3.

0 TRAINING

This is the process of teaching someone how to perform a given task efficiently through some repeated practice. This normally involves the
learner being taught how to perform a task which involves both knowledge skills. The teacher serves as the trainer and the learner
becomes the trainee. The two will go through the skill, performing it repeatedly (over and over again until such time they are satisfied the
skill is fully acquired. In this learning situation, the learner is seen to go beyond just listening and understanding as is in other forms of
learning. Instead he involves himself in repeating the motions of performing a certain task or skill as shown or demonstrated by the
teacher. E.g. the ability to use the log-table in mathematics is a skill; in chemistry, the learners need to learn the skill of titration while in
Biology they require the skill of dissection. The skill to use surveying equipment in Geography is essential just as it is essential to learn
the skill of playing the guitar or the piano in music.

Teachers who will serve as trainers will need to be specially trained themselves so as to make them competent enough to guide the learners in
acquiring these skills. To achieve this, the teacher would need to emphasize the following principles in addition to the content selected:-

Planning and preparing to teach.

Specially selected methods of teaching.

Classroom management and control.

Ensuring good command and understanding of subject matter/content.

Choice of instructional materials and support materials.
Evaluation/assessment/measurement of learning outcomes.
The teacher will also need to be competent in performing the
skills himself/herself and by going through several teaching
tasks over and over again.
In the process of undergoing training to become a teacher of
skills(trainer), the student teacher will be:-
Shown how the task is performed through demonstration by the
Trainer (teacher/tutor).
Put in a situation (simulated) where he/she will be guided
through the subtasks until one has mastered them (at times
using one’s own peers for purposes).
Required to perform the subtasks together (integrating all the
sub skills) to perform a teaching task on the peers (peer
teaching or micro-teaching).
Perform the teaching task in an actual situation such as
classroom under the direct supervision of the teacher/tutor –
during Teaching Practice.
Once the task has been performed to the satisfaction of the
tutor/lecturer, then one will be described as a trained teacher
who will have acquired key skills in classroom instruction.
The following is a simplified format of the training
process:-
Trainee gains
basic information and knowledge about the task to be
performed.
Perform the task repeatedly until perfected
Demonstrated performance of the skill by the trainer.
Instructing/applying using the learned/acquired skills in
real situations.
It is important to note that the knowledge or the skills
acquired through training should be properly
channeled and put into good use for the purpose of
developing the society (not destructive).
EDUCATION:
Education goes beyond teaching, learning or even
training. It involves the individual using the acquired
knowledge, attitudes, value systems, skills to increase,
adjust, and
enrich the self and the society in all aspects of life. An
educated person therefore should be seen as one whose
interaction with others is socially acceptable and useful,
resourceful, responsible; one who is happy to live with
others.
Dr. Apoluoch identifies three forms/dimensions of Education in
his book, “Essentials of a school’s curriculum:. These are:-
The formal dimension: its characteristics are :
It is carried out in organized institutions of learning. schools,
colleges, universities etc.
It is highly structured, has syllabuses, schemes of work, course
outlines and is usually timetabled and requires teachers.
It is normally inspected/supervised/monitored by officers from
the Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards (ESQAC).
There are occasional assessment tasks that are followed by
terminal examinations at the end of a given level of learning
i.e.. Primary level, secondary level, training level etc.
There is some award of academic certificates to successful
learners at the end of each level of learning eg. KCPE, KCSE,
PTE etc.
It is this dimension that is usually used to determine
promotions/retentions to the next level of learning
etc.
2(ii) the non-formal dimension: its
characteristics are:
It involves certain organized activities which are done
outside the structured programmers of study eg.
Clubs, societies, education tours/trips/excursions.
Involvement in these activities depends on individual
interests and needs of a particular group of people.
Age may not be a factor here eg. Swimming club.
Activities that involve formative ‘barazas’ by experts
in particular fields belong to this dimensions.
Certificates of participation (non-academic) may be
issued after an organized programme is ended eg.
boy scouting, debating Christian union etc.
Involvement in these activities serves to enrich the quality
of an individual’s school leaving certificate and other
forms testimonials.
The presence of instructors (teachers) except for being
patrons/matrons is not really very necessary etc.
The activities are not examinable nor are they supervised
by external agencies.

The informal dimension – its characteristics are:-

Learning takes place unconsciously and at all times and
places eg. At home, at school, during play among peers
and emulating adults.
It is not a structured and adult or peer models because the
sources of knowledge happen all the time except when
one is asleep.
It is, in most cases, environmental learning since much of
what is acquired comes from the environment through the
senses of a child’s entry behavior at the time of enrolling
for schooling.
The presence of role models for copying, imitating or emulating
is an essential component.
Informal learning pursues its own course, at its own pace and in
a spontaneous way throughout one’s life.
The emerging or the hidden curriculum/education
compromising of the contemporary issues in society may
come under the spontaneous that cuts across all the other
three dimensions above.
The social dimensions – involves interrelationships, morals,
ethics, socialization processes, social interactions human
relations. This dimensions is based on premise on
understanding that human beings, learners included, are
basically social animals who have need to co-exist and to
depend on each other.
AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES IN EDUCATION
GENERAL
All the above terms refer to target or preferred outcomes at
some time in the continuum of time and space. But to avoid
confusion, there is need to understand the distinction between
their references.
Societies the world overview education as a central vehicle of enabling
people to acquire the desired attributes of knowledge, skills, values,
attitudes etc. Education therefore can simply be described as the process
through which the learner is helped/or assisted to acquire the most
desirable change for comfortable living. To be able to offer these desirable
attributes, education is guided by a set of national aims (goals) that serve
as points of focus (targets) to be chased after/ to be pursued.
Aims are the desired/preferred outcomes/targets that are long term in
nature. At time aims exist only as ideals that serve to give the nation or
society a sense of direction. They may be achieved or never at ll.
Goals on the other hand are the preferred/desired outcomes/targets that are
medium term in nature. They can be achieved within a relatively
acceptable space of time eg. Within a month, a school term, one year, a
level of learning (primary, secondary, college etc). Goals are also stated
for different subjects in the school curriculum.
Objectives are also in the category/cadre of the desired outcomes/targets
but which are short term in nature. They are expected t be achieved
within a stipulated time line eg. Within a lesson at the end of a sub-topic, a
topic, a series of topics, etc.
In any cycle/level of education the desirable outcomes as a result of
education are fashioned/crafted/designed through a set of subjects or
disciplines such as Biology, mathematics, history, religious education,
geography.
Each subject has its own goals; that gives the purpose for
which it is taught (why it is included in the curriculum). A
subject consists of very many topics. Each topic may
require several lessons for it to be taught in full. A topic
may therefore have a goal that will be achieved through
teaching several lessons each of which having an
instructional objective. Thus, several instructional
objectives will eventually add up to one instructional goal.
An instructional objective is supposed to be
realized/achieved by the end of a lesson i.e.. 35 minutes,
40 minutes, 70 minutes, 90 minutes etc.
It is normally, short term in nature.
AIMS OF EDUCATION
The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural
organization (UNESCO) provides the Nations of the world
with the broad aims that education systems should
seek/strive to achieve. And it is out of these broad aims
that each country tries/attempts to formulate its own aims
which will give the general direction to that country’s
system of education. Some of UNESCO’s standard aims of education are
that education should:-
Faster international consciousness in the spirit of one Universal Society.
Improve standards of living in the various countries of the world.
Solve continuing problems that affect humanity such as hunger, disease,
unemployment, war, etc.
These aims are very broad but serve to give a general and desirable
direction to which education offered by the individual countries of the
world should focus on countries of the world endeavor to harmonize
UNESCO’s aims with their own through seminars, conferences, workshops
and scientific trainings etc.
In Kenya, the terms ‘aims’ and ‘goals’ appear to be used in free-variation –
thus they are interchangeable and this should not be the case. However,
and whatever their reference is, they still remain the general statements
that give a general but desirable direction to our entire education system.
As pointed out earlier, it may be easy to determine when they will be
achieved and actually some of them may never be achieved – they will
remain but ideals/mirages.
In Kenya the aims of education are that it should:-
Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity.
Promote the social, economic, technological and industrial needs for
national development.
Promote individual development and
self-fulfillment/self-actualization.
Promote sound moral ethical and religious values.
Promote social inequality and sense responsibility
among the youth.
Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich
and varied cultures.
Promote international consciousness and foster positive
attitudes towards other nations and their peoples.
Promote positive attitudes towards good health and
environmental protection.
From the general aims of education, educational goals
are derived and they become curriculum goals. These
are usually medium term in nature. For instance, we
have goals of early childhood education, primary level
education and other tertiary institutions of learning.
The key features of the goal statements are that:
They are stated in general terms that are not immediately
measurable, observable or even achievable and are stated
without any specified criteria.
They are difficult to state behavioral terms because they
relate to many human activities, situations and standards of
performance etc.
They can only be attained over a relatively longer period of
time – a week, two weeks, one month, two months, one
term, one year or even a course of study (primary,
secondary etc). What needs to be emphasized is that they
are achievable at some point, time/stage in the education
system.
NB; Subjects or disciplines also have their own goals as
purposes for their inclusion in the school curriculum. These
goals are attainable over the period of time the course is
studied eg. Geography in the secondary school cycle (Form
1-4). A scheme of work will give goal statements for each
subject that are attainable within the term.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
These are the learning/outcomes/targets that a teacher
intends to achieve within a single period of 40 min or within
 They guide the teacher in organizing his/her instructional
procedures including the selection of content, identification of
resources and planning of learners activities. They also
facilitate for relevant assessment and serve as the basis for
sound curriculum implementation. At the level of the learners,
instructional objectives enable the learners to evaluate their
own progress and to plan how to perform better in a given
subject. The instructional objectives are stated:- In terms of
the learners expected behavior.
Such that they are measurable.
Such that they are attained with a given time.
Such that the level of performance is specified.
Such that the conditions prevailing are specified.
Such that they are concise and clear.
Why it is necessary to set instructional educational objectives?
At the beginning of any teaching task, the teacher needs to
know very clearly what he should accomplish by the end of
what he intends t teach (the rationale for the teaching).
Reasons for setting (instructional educational objectives
are:
To be able to determine with some precision whether or not the
teaching has brought about the anticipated behavioral change in
the learner at the end of the learning process. Whether it is by
the end of one lesson; a number of related lessons covering one
topic or even a whole curriculum.
To give direction and establish criterial for measuring
success/failure.
To plan some orderly learning activities in which the order consist of
the systematics progressive learning processes.
To have foresight in advance for possible determination of the
number of lessons necessary to complete a topic.
To influence the steps taken to reach the end results (outcomes)
i.e. influence the choice of content materials, methods and
strategies etc.

(Long term) (Medium term) (Medium short term) (Short term)

Aims Goals General objectives specific objectives
(National) (Curriculum) (Topic/subject) (Lesson plan)
Societal Educational

NB: It should be noted that all these are targets that a

teacher endeavors to achieve. The difference comes in
the length of time each takes to be achieved but they all
form a support system – thus each one helps to achieve
the other i.e. from the specific objectives of a lesson to
the most general aims of the nation.
Examples of lesson (specific) objectives;
By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to
distinguish between a metaphor and a simile.
Given thermometers with the two temperature scales, the
learner should be able to read and record temperature
in both Fahrenheit and Celsius degrees.
By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to
label the human alimentary canal in a given diagram.
Elements of a good instructional (lesson) objective;
It should clearly state who will perform the learning
tasks; and what he/she will be able t do at the end of
that lesson.
It should have an overt behavior or action word (verb)
which will be observable.
The objective must be stated in a very clear language
(not vague).
It should be short and to the point (specific) and precise.
It should indicate or imply the standard of performance
expected (measurable)
Sometimes, it is necessary to give the conditions under
which the action or behavior will be performed.
The Domains of knowledge and the statement of
instruction objectives Benjamin Bloom et al
(1956)
The three domains of knowledge as identified are:
The cognitive domain
The affective domain
The psychomotor domain.
There is now a forth one referred to as the social domain
(morals ethics, values, inter personal –relationships etc)
When a teacher sets out to state an instructional objective,
it should be borne in mind that the statement of the
objective should be seen to revolve around any one of the
domains stated above; without necessarily indicating
which specific domain one intends to satisfy.
The cognitive domain
This domain comprises those objectives that have to do
with the functions of the mind , memory, recall or
recognition of knowledge and the development of
mental/intellectual abilities and skills. This domain is
further classified into sic (6) major categories (known as
the cognitive taxonomy) as follows;
Taxonomy of Knowledge:
The knowledge level
Comprehensive level
Applications level
The Analysis level
The synthesis level and
The evaluation level

Knowledge level- deals with the ability to recall or recognize. This includes the recall
of principles, generalizations, theories, methodologies etc. others are facts, ideas
and so on eg. An instructional objective in this taxonomy may be stated as follows:
by the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:
Define digestion and excretion or
Name six capital cities in Africa etc.
Comprehension – this involves some thinking abilities higher than simple knowledge
and will include such abilities as translating or explaining information eg. By the
end to the lesson.
The learner should be able to explain the function of the human heart or
The learner should be able to describe the human growth process in her/his own words.
Application – the thinking processes in this taxonomy are higher than in
comprehension. If a learner has been able to or has understood information, he
then can apply it eg.
The learner should be able to translate simple word problems into algebraic equations
or
The learner should be able to convert yards into meters accurately.
Analysis - this is also a category higher thinking/reasoning application. It involves
seeing and understanding different parts of an element as parts of a whole and
establishing their relationships eg.
The learner should be able to spot inconsistencies in the explanation.
The learner should be able to identify the major themes of a novel or
The learner should be able to determine logical fallacies in an argument.
Synthesis – this is a category still higher than the other four. It involves the ability to
produce unique communication or put together ideas in a constructive manner e.g.
The learner should be able to propose a suitable method for determining the chemical
content of a compound.
The learner should be able to design a plan for community participation in a
District/County.
The learner should be able to create a logical outline of describing the biological
problem.
Evaluation – this is the highest level in the cognitive taxonomy. It involves the ability to
make assessments and judgments e.g. by the end of the lesson the learner should
be able to;
Distinguish between a well-developed character and a stereotyped one in a Bantu
culture.
Write a critique of the English literature programme for secondary schools.
Distinguish between decision-making and problem solving.
The above various levels in the cognitive domain increase in the thinking demand on
the learner as one moves progresses up the ladder from knowledge to evaluation.
The effective domain
This domain has been put at five levels by Krathwohl and associates (1956) as follows:-
Receiving
Responding
Valuing
Organizing and characterization by an inbuilt complex value found within the person eg.
by the end of the lesson;
The learner should be able to show interest in literature by doing extra reading.
The learner should be able to participate wholeheartedly in the biology class discussion.
The learner should be able to find pleasure in studying environmental education.
The psychomotor domain – Simpson (1972) et al
In this domain, six major physical behaviors have been named and isolated. Reflex
movements, psyche and muscle coordination, manual dexterity, psyche-muscle speed and
precision, motor kinas-thesis and ambidexterity.
The learner should be able to play golf.
The learner should be able to swim 100 meters in under four minutes etc.
The social domain
This domain mainly deals with social effects such as values, attitudes, ethics, morals, mores
and ethos, dos and densest which affect society. Issues to do with environmental pollution,
cloning of human beings etc fall under this domaining.
The learner should be able to outline the main effects of gaseous emissions to the
environment.
The learner should be able to describe the uses of forests to the population.
It is worth noting that it is possible for more than one of these domains to be involved in one
single learning session.
CONSTRUCTING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Essential parts
Start with an action word (verb) (which will form the observable behavior) such as to name, to
operate to arrange, to compare etc.
Follow this up with the subject content in reference such as to name 11 parts of speech used in
a sentence.
The essential parts indicate what the learner is expected to achieve the learning outcomes.
The optional parts
The level of achievement (measurability); this is an indication of the minimum acceptable
accomplishment in measureable terms (eg. how well, how much,
how accurate the achievement will be). At least 8 out of 10 sums within five minutes.
Under one or more conditions; the limitations or specifications under which learning shall take place eg. Provision of special
equipment/specimens; reference materials/maps/charts and the time limits etc.
Some action words (verbs) are not measurable and are thus not suitable for use in stating instructional objectives. These
include understanding, show, know, demonstrating, comprehend etc. They however can be used for statements in the
affective domain. It is also in this domain that we can estimate the change of teachers' behavior by inferring from what
can be observed and hence the term “approach the tendencies” in inhibiting positive attitudes towards a situation or
“avoidance tendencies” to reflect negative attitudes are often used.
Benjamin Samuel Bloom was an American Educational Psychologist (1921-1999) well known for his contributions to the
classification of Educational objectives. He published his work in 1956 titled: ``Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The
Classification of Educational goals’’ which outlined a classification of learning objectives that has come to be known as
Blooms Taxonomy.
BLOOMS TAXONOMY
This is a classification of mental abilities or competencies under different domains of knowledge. The taxonomy is a useful
tool for instructor's/teachers'/ lecturers during classroom teaching and assessment of learners’ achievement.
DOMAINS OF LEARNING
i. Cognitive domain - deals with the development of learners’ mental abilities or intellectual aptitudes
ii. . Affective domain - concerned with the development or change of attitudes, values, interests and appreciations. Iii
iii. . Psychomotor domain –deals with manipulative skills and body movements
COGNITIVE DOMAIN: - has six subcategories/abilities/competencies
Recall of knowledge - memory, remembering previously learned material.
ii. Comprehension - ability to grasp the meaning of material studied followed by assimilation and internalization
iii. Application – ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations, i.e. transfer of training.
iv. Analysis – ability to break material into its component parts so that the overall organizational structures may be understood, or
relationships that may exist
v. Synthesis – ability to put different ideas or parts together to form or create a new whole.
vi. Evaluation – the ability to judge the value of some material for a given purpose, against stated criteria.
In 2001 Anderson and Krathwohl revised the Bloom taxonomy and proposed the following subcategories:
i. Remembering ( ability to recall
) ii. Understanding ( ability to grasp meaning )
iii. Applying ( ability to use material in new situations )
iv. Analyzing ( ability to separate material into its component parts and show relationships
) v. Evaluating ( ability to judge the worth of some material against set criteria )

3.0 THE SYSTEMS APPROACH TO EDUCATION

In the systems approach of performing tasks, certain inevitable steps will need to be followed in a logical, meticulous way,
some of them being almost indispensable. Workers in the field of technology cannot avoid putting in use the systems
approach in their operations.
Rossini (1981) defines a system as a set of elements or
components or objects which are interrelated and work
towards an overall objective. This definition was further
supported by Ted Groenewegen (193) who saw a system
as a complex of factors interacting according to an overall
plan for a common purpose or goal.
Examples of common systems include:
Biological systems
The digestive system, the circulatory system.
The respiratory system, the nervous system etc.
Mechanical systems:
Refrigeration system, music system, computer system,
power generating systems, engines systems etc.
Social systems
Educational system, political economic system, religious,
churches, trade unions etc.
Natural systems
E.g. Rivers, forests, grasslands and so on. What is important to note
is that each system has a goal, or a mission which must be
achieved.
A system can either be closed or open. An open system is one which
can interact with its environment freely. Its behavior demonstrates
a phenomenon called ‘the principle of equifinality’ which states that
an open system can reach its final state in a number of different
ways because it can interact with its surroundings by receiving
ideas and inputs from the environment. A school is a good
example of an open system since it takes/receives from the
environment (society) and gives back to the same environment.
A closed system on the other hand is one that operates in isolation
from its environment. It does not get any input from its
surroundings. It final state is highly dependent on its initial stage.
An example of a closed system is the circulatory system, engine
combustion system. It is however, worth noting that most systems
are open since it is extremely difficult to completely isolate a
system from all outside influences.
COMPOUNDS OF A SYSTEM
Goals- every system has a goal which becomes the target that is to
be achieved. All members (parts) of the system then work towards
this set goal.