some investigation or experiment.

You should know that there are changes, which seem to come about ‘naturally’. For
example, a baby’s efforts to move about such as in crawling or walking tend to start at
a particular period in life. Menstruation and getting married as a result of maturation
are normal processes of the individual growing up developing, whereas maturation is
different from learning, it may facilitate learning. For example, the legs must be
strong enough for a toddler to learn to walk.

THEORIES OF LEARNING.

Psychologists have attempted to study learning mostly by studying animals and by

putting people in experimental conditions [as opposed to normal, everyday
conditions] in the laboratory. They have then generalised their findings to apply to
conditions under which students learn in classroom situations. Such theories as
stimulus – response (Povlov: 1959), gestalt, programmed learning (Skinner :1966)
have raised heated controversies over what the right theory on learning should be.
You, as the classroom teacher need not bother with the controversy over the theories

of learning. Instead, you should see the different theories as complementary to one
another. I.e., no single theory of learning can explain to you everything that you may
need to know about a particular concept.
Relationship between teaching and learning

You may have realised that learning is very important in teaching. It is therefore
necessary for you to identify the relationship between the two concepts.
i. Teaching is supposed to promote learning.
ii. Incidental learning helps in teaching as it provides the necessary
foundational experience for the learner and thus makes the teacher’s
task easier.
iii. Teaching in itself involves some amount of learning by the teacher.
iv. Both teaching and learning are processes, which are continuous in
nature. The learner can sometimes be the teacher since he/she also influences
the teacher’s behaviour.

Let us now consider the concept of training, which is related to teaching and learning.

TRAINING
As the teacher guides his/her learners through a teaching – learning situation, there
may be certain instances when a training situation may arise. The training here may
involve the learner being taught how to perform a certain task. In such a situation, we
would have the teacher as the trainer and the learner as the trainee. The teacher
(trainer) would be seen as assisting the learner (trainee) to perform a particular task.

In this situation, we can see the learner going beyond listening and understanding (as
is necessary in teaching), to repeating the motions of performing a certain task as
shown by the teacher. In our earlier discussion of teaching, we explained it as telling,
talking, explaining or showing the content to your learners. In doing so, there may be
certain methods to be followed so as to perform the task of teaching easily and
effectively. In achieving this, the teacher would need to learn some basic teaching
principles such as:

• Methods of planning
• Preparation
• Exposing
• Evaluating the teaching materials and
• Understanding your learners’ behaviours.
However, understanding these principles may not necessarily lead to you becoming a
confident teacher. Confidence is developed through performing the teaching task. The
task of teaching will therefore need to be defined, understood and then analysed into
sub-tasks. You ,as the student – teacher will then need to perform each sub-task. In
the process, you will be;

i. shown through a demonstration by the teacher, how the task is

performed.
ii. put in a situation (simulated) where you will be guided through the
sub-tasks until you have mastered it ( you would have your peers as
you learners for this purpose).
iii. required to perform the sub-task together (integrating all the sub-skills)
to perform a teaching task on your peers.
iv. perform the teaching task in an actual situation such as a normal
classroom under the direct supervision of your teacher.
v. once you have repeatedly performed the task to the satisfaction of your
teacher, you will then be described as a trained teacher.

In the situation described above, the trainee began by getting some basic information
about the task to be performed, understood it then performed the task repeatedly until
he/she attained skill in the task’s performance. This is the same as the procedure used
in most training programmes.

An understanding of the training process makes it possible to observe and know the
results of a performance on the basis of the final product.

EDUCATION.

Education goes beyond teaching and training. It has to do with the individual using
the acquired knowledge and skills to increase, adjust and enrich his/her past
knowledge so as to be helpful to others. An educated person therefore should be seen
as the one whose interaction with others is socially acceptable.

After being taught or trained, the individual will live in a society where he will apply
the acquired knowledge and skills. This close contact with other human beings will
require him or her to act, react and interact with others. The skills acquired should be
 skilfully channelled into helping his or her fellow human beings.

There are three forms of education. Let us now discuss briefly the three forms of
education.

Formal education.

This is education carried out in institutions, which follow a structured curriculum.

Examples are schools and colleges. In these institutions, there are syllabuses and time
- tables to be followed. Occasionally, there is supervision by inspectors and the final
mark of education is formal evaluation and awarding of certificates.
Non - formal education.
This means any organised activity outside the structured or formal system but which
is meant to meet needs of a particular group of people. It could be a group of children,
youth or adults in the commlessony. An example is the agricultural extension officer,
who may be meeting with some villagers to alert them of a livestock disease outbreak
and how to protect their livestock. Another example could be the health and family
planning officer explaining to a group of people on new methods of practising family
planning.
Informal Education.
Most of the learning in informal education takes place unconsciously at home, among
peers and through the environment. It pursues its own course at its own pace by its
own means throughout each person’s life. The learning is not structured.
Definition of Key Words and Concepts.
Learning is process by which an individual acquires and retains knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes which cannot be attributed to natural growth and development.

Teaching is a process of telling or showing someone how to do something either through talking,
telling, explaining, showing, illustrating and demonstrating.

Training is process of teaching someone how to perform a task

efficiently through repeated practise.
 SYSTEMS APPROACH TO TEACHING AND
LEARNING.

A systems approach is applied in everyday life situations consciously or sub-

consciously. In a system approach, certain steps are followed in a logical way, with
certain steps being essential and therefore indispensable.

System approach has already found its place in the everyday vocabulary of persons
working in the field where some kind of technological knowledge is applied. The
purpose for this lesson is to see whether systems approach can find a place in the
process teaching and learning.

The term system has been defined by various scholars. The most basic definition is by
Roiszowki (1981) who states that system is a set of elements or components or objects
which are interrelated and work towards an overall objective. Groenewegen (1993)
defines system as a complex of factors interacting according to an over-all plan for a
common purpose.

Examples of Systems.

To understand the concepts of a system and reasons for using it in Education we will
revisit some examples of system which we are familiar with and use in our everyday
activities.

• Human Body Systems: - In our bodies, we have system such as digestive,

circulatory, nervous etc
• Mechanical Systems: - For examples refrigeration systems, generator
system, computer systems and different types of engines.
• Social Systems: - These include such organisations as a family,
educational systems, political parties, trade unions movements, industries,
churches etc.
• Natural Systems: - For example, physical entities such as rivers, forests
etc.

Any system has a goal or mission, which it must achieve. A system can either be open
or closed. An open system is one, which can interact with its environment. It
demonstrates a phenomenon called principal of equifinality, which states that an
open system can reach its final state in a number of different ways because it can
interact with its surroundings by receiving ideas and inputs from the environment. An
example of an open system is a school, which takes from the environment (society)
and gives back to the same environment. A closed system is one, which operates in
isolation from its environment. It does not get any input from its surroundings. Its
final state is dependant on its initial state. However, most systems are open since it is
difficult to completely isolate a system from all outside influences.

Components of A System

Generally, a system is distinguished by the following components: -

Goals – Every system has a goal, which is the target to be achieved. All members
work towards the achievement of the set goal.

Elements – There are more than one elements. The elements in a system are
interrelated and interacting subjects.

Harmony – Coherent interaction for attaining the common goal. Elements work in
harmony, but each has its own function which it contributes in achieving the goal of
the system.

Feedback – A provision for assessing the suitability of the success level in the
interaction leading to the attainment of the intended goal.
Explain how the digestive system fulfils the concept of a system.

General Characteristics of A System

• Goals and mission – Each system works towards a specified goal or the
accomplishment of a given mission.
• A system exists in a hierarchy of relationships. Each functional lesson
forms a sub-system with elements that cannot work independently. A
supra system is one that has sub-systems each of which has a measure of
performance but is interdependent on other sub-systems.
• A system has boundaries, which distinguish each part form the other parts
of the system thus ensuring that a specific task is performed at a particular
 point, yet both parts depend on each other.
• Each system has an environment. This consists in a set of conditions that
are relevant but not directly under the influence of the system usually
environment of a system contains the resources and constraints.

• Systems are likened to living things because they receive input and act on
them to produce output and are capable of growth. In this context, open
system receive ideas inputs from the environment. There is always some
degree of disorder. System objectives operate within environmental
constrains and there is a critical point at which the system may collapse.
There is thus a need to ensure flexibility in operational objectives of a
system to minimize entropy.
• Feedback – This is specific input into the system that gives information
about the achievement (output) for purposes of re-examining the system.
• Growth – A system grows through either transformation or diversification
or multiplication.
• Dynamic stability – Each system is dynamically in harmony with the
environment and exhibit levels of balance among its elements or sub-
systems based on common expectations.
• Equifinality – The same final point can be reached from various starting or
original points or initial conditions.

The Environment of A System.

Every system has an environment in which it operates. This is a set of all objects, a
change in whose attributes affect the system and also those objects whose attributes
are changed by the behaviour of the system of the system.

According to Richey (1986) a system is a complete whole and functions as part of a

larger system or environment referred to as the supra systems. He argues that the
supra system and the immediate environment makes up the entire environment.
Within the target system, there are sub-systems with organized and identifiable
structures. There purposes and functions are limited to the target system itself. A sub-
system is a characterised with a structure process or role associated with the structure.
The ultimate function of a system is necessarily determined by the component
processes operating with the target system.

There is a flow both inward and outward the system into the environments. In order to
survive, the system must interact with and adjust its environments and the other parts
of the supra system.

Richey further agues that, there is a relationship between the system and its
environment such that: -

• Environment provides the input such as money, people, resources etc.

which enter the system and which will to a great extent determine the
quality of the operation of the system.
• The environment and the supra system establish the constraints such as
inadequate material upon the system.
• The supra system receives the product of an open system which becomes a
functioning parts of the environment, thus influencing the operation of the
supra system.
• The environment consists of resources and constraints that affect the
system either positively or negatively realised through its products.
• Each system has a dynamic stability (equilibrium) with the environments
and exhibits various levels of balance among its elements based on
common expectations and goals.
Application of the Concepts of System to Education.

According to Hooper (1971) Education is a system because it has a set of inputs

(money, children etc) which are subject to a process, in order to attain certain
objectives which appear as outputs (educated children). It is further argued that
Education can be viewed as a system because of self adjusting combination of
interacting people and things designed by human to accomplish some predetermined
purpose.

2.6.1 The School as a system.

From the foregoing can a school be considered as a system? The answer is yes, the
concept of a system is applicable to the school organisation.

Goal – The school receives raw materials (the learners) whose behaviour is
transformed through the process of education. The output is then is of adults whose
behaviour has been transformed and the quality of thistransformation, has been
accepted by the quality controller.

The school receives its goals from the society. Society is the environment as well as
the supra – system of schooling from which the school receives its goals.

In Kenya, most of these long - term goals come from the Ministry of Education and
will therefore, be stated in school syllabuses or educational reports. The teachers with
the help of other school operators have the duty of discerning, defining objectives of
different subjects.

These long- term goals include the six National Goals of Education. These are
National Lessony, National Development, Individual Development and Self -
Fulfilment, Social Equality, Respect and Development of Cultural Heritage,
International Consciousness. Whatever is done in the system must address these
goals.
Elements – These are the goals, which must be processed in the system for the goals
to be realised. They include head-teachers, teachers, learners, teaching learning
resources, physical facilities, non-teaching staff etc. The operators of the school
should be able to interact with each other as well as the learners so as to move from an
input condition of original or entering behaviour to an output condition of modified
behaviour. All these elements are part of the Education System.

Harmony – For the goal to be realised, the elements or those involved in the
Education process must work harmoniously otherwise the goals will not be realised if
one element is out of control.

The head-teacher as administrator must provide effective administration. The

teachers’ task is to facilitate learning. He has to establish conditions, which make it
possible to achieve effective learning. The teacher should teach in class the right
material at the right time. Teachers should provide an environment with optimum
conditions of learning.

The learners must work harmoniously with their teachers, head-teachers and support
staff for learning and teaching to be effected. The learners must be disciplined
because lack of order will disrupt learning and therefore the attainment of goals.

Support staff must perform their respectful roles e.g. cooks, nurses, cleaners etc must
do their parts.

Feedback – Both the teachers and the learners need to get feedback from the learning
process to test whether the products are being processed in the desired way. The
feedback can be positive or negative. If feedback is positive, the teacher will be
encouraged to continue knowing that he is in course. If the feedback is negative, the
teacher will have to apply quality control – by adjusting his teaching methods,
resources, approaches and class management to have the learners back in the track.
SYSTEM MODELS IN THE PROCESS OF TEACHING AND
LEARNING

Relevance of Systems Approach to Teaching and Learning.

• Ryans (1975) defines systems approach as an operational concept, referring to

a scientific systematic and rational procedure for optimizing outcomes of an
organization or structure by implementing a set of related operations to study
and solve problems and develop a new ones or modify existing systems.

• Mukwa (1979) defines systems approach as a process by which needs are

identified, or problems and their solutions are selected from alternatives,
methods and means are obtained and implemented, results are evaluated and
required revisions to all or part or the system are made so that the needs are
eliminated.

• Kaufman (1970) summarizes system’s approach in two words: analysis and

synthesis, where analysis relates the identifying components parts and
determining the relationships among those parts and between the parts and the
whole system. Synthesis on the other hand involves the design of a new
system so that the identified problem can be solved.

• From the foregoing, we can conclude that system’s approach is scientific in

nature, is orderly, is a process or procedure has elements, which are
interrelated and has a purpose to fulfil. We can also conclude that the
What is the advantage of applying a systems approach to the
systems’ approach fits in very well with our school programme.
teaching / learning process in a school.

Simple Model of A System Approach

The simplest technological model consists of three basic elements: - Input, Process
and Output. This is diagrammatically represented as shown in figure 1 below.

Figure 2 : Illustration model of a system approach

 INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

• The above diagram reveals that if you want to produce some new product, you
have to carry out certain processes on the original material. In case of education,
learners are the input who are put in the educational system and processed at
different levels of education, coming out as educated individuals (output of the
system). Here, the model does not say anything about the quality of the product.
It is obvious that anybody undergoing a process will come out as a changed
person. In education, we need to know or see the effect of the changes.

• To be able to know this, Ayot and Patel (1992) improved the simple model to
include elements of quality control. They did this by adding some more elements
such as specification of the desired output, checking actual output against
expected output and processing the unaccepted output.
Simple model of systems approach with quality control.

DESIRED OUTPUT

FEEDBACK

IN PUT PROCESS OUTP

YES UT

NO

• In this model, the results of the process is checked through the feedback
mechanism. The actual output is evaluated against the expected output. If it does
not measure up to the specified standard, it will go back through the process.
Despite the improvement on this model, there is still one snag. Teaching –
learning is a dynamic process, but in the model the element process is like a dark
box. No one knows what is going on inside the box.

• If we consider that the box – process represents a classroom teaching – learning

programme, then it is under the control of the teacher to plan his approach, to use
the necessary device to check the final product, to modify his approach on the
basis of feedback, and to make sure that the quality meets the required standard.
There is a need to add checks and balances in the process.
Improved model with checks and balances.

DESIRED OUTPUT

FEEDBACK
CHECK CHECK

INPUT
OUTPUT
YES

NO

IMPROVED MODEL WITH CHECKS AND BALANCES

• There are other educationists who have developed models of system approach.
They have done this with some modification because it is difficult to implement
the idea of the system approach in education without proper understanding.

• One such educationist is Glasser (1974) who has accommodated the ground rules
of a system but his model is different from our input process output model. He has
come out with four major elements in his model.
Glasser’s model of teaching and learning.

Instructional Entering Instructional

Performance
Procedure behaviour objectives assessment

Glasser’s Model of Teachings and Learning.

• If we want to make sure whether this model follows a system approach or

not, we have to check against those basis criteria.
• Goal – Instructional objectives are to be formulated.
• Elements – It has four elements
• Harmony – Reversible arrows, suggest that there is inter relationship
among elements.
• Feedback – Performance assessment provided feedback to the elements.
• To teach a specific part of the content following this model, one will have
to check with learners present knowledge or their performance level,
which is their entirely behaviour. This will help a teacher to know the level
of his pupils on the basis of which he can decide from where to start and
how to go.
• In this model some elements are left out on the assumption that they are
implied. There is no mention of content or material needed for conducting
a learner’s activity. So need to modify the model or use own version of
Glasser model.
• Another Educationalist has also used the ground rules of a system to come
up with his own model. Gerlach in his book ‘teaching and media’ came up
with a model with ten elements.
 • These elements are: -
i. Specification of objectives
ii. Selection of content
iii. Assessment of entering behaviour
iv. Teaching strategy
v. Organisation of pupils into groups
vi. Allocation of time
vii. Learning space
viii. Selection of resources
ix. Evaluation of learning performance
Objectives Assessment
x. Analysis of feedback of

Gerlach’s model of systematic approach to teaching.

Content Teaching Strategies

Entry Behaviour Group Size

Space

Time

Performance
Resources

Etc

Analysis of

Feedback
Gerlach’s Model of Systematic Approach to Teaching

• In this model the elements are arranged in such a way that one can see the
integration among them. Gerlach has retained the concept of Glasser’s four
elements, but he has added some elements.

• The operation of Gerlach’s model requires the teacher to specify the

objectives, which should be realized by teaching a given topic. Based on
objectives, content will be selected or vice versa. In order to know where
the learning has to start, the knowledge level of the learner in relation to
the content has to be determined. For instance, one has to find out what the
learner knows about the content to be taught or the experience he has about that
content. This will be the starting point of learning as the teacher progresses from
known to unknown. The entry behaviour will influence and will turn be affected
by the teaching strategies to be used, the type of group organization and the time
allocated for the content to be taught. The learning space available is important in
determining the effectiveness of the teaching method adopted. The content and
objectives will further influence selection of resources to be used in teaching for
the achievement of the stated objectives.

• At every stage of the learning/teaching process, evaluation is done. This is

meant to check whether or not the content is being learnt and objectives
are being achieved. If there is any dissatisfaction, then the process has to
start all over, that is, after analyzing feedback, the product has to go back
to the process, or objectives have to be re-stated again, content selected a
fresh the entry behaviour determined, teaching strategies arranged etc.
before assessment is done again.

• Double arrows between content and objectives show that content can
influence objectives and vice versa. The same applies to entry behaviour
and assessment of performance and related elements.

• Thus Gerlach’s model also justifies the requirement of a system approach.

• Teaching and learning is done systematically using the syllabus which

specify the objectives of each content taught and which must be related to
 goals of education. In conclusion we can consider a model which is
different from the Glasser’s and Gerlach’s models and recommend it to be
used by teachers while applying systems approach to teaching and
learning.

A model showing the application of system’s approach to teaching

and learning.

Objectives Evaluation

Feedback

Content level of Methods Activities Learning

Yes
pupils Out comes

Resources
No

A Model Showing the Application of System’s Approach to Teaching and

Learning.

• In this model, technical terms are translated into educational and more
familiar terms which make it easier for teachers to understand. The model

is applicable to the education system as a whole or to teaching of a lesson

or even to a single lesson.

• The most crucial part of this system, which differentiates it from other
systems is sharing of a box by objectives and evaluation. His element is
the same as the quality control elements of any science and technological
system. You exactly know what you want to produce since the
specifications of the standard outcome are described or decided in every
 detail.

THE AIMS AND THE OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

An educational objective is a description of what learners will do (or be able to do)

once instruction has been completed. This is a learning product or a desirable state
which you as a teacher hopes will result from the instruction whether in one lesson,
lesson course or curriculum. It implies the competencies your learners are supposed
to achieve after a specified period of time

Goals of Education.
Each society has a vision of what attributes, its members should have. The societies’
past and present view education as a vehicle of acquiring and developing the desired
attributes such as knowledge, skills, values and attitudes. Education therefore is a
process through which the learner is helped to acquire desirable changes.

The Lessoned Nations Educational, Scientific and cultural organization (UNESCO),

has set out goals of education, which give the general direction of the education
offered by the individual countries of the world. Some of UNESCO’S goals of
education are that education must;
• Foster international consciousness.
• Improve standards of living in various countries of the world.
• Solve continuing problems that affect humanity such as war, hunger,
disease and unemployment.

The UNESCO’S goals of education are very broad and give a general but desirable
direction to which education offered by the individual countries of the world should
focus. Through seminars, conferences and the sponsoring of scientific training, the
UNESCO’S goals of education are harmonised with each individual country’s aims of
education.

Aims of Education.
To be able to achieve the desirable attributes each nation of the world offers education
to its youth. The education seeks to attain certain desirable attributes, which are
known as aims. Education in any nation is therefore, guided by a set of aims of
education. Aims of education are broad statements on the purposes of education in a
country. However, at times, when referring to the national aims of education, the term
Aims’ and ‘goals’ of education are frequently used inter-changeably, and are used to
mean very general statements, that give a general but desirable direction to the entire

education system of a country. It is not possible to determine when they will be

achieved and actually they may not be achievable.

In Kenya, the aims of education are that education should;

• Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national lessony.
• Promote the social economic, technological and industrial needs for
national development.
• Promote individual development and self-fulfilment.
• Promote sound moral and religious values.
• Promote social equality and responsibility.
• Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures.
• Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards
other nations.
• Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental
protection.

Long Term Objectives.

From the aims of education, long-term objectives of education are derived. The
education given to the youth in Kenya is compacted into cycles of education such as
primary, secondary and tertiary education, each with its own long term objectives. We
have long-term objectives of primary education, secondary education and tertiary
education. The long-term objectives are

• Stated in general terms.

• Difficult to state in behavioural terms because they relate to many human
activities, situations and standards of performance.
• Can only be attained over a long period of time.

i. Curriculum objectives
In each cycle of education, the desirable outcomes of education are fashioned
through a set of disciplines or subjects such as Mathematics, Biology,
Chemistry, Physics, Geography and history. Each subject has its long-term
objectives, which are known as curriculum objectives. For example, within the
 secondary school cycle of education, Geography may have its long- term
objectives, which are to be attained after four years of secondary school
education.

ii. Course objectives.

When the teacher is preparing schemes of work to be covered over a school
term, he/she will set the objectives to be attained by teaching the schemed
content. These objectives may also be referred to as course objectives. The
course objectives are much more narrower or specific than the curriculum
objectives. However, both the curriculum and the course objectives are not
stated in behavioural terms.

iii. Topic objectives.

A subject consists of many topics. A single topic may be covered over several
lessons depending on the content to be taught. A topic therefore, has topic
objectives, which will be attained after several teaching lessons. Topic
objectives are more specific than course objectives, however, they are not
stated in behavioural terms as they will take several weeks before being
achieved.

iv. Instructional objectives (Lesson objectives)

The achievement of the long-term objectives of education will ultimately be
determined by what happens during the lesson. The content to be covered
during a single lesson of say 40, or 80 minutes, is guided by short- term
objectives, which are also known as the instructional objectives. Instructional
objectives are the objectives to be achieved within a teaching session of 40
minutes in the case of a single lesson and 80 minutes in the case of a double
lesson. Instructional objectives are essential to meaningful teaching as they
guide the teacher in organizing his or her instructional procedures including
the selection of content, identification of resources and planning for learner
activities. They also facilitate relevant assessment and serve as the basis for
sound curriculum development. At the learner level, instructional objectives
enable students to evaluate his/her own progress and therefore to plan on what
to do in order to perform better in a given subject.
 Instructional objectives are therefore stated;
• in terms of the learners’ behaviour.
• Such that they are measurable.
• Such that they are attained within a given time.
• Such that the level of performance is specified.
• Such that the conditions prevailing are specified.
• Such that they are concise and clear.

Our focus for the rest of this lesson will therefore be on the instructional
objectives.

Instructuional Objectives

The main objective of classroom teaching is to bring about a meaningful or desirable

change in the learner’s knowledge (facts, procedures, concepts, principles,
generalisations, and laws), skills (intellectual motor, affective and social skills)
attitudes (individual or formal), values (aesthetic, moral or social). We therefore need
to be able to state clearly what the learner will be like as a result of the learning
process or what a successful learner will be able to do art the end of the learning
process. An instructional objective tells us what the learner is to be like as a result of
some learning experiences.

It should therefore be of major concern to you to describe accurately a learner who

has arrived at the desired state. For you to do so, there must be a certain behaviour
that the learner will demonstrate which will indicate his arrival at the desired state.

An instructional objective is a statement that describes a desired state in the learner.

You will know that you have achieved your objective when the learner can
demonstrate his or her arrival at this state. The statement of an objective has to be
clear enough such that it communicates or conveys to others a picture identical to the
picture that you have in mind.

You will use words and symbols in the statement of your instructional objective so as
to express your intention. It is therefore necessary that the words and symbols that
you select are those that communicate the exact intent as you understand it. The
interpretation of the words and symbols that you select should be such that they have
no other meanings or interpretation other than the one you intent.
Unfortunately, there are many words, which are open to more than one
interpretations. You should avoid use of such words as you state your instructional
objectives. The following are some of the words, which have several interpretations.

• To know, To enjoy,
• To understand, To believe,
• To appreciate, To have faith in,
• To grasp the significance of.

Terminal Behaviour.
When writing your instructional objectives, it is necessary that the behaviour to be
demonstrated by the learner as a result of learning be stated in observable words or
performance verb. Overt behaviour refers to directly observable behaviour. The
words, which reflect directly observable behaviour, are performance verbs. You will
need to carefully select performance verbs that accurately describe the behaviour to be

displayed by the learner as a result of learning. Below, is a list of some performance

verbs.

Calculate Design Interpret State

Cite Evaluate Justify Translate
Contrast, Explain Label Verify
Deduce Extrapolate List Write
Defend Hypothesise Plot Write
Derive Identify Predict
Describe Infer Propose
Plot Propose Select

When writing instructional objectives, it is important that the student s behaviour as a

result of learning be observable (overt) / written in performance verbs/words).
Observable means that it is easy for you to get feedback and therefore tell if the
objectives have been achieved.

Setting educational objectives will enable you to;

• determine with some precision whether or not the teaching has brought about
the terminal behaviour (or product) that you desire to be achieved at the end of
 the learning process
• establish a criteria for measuring success.
• influences the steps taken to reach the choice of content, materials, methods
and teaching strategies.

Objectives are stated in terms of what the learner will be able to do not the teacher.
The lesson objectives are stated in terms of what the learner should be able to achieve
by the end of the lesson. There are some of the conditions a good lesson or
instructional objective should fulfil. This is a complete list of the conditions that such
an objective should fulfil:
• It should have an overt behaviour or action verb, which is observable.
• The behaviour should be stated in measurable
• The objective should be stated in a clear language (not vague).
• A lesson or instructional objective should be short and to the point; however as
given in the previous point it should be clear.
• The standard of performance expected should be indicated. This is not always the
case. There are times it can be assumed because it is expected anyway.
• Sometimes, it is necessary to give the conditions under which the action or
behaviour will be performed.
• Always an instructional objective must have an action verb.
• An instructional objective should be stated in terms of what the learner should be
able to do by the end of the lesson (stated in future tense).

Here are some examples, which can help you understand or clarify the conditions
given:
• By the end of the lesson the learners should be able to give five examples of cash
crops produced in Kenya.
• Given a type-writer, the learner should be able to type at a speed of one hundred
words per minute.
• The learner should be able to label the human alimentary canal in a given diagram.

Domains of Knowledge.
When you are teaching a topic or a course you need to have an in-depth coverage of
the content. There are skills and abilities which you need to identify and expose
learners to. The importance of classifying objectives is to be able to judge the depth
and the variation of the content you have to cover when planning so that students are
exposed to all what they need to know. Classifying objectives into taxonomies of
knowledge helps you do this effectively.

Each of the three taxonomies deals with knowledge in the following areas:
• Cognitive domain – Concepts, ideas, factual knowledge.
• Affective – appreciation, attitudes and morals.
• Psychomotor – skills.
• Social – Which has to do with values and morals, social relating skills and
inter-raction skills.

Domains of Instructional Objectives.

The behaviours demonstrated by a learner to show his or her achievement of an
objective can be classified into distinct areas of emphasis which are known as
domains. Four domains into which behaviour is classified into are the cognitive,
psychomotor, affective and the social domain. The classifications are not pure and
therefore some overlapping may be encountered.

Within each domain, attempts have been made to categorise the behaviours into levels
called taxonomies. Taxonomy means a set of standard classification. The levels are
related in an hierarchical manner. The purpose of such categorisation is to;

• Make more explicit the varied levels of instructional objectives.

• Improve testing and research efforts.
• Clarify communication among professional in education.

Cognitive Domain

Any objective which has to do with the learning of a concept, an idea or factual
knowledge, principles, procedures and other abstract or mental (intellectual)
processing of information is classified under cognitive domain.

Bloom’s taxonomy is the most widely used taxonomy of cognitive objectives. It was
devised by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues (Bloom et al .,1956). The cognitive
domain categorises behaviour falling under it into six levels, which are progressively
sequenced in an hierarchical fashion from lower to higher levels. Below is a summary
of the Bloom’s taxonomy.

Level Description of the level Words that describe the behaviour in the
level.

Knowledge the recall of material with Recall, arrange, name, define, order, duplicate,
repro little or no alteration required reproduce, recognise, label, relate, list,
recall, match, ability to recognise and recall repeat, and memorise.

Comprehension The use of specific rule, concept classify, describe, discuss, explain, express,
identify,
Method in a situation typical to indicate, locate, recognise, report, restate, review,
Those used in class. (interpreting select, sort, translate, and paraphrase
information in ones own word)
Abilities higher than simple
Knowledge.

Application the selection and use of a learned rule apply, use, solve, sketch, schedule,
practice, prepare,
Concept, method in a situation novel operate, illustrate, employ, interpret,
dramatise,
to the learner. ( application of know- choose, demonstrate.
Ledge to new situation). It involves
analysis of relationships.

Analysis Breaking down of material into its analyse, calculate, categorise, compare,
contrast,
Parts so that the relationship among critisize, differentiate, distinguish.
ideas are made explicit (Breakdown of
knowledge into parts and show
relationship between the parts)

Synthesis ability to put parts into a whole integrate, arrange, assemble, compose,
and build relationship for the new . construct, create, design, new situations new
situations
Put together ideas in a formulate or prepare, plan, set up and write
constructive manner.
Evaluation. Judgement about the value of argue, assess, defend, estimate, judge,
material and methods for Support, rate, and predict
given purposes.

Examples of instructional objectives, falling in the different levels of the cognitive

domain.

i. Knowledge
By the end of the lesson the learners should be able to;
• define, digestion and excretion.
• name six capital cities in Africa.

ii. Comprehension
By the end of the lesson the learners should be able to;
• explain the function of the heart (human)
• describe the growth process in his or her own words.

iii. Application
By the end of the lesson the learners should be able to;
• translate simple word problems into algebraic equations.
• convert yards into meters accurately.

iv. Analysis
By the end of the lesson the learners should be able to;
• spot inconsistencies in the explanation.
• identify the major themes of a novel.
• determine logical fallacies in an argument.

v. Synthesis
By the end of the lesson the learners should be able to;
• propose a suitable method for determining the chemical content of course.
• design a plan for commlessony participation in Machakos District.
• create a logical outline of describing the biological problem.

vi. Evaluation
This is the highest taxonomy. It includes the ability to make judgements. e.g.
• By the end of the lesson the Learner should be able to distinguish between
 a well-developed character and stereotyped one in a Bantu culture.
• The Learner should be able to write a critique of the English programme.
• By the end of the lesson the Learner should be able to distinguish between
decision making and problem solving (in History and Government).

The various levels in the cognitive domain increase in their demand on the learner
as you move from knowledge to evaluation.

COGNITIVE DOMAIN.

LEVELS TASK DEMANDS

Knowledge Least demanding

Comprehension
Application
Analysis Moderate demand
Synthesis
Evaluation Most demanding
 Affective Domain.
This domain deals with behaviours related to the learner’s attitudes, feelings,
appreciation and values. The expected learner behaviours related to these areas of
learning are non-observable and therefore are difficult to measure.
• The Learner should be able to show interest in literature by doing extra
reading.
• The Learner should be able to participate wholeheartedly in the biology
classroom discussion.
• The Learner should be able to find pleasure in studying ecology.

Krathwohl’s taxonomy is the most widely used classification of the affective

objectives. It was devised by David Krathwohl and associates (1964). It puts the
affective domain into five levels, which are progressively sequenced, in an
hierarchical fashion from lower to higher levels. The levels are receiving, responding,
valuing, organising and characterisation by a value complex. Below is a summary of
the Krathwohl’s taxonomy.

Level Description of the level Words that describe the

Behaviour In the level

Receiving willingness to pay attention to an activity or an event.

Responding willingness to react to an event through participation reply, answer, follow along,
approve, obey, find pleasure
in.

Valuing commitment to value shown by consistent and stable support, grow in, devoted to.
response to objects, people, phenomena ect. (willing-
ness to accept or reject an event through positive or
negative assume)

Organising. Willingness and ability to organise a hierarchical and select, judge, identify with,
weigh
Relationship in values where more than one value is alternatives.
 Encountered.

Complying Passive acceptance of role assigned by teacher

No overt avoidance of activity.

Examples of objectives which require learners to demonstrate behaviours within

the affective domain are that the learner should be able to ;

• show interest in literature by doing extra reading.

• participate wholeheartedly in the biology classroom discussion.
• find pleasure in studying ecology.

Psychomotor Domain.
The psychomotor domain has to do with behaviours that involve actual part or whole
body movement as a demonstration of achievement of the objective by the learner.
The domain involves the intake of information from the environment, its processing
in the brain (learning) and its subsequent output as motor skills (physical behaviour).
Harrow’s taxonomy names six levels of physical behaviour, which are summarised
below.

Level Description of the level Words that

describe the
behaviour within this level

Reflex movements involuntary muscle movements blinking, heartbeat

Psychomotor combines responses of the eye/

co-ordination hands/legs. Involves perception
and action.

Manual dexterity ability to perform controlled rapid tapping, typing,

And skillful arm/leg movements drumming, plucking.

Psychomotor speed Ability to perform at high filling up circles with a

And precision speed and accurately specified number of dots.
Motor kinesthesis ability in balance maintenance. Rope walking,
dancing.

Ambidexterity Ability to use both limbs

Equally well, sometimes
independent of each other.

Examples of objectives which require learners to demonstrate physical behaviours

within the psychomotor domain are that the learner should be able to ;

• play golf.
• Swim 100metres in four minutes.
• Type 100 words in one minute.

Although the four domains have been discussed separately, a single learning session
could objectives focusing at learners’ behaviours in two or more domains.

Constructing Instructional Objectives.

i. Essential parts
• Start with action verb (observable behaviour) such as to name, to
operate, to arrange and to compare.
• To be followed by the subject content reference such as to name
parts of speech used in a sentence. The essential parts indicate
what the learner is to achieve.

ii. Optional parts.

• The level of achievement ; this is an indication of the minimum
acceptable accomplishment in measurable terms (how well, how
much, how accurate the achievement will be.) Eg. At least 8 out of
10 within three minutes.
• One or more conditions; The limitations or specifications under
which learning shall place. Eg special equipment/specimens,
reference materials/maps/charts and time limits

In the affective domain, we estimate the change of learner behaviour by inferring

from what can be observed and hence the term approach tendencies in exhibiting a
positive attitude towards a situation or avoidance tendencies to reflect a negative
 attitude.

Definition of key words and concepts.

Aims of education:Aims of education are broad statements on the purposes of education in a

country

The long-term objectives: These are

• Stated in general terms.
• Can only be attained over a long period of time.

Levels of objectives:These are the categories into which objectives fall as determined by the length
of time an objective takes to be achieved.
Domains of knowledge:These are the taxonomies into which knowledge is
categorised depending on its nature.

Cognitive domain:This is the kind of knowledge, which involves recall of factual information.

Affective domain:Is the taxonomy or area of knowledge, which deals with values, attitudes and
interests.

Psychomotor domain: Deals with knowledge which has to do with learning practical skills.

TEACHING STRATEGIES.
Teaching Strategies.
In order to organise learning experiences for students or pupils, teachers’ use teaching
strategies. Teachers use a great variety of teaching strategies. Two notable strategies
are the expository strategy and the heuristic strategy.

The Expository Strategy.

The expository strategy is characterised by;

The teacher providing students with information, his/her interpretation of
things, examples, definitions, generalisations, notes and even evaluation.
The learners play mostly the role of receivers of this information.
The teacher presenting opportlessonies for the learners to practice new
 skills on the new information taught.
The teacher testing or assessing for the adequacy of reception recall or
understanding of the information by (repeating, rephrasing information
base on the feedback received or the non-verbal messages observed.
Learners listening, taking notes, asking or answering questions if given the
opportlessony.
• Teacher – centred activities where the teacher ‘s autonomy is evident.

Heuristic strategy.

This strategy is characterised by:

• the teacher usually organising the task, providing and suggesting resources to
be used and monitoring the performance of the tasks.

• The learners being involved in seeking and finding information, discovering

meanings, attempting translations and definitions, thinking up examples and
applications, making notes, summaries and compositions and critically
judging.
• The teacher observing and testing the understanding of the activity, experience
or the practical being done or the principles and generalisations being drawn.
• The teacher adopting the philosophy of ‘keep your hands off and your eyes on,
unless there is a need to assist’
• Allowing students to plan, execute and evaluate their own activities.
• Encouraging students to develop self-confidence and poise especially if they
have to present their findings to the class.

These two strategies may be considered as two extremes of a continuum with a

combination of these strategies in between the expository and the heuristic. The
diagram below illustrates this idea.

Expository…………………………intermediary………………………Heuristic

It is evident that one strategy is not likely to be adequate to meet the diversity of
learning needs of students. Effective teaching seems to be provided by teachers who
make informal decisions about the strategy most appropriate to particular needs, and
particular students at various types.

So far, strategies have been discussed in general terms. It is necessary to be more

specific when talking about strategies on the continuum. The term strategy is difficult
to define precisely because other words are used interchangeably to mean more or less
the same thing. For our purpose, we will focus on the definition of strategies by Ayot
and Patel (1992), who refer to teaching strategies as ‘a set of processes combined to
achieve an expected outcome’

These two processes, methods or approaches will be discussed in details in the next
two lectures. Examples of methods in the expository side of the continuum include the
lecture, textbook reading and demonstration. Examples of methods in the heuristic
strategy include field trip, experimentation, laboratory work and discovery.

In the next section, we are going to discuss the main methods of teaching in each
teaching strategy.
Characteristics of Effective Teaching Situation.

A lesson can be said to be effective if the following characteristics are satisfied:

The teacher knows his/her subject matter (contract) very well.
Organises the content well and prefer it in clear language.
The teacher uses different teaching strategies in a given lesson, which
appeals to the learners.
The teacher is purposeful and committed to his/her work.
The teacher makes the lesson interesting and enjoyable to the learners.
Expects the students to concentrate on the subject.
Effective and clear communicator in setting the subject matter across to
the learners in simple clear language.
Relates the concepts in everyday life experiences of the learners.
The teacher is enthusiastic and humorous in his/her teaching.
Makes concepts and ideas appear simple and reasonable and easy to
understand and to apply.
The teacher shows respect to the learner, and avoid embarrassing them in
class.
Encourage pupils to ask questions as the lesson continues.
Encourages pupils to be creative and express their ideas and view - points
 freely.
Is friendly and warm to pupils.
Teaching Methods.

There are various approaches and methods available to you in your business of
teaching. It is up to you to choose which methods to employ and when. The choice is
dictated by various factors, which include:
• The general objectives of the subject. For example in biology there are
objectives and there is no any one method of teaching that can effectively
lead to achieving of all the ten objectives.
• Whether you will teach in the classroom, laboratory or field course.
• Availability and quantity of apparatus and materials.
• Specific objectives of a given topic.
• The level of the learner.

Lecture Method

The lecture method is a process of delivering verbally a body of knowledge to the

learners. In its strict sense it is characterised by :
• One way communication, from the teacher to the learners.
• The teacher presents ideas and concepts while the learners listen and take
notes.

A brief lecture method can be useful, for instance when:

• Introducing a new topic
• Presenting essential material that are not easily accessible to the learners.
• Due to shortage of time, you want to cover a lot of material in the little
time available.
• Stimulating interest in the learners.
• Conveying information such as instructions to an experiment.
• Supplementing textbook material.
• Summarizing important points at the end of the topic.
• Explaining concepts such as carbon fixation in photosynthesis.
Suggestions on how to Improve on Lecture Method

• At lesson preparation stage consider the objectives you want to achieve

and the style of presentation that will enable you to achieve them.
• Use many appropriate examples to illustrate the main ideas and concepts.
• Your personality should be good, for example your appearance, manner
of dress and poise are important.
• Use a well-modulated voice and correct pronunciation.
• Facial expression and gestures should be used to give emphasis.
• Talk to your students not to the chalk-board.
• Constantly check on the learners’ understanding and encourage them to
interact and ask questions.
• Use a language that the students understand.
• Make use of illustrative devices/teaching aids.

The development of the lesson should be logical so that the concept development,
is easily followed by the learners.

Advantages of the Lecture Method.

The main advantages of the lecture methods are:

• Is suitable for large classes where material resources are inadequate.
• Is inspirational in for example story telling type of lesson.
• The teacher covers a large ground in a limited time.
• It is economical because, it uses fewer teaching material.
• Students don’t spend a lot of time exploring and finding out.
• There is less effort on the part of the teacher in terms of organising the
class.
Disadvantages of the Lecture Method

The main disadvantages of the lecture method are:

• The learners are not actively engaged in the learning process. Thus they
are passive recipients.
• Does not develop creative and critical thinking among the learners.
• Does not provide the learners with the opportlessony to organise their
 thinking and verbally communicate to their peers during the lesson.

Demonstration Method.

Demonstration method involves the teacher carrying out an activity on behalf of the
learners. It is meant to teach to show the learners a certain skill. For the demonstration
method to be more effective you should:

• Let the learners know why you are carrying out the demonstration.
• What the learners should look for during the demonstration.
• Ensure the materials and equipment are working before the demonstration
• Every pupil should be in a position to see the demonstration.
• Involve the pupils in the demonstration e.g , in assembling of equipment or
making the observations and readings .

Discussion Method.

The discussion method can either be by small groups or by the entire class. The
method has several advantages;

• It promotes exchange of ideas and opinions.

• Promotes critical thinking where ideas are criticized and evaluated by the
learner with supportive evidence for their arguments.
• Promotes democratic principles in class.

To make the discussion method more effective, note the following:

• It is recommended that the smaller the group the better the discussion as it
allows each member of the group to participate.
• The learners in each group should sit in a way that they face each other for
effective group discussion.
• The topics for discussion should be interesting and challenging to the learners.
• Each group should have a group leader to control discussion and a recorder to
record points.
• Students should respect each other’s point of view and not personalise the
differences in opinion.
• Ideally, groups should comprise mixed ability learners.
 Discovery Method.

Many educationists advocate discovery approach in their teaching / learning process.

This school of thought advocates not the teaching of knowledge itself, but to teach the
learner the skills by which he /she can generate knowledge that can ever be known, an
impossible task. Discovery approach is used in the teaching of principles and
concepts.

The discovery method is also referred to as inquiry or problem solving approach. The
student is presented with a problem and has to go through the problem solving process
that consists of five main steps.
Identification of the problem
Formulation of hypothesis ( informed guesses)
Collection of and analysis of data.
Drawing conclusions.
Developing meaningful generalizations.
The science subjects of both primary and secondary level and beyond use the
experimental discovery methods where:
They use empirical data obtained through first hand experiences with real
materials, facts and ideas.
Use experimentalogy, data collection and analysis.
Use scientific method in knowledge generation.

In this process your role as a teacher is that of a facilitator while the learner is actively
involved in the learning experiences.

Advantages of the Discovery Method.

The advantages of discovery methods are that:

• Leads to understanding as opposed to note learning.
• Learners are actively engaged in the teaching / learning process instead of
being passive recipients.
• Pupils find such lessons more interesting because they make students
more enthusiastic.
• They can apply such knowledge concepts and skills to novel situations
much more easily.
• Enhances research and critical thinking skills in the learner, thus
 enhancing scientific culture.
• Learners are exposed to scientific methods of research.

Disadvantages of The Discovery Method.

The disadvantages of discovery method are that

• It is time consuming for both the teacher and learner.
• It can be costly in terms of materials if you are doing experiments.
• It requires very careful planning and preparation by the teacher.
• Unless well supervised some learners might not gain from experiments /
discovery method.
Field Trips Method.

In this method the learners visit place of educational value such as museum, a
harbour, an airport a dam for learning. For the learners to benefit more from the field
trip or excursion, you as a teacher should carefully plan for it .

Planning for the Field Trip.

• Spell out the purpose and objectives of the field trip.

• Notify the school authorities and the authorities of the facility you want
the students to visit.
• Assemble all the materials and equipment needed for the field trip.
• List the main questions to guide the students.
• Organize and book the transport.
• Organize for accommodation if students will be away one night or more.
• Organize for meals.
• Inform the personnel who will accompany the students.
• Inform students on appropriate clothing.
• Take safely measures very seriously and let the students know it .
• Prepare for the follow up activities such as report writing or class
representations or a written test.
 Project Method.

In the project method the learner is expected to carry out a project to solve a defined
problem or achieve a set goal. They can carry out the project as individuals or groups.
A project can be short taking few weeks or long term taking several weeks to the
whole school term or year.

Let the pupils choose their own projects rather than you as teacher assigning the
projects. However, when they have chosen the topic, you should discuss with each
student or group of students their projects with the aim of scaling down it to
manageable levels, whether the equipment and materials to carry the project are
available, and whether it can be done within the available time. The project should be
of the class level of the learners.

For the project method to be effective as a teaching strategy you should;

• Decide the learning outcomes you expect the learners to achieve.

• Ensure that the topics chosen are likely to develop interest in the learners
and whether they will be stimulating to intellectual pursuits as they carry
out the project.
• You must approve every project before the pupils go ahead with it.
• Ensure that all equipment’s and materials are available for the completion
of each project.

• Arrange for regular consultations as the project proceeds so that, pupil do

not go a stray in their work.
• Ensure that there is high standard of safety.
• It is advisable to let the learners know what you will be looking for when
marking the projects.

Summary.
In this lesson, we have learnt that;
• In order to organise learning experiences, teachers use teaching strategies.
• Teachers use a great variety of teaching strategies.
• Two notable strategies are the expository strategy and the heuristic strategy.
• Strategies involve processes, methods or approaches.
• Effective teaching involves wise choice of strategies of teaching.
 • Each strategy has specific methods or approaches that lean heavily on it.

We have further looked at the various method of teaching available to you as a teacher.
There is no one best method for all teaching situations.
Research findings show that learning is more effective if learners are actively
involved in the learning process.

During the time of planning for teaching you should give a clear thought on what method or
methods of teaching you are going to employ depending on various factors such as the
topic, the level of the learners, the availability and quantity and contend of materials and
class size.

PLANNING FOR TEACHING

A syllabus

A syllabus has been defined by Burston and Green (1972) as “a statement of the
content of study – the amount of knowledge and the selection of knowledge which it
is proposed that a pupil should acquire”.

Every subject in the curriculum, from pre-primary to university has a syllabus. In

Kenya, primary and secondary school syllabii are prepared by a panel of subject
specialists at Kenya Institute of Education, a body whose function is to develop the
curriculum. In designing a syllabus, there are a number of considerations:

i) National goals of education: What are the goals of education in the

country where the syllabus will be used?
ii) Aims of education: This refers to general aims of the educational system
and aims of either primary, secondary or university level at which the
syllabus will be operational.
iii) Aims of teaching the subject: Of what importance is a given subject in
the curriculum? How does it fulfil or contribute towards achieving of
the goals of education?
iv) Adequacy of content in relation to time available. How much content can
be covered within the time specified at different levels of education.
v) The level at which the syllabus will be operational. Is it at primary,
 secondary or university level?
vi) Intellectual level or development of the learners: At what level are the
learners?
vii) Resources available: These refer to both physical and human to make the
syllabus operational
viii) The needs of the learners: These include the physical, psychological and
emotional needs of the students who will be exposed to the syllabus.

Schemes of work
The scheme of work is a projection of what you intend to cover with a class within a
specified period. It can further be defined as a detailed, logical and sequential plan

that interprets the syllabus into lessons that can be used in a teaching/learning
situation.

Importance of scheming

Scheming is essential because:

1. It ensures that topics in the syllabus are taught in an orderly manner starting with
the simplest to the most complex. This systematizes and gives order to teaching.
2. It ensures that every topic in the syllabus is covered.
3. It enables the teacher(you) to budget for time wisely e.g. giving room for events
and activities which might interfere with the school calender e.g. public holidays,
prize-giving day, sports day etc.
4. It gives you an insight in teaching by enabling you to identify content, methods
and relevant instructional materials which you are going to use in the lesson thus
giving him/her enough time to sort out the requirements.
5. It guides you in making a lesson plan. Infact the lesson plan is extracted from the
schemes.
6. It checks on your pace of teaching by allowing you either to slow down or to
move faster.
7. It is useful during transition, when you are transferred, the in-coming teacher will
easily take over from where you had reached avoiding repetition or omission.
This ensures continuity in the learning of that subject.
 Factors to Consider when Scheming

For you to scheme effectively you need:

1. the syllabus: This will specify the objectives and content to be achieved and
taught respectively.
2. information on the level, experience, ability and background of the learners: What
are the present capabilities and knowledge of the learners?
3. awareness of the teaching/learning environment: This is physical conditions
either in and outside the school under which learning takes place.
4. knowledge on resources available in the school and the commlessony. This will
determine organizational strategies to be adopted.

The Process of Scheming

For effective scheming, it is suggested that the following processes be followed:

1. Read the most recent syllabus to know the content from which schemes of work
will be planned.
2. Calculate the approximate number of teaching periods in the term, taking into
consideration holidays, school activities, revision, tests, and examinations.
3. Allocate time to the topics according to the complexity of the concepts.
4. Arrange the topics to be taught so that there is sequence of instruction.
5. Find out what previous background of knowledge and skills pupils require to be
ready for the new content.
6. Indicate at what time of the term continuous assessment tests will be given. This
will depend on the policy of the school. In some schools, tests are given after
every two weeks, after a month or after covering each topic. The teacher needs to
find out about the policy requirement and scheme accordingly. At the same time,
the instructor should allocate time for revision towards the end of the term if it is a
requirement by the school.

According to Cohen and Manion (1977) schemes may either be sequential or non-
sequential depending on the subject being schemed. A sequential scheme is one in
which the components are logically related to one another and in which the
achievements of the later components will depend in large measure on having
mastered the earlier ones. In maths sequential arrangement is a must.
 Features of a scheme of work
1. Every scheme of work must have administrative information indicating: the
subject, class, stream, term and year when the schemes will be operational. It also
gives a title: “A scheme of work in Geography, Form 11B, 1st term, 2002”.
2. Week: It refers to the week of the term when a given topic in the scheme will be
taught e.g. 2nd week: Introduction to Geography.
3. Period or lesson: This refers to the specific lesson in a week when a given topic
or sub-topic will be taught. The number of lessons per week for subjects vary.
There are some subjects which have three lessons a week, others four five, six or
even seven. Since there are many activities in the term which interfere with
teaching, you are supposed to identify these activities and cater for them in the
planning process. To estimate the number of periods to be taught in a term, you
calculate the number of weeks in the term and multiply by the number of subject
periods per week, less 10% for lost periods that may occur due to interruption and
other factors.
4. Objectives: They specify what the learners are expected to achieve at the end of
the lesson. They are very specific, stated in behavioural terms of what you expect
learners to do at end of the lesson.
5. Content (topic, sub-topic): It shows what topic or sub-topic will be covered in a
given lesson/period. It also indicates some of the main points of the lesson.
6. Learning activities: These are activities which the students will be expected to
carry out in order to learn the content presented to them.
7. Resources: These are teaching/learning materials which you are is supposed to
use to facilitate learning and therefore achieve the objectives stated e.g. pictures,
charts, maps, objects, models, radio, audio-visual materials etc.

8. References: These are the textbooks and other printed materials you use or
consult when scheming or planning to teach, e.g. reference books, newspaper,
magazines, journals etc.
9. Remarks: These are comments you make after teaching a given lesson. They are
concerned with whether the lesson went on as schemed and if not why and what
steps will be taken to rectify the situation. The steps to be considered could be
repeating the whole lesson (topic), carrying out remedial teaching, re-teaching,
specific elements of the lesson or clarifying certain issues etc.
10. Means of evaluation: This refers to how the learners’ achievements will be
assessed against the planned lesson objectives.
Sample of a Geography Schemes of Work form 1A 1st Term 2001
Week Period Content Objectives Learning Resources Reference Remarks
Activities
1 1 Topic By the end of e.g. group A chart Author title
2 Sub-topic the lesson the discussions/ on… publisher Taught as
3 Main points learner should answering a map on … place, year planned
be able to… questions pages
….. reading
the text on
…

2 1 Topic By the end of e.g. in Chart on … Author Lesson not

Sub-topic the lesson the groupings of a map of … …Title covered as
Main points learner should 3-4 Chalkboard publisher planned
… be able to … discuss… for … … place because of
answering year… over
questions on pages… planning to
…. Reading be covered
the text during prep
on…. or to be
Experimenti continued
ng on … in the next
lesson

Observing
2
3
3 1

Lesson Planning
A lesson plan is a work plan showing clearly all activities that are going to take place
during the lesson and the order (sequence) in which they are going to follow.

Importance of Lesson Plans

Well-written lesson plans are useful to you in many ways.

1. They are used as basis for the lesson presentation. They give you an
agenda or outline to follow as the teaching takes place.
2. They enable you to be familiar with the teaching content and to visualize
the best way of covering it.
3. They serve as a guide/road map for you on the content to be taught in-
order to avoid vagueness and irrelevancies.
4. They serve as a memory bank, reminding you of the main points to focus
on during the lesson. This becomes important incase of a memory lapse,
interruption or distraction.
5. They give you security and confidence, especially if you are a beginning
teacher, you can walk into a classroom with the confidence gained from
 having a well-developed, and organised framework for the day’s
instruction.
6. They act as an orderly sequencing of content and learning activities in a
lesson.

7. They improve your performance by acting as a basis for future planning.

Elements/Features of Lesson Plan

A good lesson plan has a number of features:

Administrative details: This show the name and registration number of the
student teacher, school, subject, form, stream of the class e.g. 1W, date
when the lesson will be taught e.g. 2/10/2003, time is the exact time of
the day when the lesson will be taught e.g. 2.00 - 2.40 pm.
Topic/sub-topic: This is the name of the subject matter to be taught that day.
Objectives: There are the same objectives stated in the schemes but now
transferred to the lesson plan, stating what to be achieved in one lesson of
40 minutes or a double lesson of 80 minutes.
Time: The time in the plan format shows the exact time you will spend at
every stage of the lesson (introduction, body and conclusion).
Content: The exact information to be passed to the learner under the topic
being taught, it is to be presented at three levels: introduction, lesson
development and conclusion. It identifies the main points to be delivered
in the body of the lesson.
Learning activities: Refer to what the learners will be doing at each level of the
lesson to show that learning is taking place or the objective is being
realised. Each activity should be planned around the pattern of transition
namely: introduction activities, lesson development activities and
conclusion activities. They should be specific and challenging enough
depending on the learners’ level and ability.

On characteristics and construction of instructional objectives, the learner should refer

on earlier information given in chapter 3: Objectives of education under the sub-topic
"Instructional Objectives".

A Sample of a Lesson Plan’s Format

Name of the Student Teacher: Reg. No.:

School Form
SubjectNo. in Class
Date Time
Topic
Sub-topic
Objectives

Time Content Learning Activities Resources Materials

5 Introduction Observing a picture on … A picture on…
30 Lesson Answering questions on … Author, title, publisher,
Development Copying definition of … place, year of
Drawing a chart on … publication page.
5 Conclusion Answering questions on the
lesson.

A lesson plan

Name of the student teacher: Nehema Wangai

School: Gracia Secondary School Form 3B

Subject: Literature No. in class: 30

Date: 15/3/2003 Time 9.00-9.40
Topic: Oral Literature
Sub-Topic: Riddle

Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the learner should b able to:
i) define the term riddle
ii) give at least three examples of riddles from his/her commlessony
iii) explain four characteristics of riddles
iv) discuss the functions of riddles in a given society.
Time content Learning Resource
Activities materials
5 Introduction: Definition of a Attempting to Eric Partridge
riddle: an enigma or dark saying define the two term (1987) Usage and
intended for the audience to riddle. Abusage London:
discover the hidden meaning Guild publishing
p.50
30 Lesson Development step1: Giving examples of Jane Nandwa and
Examples of riddles eg. riddles from their Austin
- a house without a door commlessonies. Bukenya(1983) Oral
- Three daughter who can not writing examples, or Literature for
function without one riddles on the schools. Nairobi:
chalkboard in Longman p.50
vernacular
Translating them to
English
Step 2: Characteristics of riddles Identify Nandwa and Austin
i) Statement form characteristics of Bukenya(1983),.
ii) Question form riddles by analyzing P.51
iii) Puzzling sounds the examples of
iv) Long/short form riddles given.
Step 3; Functions of riddles
i) entertainment In groups of 4-5
ii) sharpening ones intelligent discuss the
iii) educating functions of riddles
iv) Reinforcing behaviour in their
v) Solving day to day life commlessonies
tussles
5 Conclusion: Review the topic Answering
taught questions on the
topic.
Self evaluation
: A lesson plan

Name of the student teacher: Nehema Wangai Reg. No. E35/099989/2002

School: Gracia Secondary School
Subject: Geography Form 2W
Date; 16/3/2002 No. in class 40
Topic: Rainfall Time, 8.00 - 8.40
Sub-topic: Types of rainfall
Objectives: By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
i) define the term rainfall
ii) identify types of rainfall
iii) Explain at last four characteristics of conventional rain.
iv) Describe with an illustration how conventional rain is caused
Time Content Objectives Resource/material
5 Introduction: Answer the question
Definition of rainfall What is rainfall?
- drops of water received from the
atmosphere
30 Lesson development Identifying types of rainfall KIE
Step 1: types of rainfall - defining conventional, Geography
i) Conventional relief and frontal rain. For From 2
ii) Relief - Writing down Nairobi:
iii) Frontal characteristics of KLB, 1998
Step 2: Conventional rainfall: conventional rain. pp. 105-115
Characteristics - Observing on a chart
i) thunders forms and lighting how the rain is formed, A chart on formation
ii) heavy rainfall drawing the chart of conventional
iii) rains in the afternoon illustrating formation rainfall.
iv) brief and large raindrops of conventional rain.
v) occurs in humid tropical areas - Asking questions on
Step 3: Formation of conventional rainfall areas not clear
(g) heating of the land
(ii) ………………………
(iii) ……………………..
5 Conclusion Answering questions
Review the lesson through question related to the lesson.
Answer method assignment
Read on Relief rain from
KIE Geography
For From 2, p. 116-120
 MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM

Meaning of motivation.

 Motivation is a general term used to describe the conditions that cause one to
begin an activity and pursue it with vigour and persistence.
 James et.al., define motivation as “all those inner striving conditions described
as wishes, desires, drives etc.” It is an inner state that activates or moves a
person to work hard, to sustain a pace of hard work, to achieve certain goals.
 The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines motivation as “to
provide someone with a strong reason for doing something.” Motivation
therefore as a state of being motivated means that one has a strong reason or
motive to do something.

 Motivation is manifested in an individual as deep desire and an urge to direct

energy in one direction to the exclusion of others for the purpose of learning
for the realisation of a goal or for accomplishing a task.

Types of motivation

 There are two types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

a. Intrinsic Motivation
It is also referred to as self-imposed motivation. An activity that leads
to learning may be its own reward and may continue for no other
reason than its own occurrence.

 When the reason for acting is in the action, motivation for it is said
to be intrinsic.
 Simply put the drive, wish or desire is from within an individual
 Intrinsic motivation goes deep into our personality.
 One does a task or job because it interests him or her.
 Such a task makes one happy or is satisfying.
 For example a student who loves mathematics will work a certain
number of sums or problems each day.
 One who is not mathematics inclined will only do the assignment
 given by the teacher just to fulfil the requirement and probably
avoid punishment.

 When one performs the task in question, he/she considers the task
useful and important.

b. Extrinsic Motivation

• When motivation depends on other rewards that are external to the

action itself, it is said to be extrinsic.
• This type of motivation is supported and enhanced by external
influences such as promised rewards, promotions, commendations
and so on.
• Students may work very hard to get good grades so that they can be
promoted to the next class.
• The motivation originates from other people, the environment,
situations, experiences etc.
• The most common forms of external motivation in schools are
rewards and punishments.
• If well used both can be stimulating for while, but their efforts are
short-lived.
• Examples of rewards include, praise or words of commendation,
items in kind such as exercise books, text books, story books, pens
and pencils, school outings, field trips, merit certificates and
trophies for various achievements.
• Punishment takes many forms as motivational strategies. Examples
include giving extra duties, verbal rebukes, withholding certain

Note
privileges such as school outings, asking students to repair damages where possible and so
forth.
• Corporal punishment is discouraged because it does not result in positive
motivation at all. Indeed it has been abolished in schools.

External motivation should be based on good teacher-student relationship. If one is not a

genuine teacher even if you promise student anything, they will always suspect you and may not be
motivated.
• If one is kind, caring and respectful, students will jump at the promise because they know
 you will keep it.
• Extrinsic drives are external to the individual and do not support learning as much as intrinsic
ones.
• Extrinsic motivators are external rewards that have meaning or value after performing
the work.
• They provide little if any satisfaction when the work is being done.
• In a job situation pay is often an extrinsic motivator.
• Rewards and punishments should be appropriate to the age and the character of the individual as
well as the achievement or offence committed.

Motivational Strategies in the Classroom.

Certain pre-conditions are essential for efficient motivational strategies to be realised.
It is necessary to:
 provide a supportive environment. If you tell students to refer to certain
books in the school library, ensure that the books are available.
 give students work with appropriate level of challenge or difficulty. Too
challenging or difficult tasks will result in failure and frequent failure is
de-motivating.
 set meaningful and worthwhile learning objectives. Students enjoy learning
what is interesting and useful to them.
 make moderation and variation in strategy use. Use rewards, praise,
reinforcement, punishment and so on to avoid monotony in strategy use.
 use promotions, praise, recognition, field trips and relevant treats such as
lunches to motivate learners.

a. Intrinsic Motivational Strategies.

 Motivate by maintaining success expectations. Focus on success rather than

failure. It is important to note that intrinsic motivation does not always arise
first. The teacher may have to supply the motivator by a promise of
something, then the student internalises the thing, takes it seriously and
intrinsic motivation sets in. This should not be confused with extrinsic
motivation.
 Provide opportlessonies for active response.
 Incorporate interesting activities into the learning e.g. games, puzzles.
  Minimise performance anxiety, avoid threats and fear.
 Encourage project intensity such as in depth study of a phenomenon e.g.
research.
 Encourage enthusiasm in the phenomenon e.g. its importance and relevance.

b. Extrinsic Motivational Strategies.

 Emphasise rewards as incentives for good performance. Use material rewards,
personal and group rewards.
 Link students knowledge and skills with their present and future life outside
the school e.g. career development, self-employment, and commlessony
service.
 Prepare group and individual competitions for prizes or recognition. For
example, in school houses, classes or clubs.
 Provide an environment conducive to learning with suitable and sufficient
resources and good working equipment.

Definition of Key Words and Concepts

Extrinsic Motivation -Motivation that is externally induced and supported.
Drives -Are inner forces usually physiological or psychological that urge living things or
creatures to satisfy their basic needs such as hunger, thirst, anxiety, tiredness etc.
Goals - These form the objectives or targets to which a sequence of behaviour is
directed. They are important in motivation.
Intrinsic motivation Motivation arising from inside a person.
Motives - Reasons for action, that which prompts somebody to act. They are hypothetical
constructs which explain why people are doing what they are doing. Motives and drives are
sometimes used synonymously.
Strategies - These are the methods that one uses to achieve the goal to satisfy it or at least to
respond to the motive or drive.

These concepts account for initiation, direction, intensity and persistence in classroom behaviour.
 SUSTAINING ATTENTION IN THE CLASSROOM
Motivational process

 In the process of learning paying attention is very important. It helps one

to focus on every detail of an experience so as to get the most out of it.
 It is the teacher’s responsibility to assist in training students to listen and
observe because these are essential ingredients in learning.
 The need for assisting students is great because their attention span is
limited especially when certain methods of teaching such as lecturing are
used.

 Motivation is important in getting students to learn once their attention is

captured.
 Once they want to learn the teacher’s task is easy. However, attention may
not be sustained throughout the lesson.
 That is why the teacher is challenged to observe and cater for individual
differences in class, and pay attention to them to sustain interest.

The motivational process can be seen as proceeding through a sequence of

steps such as the following;

 An unsatisfied need is the starting point in the process of motivation.

 A deficiency of something within an individual is the first link in the chain
of events leading to behaviour.
 The unsatisfied need causes tension within the individual, leading the
individual to engage in some kind of behaviour to satisfy the need and
thereby reduce the tension.
 This activity is directed toward a goal. Achieving the goad satisfies the
need and the process of motivation is complete.
 Once satisfaction is reached some students may just fall back into a state
of inattention and laziness.
 That is why the teacher needs to understand how motivation works so as to
recognise when to re-energise students again.

These steps can be diagrammatically represented as follows;

 Diagrammatic representation of the motivational process.

2. Physical /psychological
1. Unsatisfied Tension.
Need

3. Goal-directed
behaviour

Theories of Learning.
• Many theories of motivation exist to explain why people behave the way
they do.
• Two most discussed groups of theories are CONTENT THEORIES and
PROCESS THEORIES.
• Content theories are concerned with identifying what is within an individual or the
work environment that ENERGISES and SUSTAINS behaviour.
• Process theories try to explain and describe the PROCESS of how behaviour is
energised, directed, sustained and finally stopped.
• Process theories first attempt to define the major variables necessary for
explaining choice.
• Should I work hard? This calls for Effort.
• How hard do I need to work? and Persistence,
• How long do I need to keep this pace?
• Two content theories i.e. Maslow’s need hierarchy and Hertzberg’s two-factor
theory are important in understanding Motivation.
• Two process theories i.e. Expectancy and Reinforcement are important in
motivation.
 Maslow’s Motivational Theory.
Maslow (1954) proposed that motivational needs operate in a hierarchical manner
from mere physiological needs to complete development of the self. This is illustrated
in the pyramidal figure shown.

Figure : Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.

5. Self
Actualization

4. Esteem Needs

3. Social Needs

2. Safety Needs

1. Physiological Needs

5 - Highest need level, need to fulfil oneself, to grow and use abilities to the
fullest and the most creative extent.
4 - Need for esteem of others, respect, prestige, recognition, need for self-
esteem, competence or mastery.
3 - Love, affection, and a sense of belonging in one’s relationship with other
people.
2 - Security, protection and stability in the physical and interpersonal events
of day-to-day life.
1 – Basic needs of food, shelter and clothing.

• These needs are organised because of different levels of importance.

• Maslow states that if all of a person’s needs are unsatisfied at a particular time,
satisfaction of a more predominant need is more pressing, than the others.
• Those that come first must be satisfied before a higher-level need comes into play.

Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

 This is a process theory of motivation which:

 considers the use of positive and negative reinforcements to motivate or create
an environment of motivation.
 This theory is not concerned with needs or why people make choices.
 It focuses on the environment and its consequences for the person.
 That is behaviour is considered to be environmentally caused.
 If a person works hard at a job and he/she is given a pay bonus he/she is likely
to work harder hoping to get another bonus.
 If a student works very hard and scores an A in a subject where his/her best
score was always a C or a B, he/she is likely to work hard to score another A.
 One works hard because his/her behaviour was reinforced.
 Reinforcement theory works on the law of effect, which states that Behaviour
that results in a pleasing outcome is likely to be repeated; behaviour that
results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.
 There are two types of reinforcement positive and negative ones.
 Positive reinforcements include rewards such as praise, recognition, pay
bonuses, field trips and school visits.
 Negative reinforcements also aim at reinforcing the desired behaviour.
 However, instead of providing a positive reward, the “reward” is that the
student or employee avoids some negative consequences such as a reprimand.
 Two other negative reinforcements used are extinction (withholding positive
reinforcement) and punishment which involves actions such as a public
reprimand or being left in school when others go for an outing.
 Positive and negative reinforcements address issues of having employees or
students learn desired behaviours.
 Unlearning undesired behaviours involves the use of extinction or
punishment.
 In applying positive reinforcement to motivate desired behaviours, teachers
and managers, can use either a continuous reinforcement schedule or an
intermittent reinforcement.
 A continuous reinforcement schedule involves administering a reward each
time a desired behaviour occurs.
 An intermittent reinforcement schedule involves rewarding desired behaviour
periodically.
 Having considered these two theories let us look at some strategies of
sustaining classroom attention.

Some Strategies of Sustaining Classroom Attention

We shall do this by examining the following considered suggestions. These are

highlighted as follows:

 Use stimulus variation or attention drawing signals in class.

 Examples include pausing, hand signals, use of pictures and making
occasional calculated movements up and down the class or across the class
instead of standing or sitting in one place.
 Establish incentive contingencies e.g. let students take five minutes to sketch
an item and after that pick on a few to draw on the chalkboard or to explain
their diagrams to the class.
 Use of feedback – comment on a students performance positively.
 Avoid distraction such as noise and disorganisation in the classroom especially
during group work.
 Use dramatic examples such as humorous comments.
 Give students adequate work to keep them busy.
 Vary your mode of delivery, tone and voice during teaching.
 Look out for signs of fatigue and restlessness and address them appropriately
and promptly.
 Use active words that lead to enquiry when giving students assignments.
 Use key words that lead to enquiry for learning purposes such as,
demonstrate, construct, clarify, discuss, investigate, evaluate, create,
imitate and describe.