GENERAL

PEDAGOGY

NOTES
UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 1
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 CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE 1
DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS 1
Education 1
Definitions that emphasize the origin of the word education 1
Definition that describes the process of education. 2
Definition that stipulates what education should be. 2
Forms of education. 2
Schooling 3
What then is a school? 3
Differences between Education and Schooling 3
Teacher 4
Roles of an effective teacher 5
Characteristics/qualities/indicators of an effective teacher. 5
Indicators of an effective teaching 7
Metaphors of teaching 9
CHAPTER TWO 10
THE CONCEPT OF PEDAGOGY 10
ANDRAGOGY 11
Categories of learning 12
Thinking 13
Critical thinking 13
Creative thinking 13
CAPTER THREE 14
CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES 14
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY 16
Cognitive domain 16
The effective domain 19
The psychomotor domain 21
CHAPTER FOUR 23
GROUPING FOR INSTRUCTIONS 23
Allocating teachers for teaching 26
CHAPTER FIVE 29
COMMUNICATION IN THE CLASSROOM 29
CHAPTER SIX 32
CURRICULUM PLANNING 32
Curriculum planning at the classroom refer to the process of developing , implementing and
evaluating a program or a curriculum plans. 32
1. Syllabus 32
Scheme of work: 33

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Lesson plan 33
Reasons for planning 33
Types of lesson plans 34
General lesson plan/unit/topic/weekly 34
Daily lesson plan 34
Models of the individual lesson plan 34
Component of a daily lesson plan 34
Preamble 35
CHAPTER SEVEN 37
TEACHING STRATEGIES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 37
TEACHING STRATAGIES 37
TEACHING METHODS 41
TEACHING TECHNIQUES 48
Cognitive learning techniques 50
CHAPTER EIGHT 52
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 52
The Authoritarian approach 52
The instructional management approach 53
The Behaviour Modification approach 54
CHAPTER NINE 56
QUESTIONING 56
Types of questions 57
Questioning Techniques 58
CHAPTER TEN 59
Assessment and evaluation. 59
Assessment 59
Evaluation 59
Types of evaluation 59
Forms of Evaluation 61
Characteristics of evaluation instruments 61

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WEEK ONE CHAPTER ONE

DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS

Education
Education is the driving force behind any society. It is very necessary for the
flowering of any individual. This means that education is vital for the physical,
intellectual, emotional and ethical integration of the individual into a complete
man/woman.
The word education was first used in the 1530s to describe the process of obtaining
academic certificates. Today, the word has a more extensive meaning.

Definition of education

Education can be defined from three main perspectives;

 From the origin of the word “education”

 Description of the process of education

 What education should be

Definitions that emphasize the origin of the word education

The word “education” originated from two Latin words “educare” and
“educere”. The word “educare” means to “rear”, “to tame”, “to mold” or “to train”.
Education originating from “educare” is viewed as the training or bringing up of
children through character training and discipline, so that they live in accordance to
certain standards set by the society. Hence educare is a teacher centered
education where learners are seen to possess little or no potentials and only
depend on the teacher in order to acquire these potentials. This means the teaching
and learning process from this view will only be a one way stream that is from
teacher-learner(s).

Conversely, “educere” is translated “to lead” or “to bring out”. Those who view
education as originating from educere therefore regard it as involving the exposure
of a child to condition/situations that will help the child’s nature to develop.

From the two view points, it is glaring to settle that education involves the training

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of a child in character and discipline in order to bring out inert/latent potentials.
Educere is a learner centered approach to education. Teaching here can be seen as
a give and take process between the teacher and his/her learner(s).

Definition that describes the process of education.

Education is the aggregate (sum total) of all the processes by means of
which people develop knowledge, skills, attitudes and other forms of behaviors that
are of positive value to themselves and the society in which they live (Good, 1973)

Definition that stipulates what education should be.

It is the role of education to promote participation in social improvement; so
as to influence people’s ways of doing things to be in accordance with the changing
times.

Forms of education.
Education can take any of the three forms; formal, non-formal, and informal
education.

 Formal education

Formal education is well planned, structured, organized and takes place in

formal agencies such as the school and the university. Note that the school
is considered a separate agency to the university because the aims, methods
and content of the university are different from that of a school. It is backed
up by the award of certificates. Formal education is classroom base and runs
from primary to university.

 Non formal education

This is a form of education that leads to the acquisition of vocational skills or

competences for certain jobs or services. Non-formal education has some
degree of organization but not as formal education. As a result of its
specificity in instructions, it is often referred to as apprenticeship. Non-formal
education takes place in agencies such as; a salon, a mechanic garage, a
carpentry workshop, and a church. It has some degree of organization but
not as formal education. It may involve the award of certificates.

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 Non formal education can also be seen any organized educational activity
outside the established formal system
 Informal education

The truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitudes,

values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative
influences and resources in his or her environment.

Informal education leads to the transmit human values and basic skills such
as respect peace, unity, and harmony, humility, cultural awareness, hygiene
and culinary skills amongst others. These types of education are not
organized and takes place in casual agencies such as the home, mass media,
peer group and the community. There is no award of certificates.

Schooling
Schooling is the act of attending a formal institution (school) with trained
professionals called teachers and involves levels in which the requirements of each
level must be met before proceeding to the next level and involves the award of
certificates at the end of each stage.

What then is a school?

The school is an agency of education changed with the task of dissipating
formal education. It is a place with buildings that harbour educational stakeholders
and facilities such as teachers, students, books just to highlight a few.

Differences between Education and Schooling.

No Education Schooling
1 Aggregate of all the experiences Schooling is the act of attending a
through which people acquire KSA formal institution for the purpose of
which have a positive bearing to acquiring KSA.
themselves and the society in which
they belong.
2 Goes on throughout life Restricted to specific periods or ages
in life
3 Has diverse agencies such as Has the school as its only agency

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 school, home, community, church
etc
4 One cannot “drop out” from “Dropout” is possible e.g financial
education problems or constrains, failure to
meet examination requirements.
5 Takes place anywhere i.e no specific Takes place in well distinct buildings
building is identified with education such as a classroom, campuses,
laboratories, libraries.
6 It stresses the acquisition of general It stresses the acquisition of specific
KSA in congruence to life in a given KSA that have been pre-determined
society. Preference is given to the in an official document call the
ability to function rather than curriculum preference is on
qualification qualification which is suppose to
reflect capability.
7 Does not always demand financial Financial resources are always
resources needed
8 Certificates may/may not be Certificates are always awarded.
awarded
 An instruction
This is the means by which the teaching learning process takes place e.g
textbooks, materials etc.

 Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in a person’s behavior as a result
of exposure or experience.

NB: there must be a change in one’s KSA (behavior) before learning can be said to
have taken place. Also, the change must be permanent.

 Training
Training refers to specific instructions that lead to the acquisition of specific
skills that are applied immediately. This means that training is a sort of education
that is tilted towards the acquisition of specific skills in various professions or
vocations. E.g one can undergo training to become a teacher, hair dresser,
mechanic, driver etc.

 Learner
Anyone who is ready to acquire knowledge skills and attitudes

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  Teaching
Teaching is an act which have been perceived by different scholars in
different ways but they all show a common epicenter

 Teaching is the act of imparting knowledge.

 Teaching is the transfer of knowledge from a more knowledgeable person

(teacher) to a less knowledgeable one (learner).

 Teaching is the act of facilitating learning.

The 3rd definition above is the most accepted pedagogically because it

portrays a learner centered type of teaching that has proven to be by far the
most effective.

Teacher
A teacher is one who facilitates learning. There are two types of teachers; the
life teacher (humans) and the media (visual displays, print materials, graphics,
audio devices etc).The above definition is limited to a life teacher.

 Effective teacher.
An effective teacher is one who is able to reach the desired change in
learner’s behavior within the required time frame.

Roles of an effective teacher

An effective teacher must assume or exhibit all of the followings roles.

 The teacher as a manager

A teacher is a very busy person and so, must schedule his/her time
effective between planning of lesson, selecting of materials and delivering
lessons. Also, he faces all forms of antagonistic/controversial or undesirable
behavior in the class room that demand great managerial skills so as to tailor
the situation(s) in other to achieved an open, supportive and relaxed but ideal
environment for effective learning.

 The teacher as an instructor

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 The teacher instructs the teaching learning process. He does this
through the use of instructions such as text books, teaching aids etc. this is
always directed by a formal document call syllabus and with the purpose of
meeting some pre-determined goals.

 The teacher as a counselor

Since the school is considered as “a society in miniature”, the teacher
interacts with virtually the entire society. In so doing, he advises parents on
how to follow up their children back at home for a continuous learning, he
equally advices learners on life situations and guides them on how to choose
and build up a career.

Characteristics/qualities/indicators of an effective teacher.

Great people are known for their famous works and so are effective teachers
through their pedantic skills. An effective teacher possess the following
characteristics

 Command of theoretical knowledge about learning and human

behavior
Teachers are empowered by knowledge from various disciplines such as
psychology, sociology etc. these qualify them to be able to identify, interpret and
relate learner’s behavior to the learning task(s), so as to ensure inclusive mastering
of learning objectives despite the differences that exist among learners.

 Display of attitudes that foster learning and good human relationship.

An attitude is a predisposition to act in a desirable or in an undesirable way
towards a person, ideas or events. A teacher’s attitude is a very important force that
shapes the teaching learning processes. How successful a teacher is, is partly
determined by his attitude. Effective teachers have proven to show very productive
attitudes towards themselves, the students, other teachers, parents and the subject
matter as well. That is, they are capable of ensuring a conducive climate for
teaching and learning.

 Command of knowledge in the subject matter

A command of knowledge in the subject matter requires adequate planning.
Effective teachers do not only have a mastery of the content to be taught, but are

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able to identify which method, materials, activities, as well as evaluation techniques
that suit the subject matter in line with the age, level and other learners’
characteristics.

 Control of technical skills of teaching that facilitate students learning.

Effective teachers ensure a repertoire of teaching skills that fosters students’
learning. These skills center around four activities; planning, implementation,
evaluation and feedback.

 Planning
This is a crucial activity for any teacher and entails decision making on the
needs of their learners, the most appropriate goals and objectives liable to
meet these needs, the methods and strategies, activities and materials most
suitable to the attainment of those goals and objectives.

 Implementation
Implementation is the putting into effect the decision that was made during
the planning stage.

 Evaluation
Here, teachers determines the appropriateness of the objectives that were
selected, the teaching methods and strategies used, the learning activities
that learners were engaged in, and the extent to which learners are achieving
what the teacher intended.

 Feedback

NB: if more than four characteristics of an effective teacher are asked, the
following and more can be added.

 Excellent communication skills

Effective teachers are also good communicators. Most learners get bored
especially when attending lengthy lessons, but effective teachers employ their
applauding communication skills to rekindle their lessons at the various stages of
implementation thus sustaining the focus and interest of their learners thereby

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rendering them agile or active throughout the lesson. Not only are effective
teachers excellent communicators to their students, they are equally effective
communicators to parents as well as other staff members. Any flaw (difficulties) in
communicating with any of these three group persons can limit your overall
effectiveness as a teacher.

 Effective teachers are proactive rather than reactive.

This is one of the most difficult aspects for a teacher to conquer. Intense and
careful planning and organization can ultimately render a teacher’s job all the more
less difficult. Teachers, who plan ahead, imagine the kind of problems that may
arise during the implementation of any given content, and proactively look for
solutions to these problems. This relieves them of the stress faced by reactive
teachers who simply wait until a problem arises before trying to address it. Being
proactive does not replace being adaptive. However, proactive teachers have
proven to be even more adaptive than reactive ones. No matter how well you plan,
being proactive can curb surprises tremendously thus preventing undulating
lessons and making you more effective overall.

Indicators of an effective teaching

Effective teachers are often associated to certain acts in the classroom that
are directly reflected on their students’ learning. An effective teaching is determined
through the following factors.

 Communicative objectives.
Objectives direct the teaching learning process. Effective teachers see to it
that clear goals and objectives are stated at the beginning of the lesson in
other to motivate students and keep them focus. It equally directs the
teacher to stay in track.

 Presentation of materials systematically.

Effective teachers understand the important sequence in presenting their
subject matter. They break materials into easier digestible points and present
them from simple to complex.

 Avoiding vagueness
Effective teachers use very clear and understanding words alongside the use

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 of direct and specify examples.

 Variation of media
Effective teacher do not stick only to a particular medium in their lessons but
exploit the various categories of instructional material such as visual, prints
and graphics, audio-visual, audio real objects etc.

 Enthusiasm
Because of the high professional conscientiousness of effective teachers,
they tend to be more enthusiastic about the way they present their content,
deal with students and equally, they induce so much life in the teaching
learning process than the ineffective ones.

 High performance oriented

Effective teachers set out to achieve highly. They equally infest their learners
with the spirit of great expectation enabling them to embrace hard work.

 Task oriented
Effective teachers are known for their conformity to official documents
(syllabus, scheme of work etc). They operate according to well stated
routines and ensure an inclusive coverage of the syllabus unlike their
ineffective counterparts.

 Student initiated behavior

Students are active participants in ideal classroom settings. Students initiate
more interaction in effective teacher’s classroom and do less or are even
passive with ineffective teachers.

 Checking for understanding

Understanding in any given classroom setting can be checked for through
performance. Effective teachers ask questions and provide exercises
regularly to ascertain the degree to which students are following up. This
acts as the basis for remediation.

 Providing for practice

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 Students’ learns better when they are given the opportunity to make meaning
out of what they have learned. Effective teachers provide adequate work for
students to practice on. It could be classroom exercises, assignment,
homework etc.

 Providing for feedback.

Timely feedback is a necessary tool in the classroom. Effective teachers
provide timely feedback so that students’ can access their progress.

 Praise
Praise has an irresistible motivational force on learners but, it can also be
detrimental to the entire teaching learning process if use abusively. Effective
teachers do not employ as much praise as ineffective ones. They use it
judiciously.

 Using a variety of teaching methods

Effective teachers exploit a variety of teaching methods depending on the
content and tasks of their lesson.

 Transfer of knowledge
Transfer of knowledge is the ability to apply learning to real life situations.
Effective teachers achieve this by initiating problem solving skills and
reflection in the classroom.

Metaphors of teaching
Under metaphors of teaching, teaching is being compared to;

i) Filling an empty vessel

ii) Gardening

iii) Transforming act

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  Teaching as filling an empty vessel
Here teaching is compared to filling an empty vessel, where the learners are
considered to be empty vessels in which the teacher is expected to pour
relevant material into (knowledge, skills and attitudes). This is a teacher
centered approach and learners are passive. This metaphor is associated to
John Locke’s “tabula rasa” theory.

 Teaching as gardening
This view compares teaching to gardening, where students are seen to be
plants in a garden and teachers are expected to provide the necessary
conditions needed for the plants to flourish or grow to maturity. This view
employs the teacher centered and to an extent learner centered approach of
teaching.

 Teaching as transforming act

This view sees students to be rational beings filled with inert or latent
potentials for knowledge acquisition. A teachers’ rule is to transform these
potentials into an active conscious state. This is a learner centered approach
of teaching.

WEEK TWO CHAPTER TWO

THE CONCEPT OF PEDAGOGY

INTRODUCTION

A teacher’s true identity is derived from the field of pedagogy. This means
that pedagogy serves both as a means of enhancing students’ learning and

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as a source of teachers’ Professional identity. As professionals, teachers use
their expertise judgment to recognize and resolve irregularities in teaching
and learning which they face every day in the classroom, thanks to the
knowledge of pedagogy.

What then is pedagogy?

Pedagogy is a field of study that teaches teachers how to teach, equips them
with knowledge, skills and attitude to make them effective teachers.

Simon (1980) defines pedagogy as a science of teaching.

While some scholars see it as the methods and principles of teaching.

Origin of the word

The word pedagogy originated from two Greek words; “pead” meaning child
and “agogus” meaning leader. The word when combined reads “peadagogus”
meaning child’s leader or child’s tutor and translated in English to pedagogy,
which refers to the methods and practices of teaching.

There are two most important aspects of pedagogy that are closely related to
the teacher’s knowledge are:

 General pedagogical knowledge and

 Pedagogical content knowledge.

General pedagogical knowledge

It refers to broad principles and strategies of classroom management and

organization that appears to suit subject matter and comprises of;

i. Knowledge on the theories of learning.

ii. General principles of instructions

iii. Various philosophies of learning.

iv. General knowledge about the learner.

v. Knowledge on principle and techniques of classroom management.

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Pedagogical content knowledge

This is a blend of both content and pedagogy. It refers to the teacher’s

knowledge on how to teach any given area of a particular course or subject. It
enables teachers to ease student’s learning through the use of clear
explanation, appropriate examples and presenting lessons in motivating and
entertaining ways. Pedagogical content deals with;

i. Ways of conceptualizing subject matter for teaching.

ii. Understanding the specific content to be taught, its major concepts and
their relationship to the wide field.

iii. Knowledge of students understanding of the subject matter, previous

knowledge and other aspects.

ANDRAGOGY
Andragogy refers to the teaching of adults.

Pedagogy Vs Andragogy

Pedagogy Andragogy

Focuses on the learning experiences Focuses on the learning experiences

of children and which methods best of adults and which methods work
suits their education best in adult education
Learning experience/opportunities Learning experiences are mostly
are based on what the society determined by the learner based on
expects the learner to master for their needs.
their full integration into the society
Examination grades are of high Grades have little importance here.
importance.
Extrinsic motivation is a powerful Motivation here is mostly intrinsic.
tool for boosting performance
Importance of Pedagogy

Below are some importance of pedagogy to a teacher.

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  It equips teachers with the knowledge and skills to teach and evaluate
students’ learning effectively.
 It enables teachers to effectively handle problems of indiscipline in
class(classroom management)
 Enables teachers to state realistic goals and objectives for themselves
and their students.
 Enables teachers to identify and cater for students with special needs.
 Equips teachers with effective questioning skills that can elicit the right
response from the learner(s).

Categories of learning
Facts

Facts refer to the verifiable pieces of specific information. A fact as a

category of learning refers to the learning of verifiable information through
observation, listening, experiencing and reading. There are a variety of
methods and instructional technology such as games and other devices that
teachers can use to enable students remember facts.

Concepts

This stands for a group of things put together based on their similarities or
differences. Teachers are generally most concerned with conceptual learning
because it helps learners not only to remember or recall facts but to
understand and appropriately use the facts. A concept is different from a fact
in that it is broader and a deeper type of knowledge.

Theories

These are propositions that have proven to explain certain behaviour and
observations. Educational theories seek to know, understand, describe and
prescribe educational practices. Some educational theories include;

 Bandura’s social learning theory

 Piaget’s cognitive learning theory

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  Maslow’s motivational theory.
They enable the learner to judge or appraise a particular concept.

Thinking
This is the mental ability to develop ideas, form connection between ideas
and solve problems. Thinking ranges from the recall of information to
introducing new ideas. There are two types of thinking; critical and creative
thinking.

Critical thinking
This type of thinking involves higher cognitive processes (higher order
thinking). It is based on intellectual standards of objectivity and consistency.
Critical thinking is a type of higher order thinking skill and contrast with
ordinary thinking skills of memorizing and translating. It can also be seen as
a type of thinking that leads to the development of problem solving skills.

Creative thinking
Creative thinking is at the peak of the thinking taxonomy. It is the quality of
being insightful, ingenious, imaginative and original. Creative thinking leads to
generation or discovery of new ideas or new ways of doing things. Creative
thinkers are always curious and inventive.

Stages of creative thinking

Creative thinking goes through four stages.

 Preparation; Here, there are a set of issues that arouse the curiosity of
the thinker. As a result, he then collects information by asking
questions and establishing relationships between the issues.

 Incubation; Here, there is formation of hypotheses. A hypothesis is a

tentative statement that is yet to be verified.

 Illumination; at this stage the thinker is certain in answering the

questions formulated from the hypothesis. This confidence is achieved
through research findings and or interaction with others involved in
solving similar problems.
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  Verification; at this final stage, the creative thinker applies critical
judgment on the idea or concept and seeks convincing ways of
communicating the idea to others.

WEEK THREE CAPTER THREE

CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Objectives are statements which describe in simple terms what the

learner is expected to achieve as a result of instruction(teaching). They can
also be seen as specific statements of educational outcomes.

Because they direct attention to the student and the types of behaviour they
should exhibit, these statements (objectives) are sometimes called
“behavioral or learning objectives”, hence we can define a learning objective
as a statement in specific and measurable terms that describes what the
learner will be able to do as a result of engaging in a learning activity, or what
the learner is expected to achieve at the end of the lesson.

Objectives are derived from goals and aims. The terms goals and objectives
are sometimes used interchangeably. This is not correct because goals are
broader than objectives. They are so broad that sometimes it is difficult to
measure them directly.

A goal can be seen as a statement that describes in broad terms what the
learner will gain from the instruction or what an institution or nation will gain
from a program.

Purpose or importance of objectives

 It helps the teacher to stay in the confines of the lesson during the
course of teaching.

 They also guide the teacher to effectively plan and deliver instructions
as well as evaluation of students’ achievement.

 They guide learners, help him/her to focus and set priorities.

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  They are used to monitor the level of teaching and learning.

 They enable students to carryout self-assessment.

 They make teaching more meaningful and organized.

How to state the objectives

There are some criteria to follow when stating objective as below.

 The objective should be stated in measureable terms. Use active verbs

such as name, list, explain, relate, contrast and appraise.
 A lesson can have more than one objective, but do not aim at too many.
 The objective(s) must be stated in a way that shows what the desired
change in learner’s behaviour will be.
 The objective(s) must be achievable within one lesson, unless specific
for a double lesson.
 The objectives must be related to what the students will learn rather
than what the teacher will teach. This means that objectives should be
child centered.
A well stated objective

A well stated objective has the following components

 Performance statement. This indicates the specific task(s) the learners

will be able to execute (perform) or the behaviour the learners will be
able to exhibit.
 Condition statement. This reveals the circumstances or conditions
under which the performance statement (expected behaviour) will
occur. This is usually when the teaching and learning has been
completed.ie at the end of the lesson.
 Criterion statement. It indicates the level or extent of performance.
For example1

Pick out the performance, condition and criterion statements from the

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objective below.

After explicit teaching, at the end of the lesson, learners should be able to
draw and label the digestive system correctly.

Performance: Draw and label the digestive system.

Condition: By the end of the lesson.

Criterion: correctly.

Example 2

After attending this instructional exercise, at least 85% of the students will be
able to define the terms involved in pedagogy.

Performance: Define the terms involved in pedagogy.

Condition: After attending the instructional exercise.

Criterion: At least 85% of the students.

BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
Scholars in the 1950s proposed various formats for classifying educational
objectives. In 1956, an American psychologist Benjamin Bloom came up with
the most suitable classification of educational objectives, hence the
appellation; Bloom’s taxonomy.Bloom’s taxonomy is a way of classifying
objectives. According to this taxonomy educational objectives can be
classified into three domains of learning. These domains are: cognitive
(knowledge), affective (attitude), and psychomotor (physical skill). These
domains are divided into levels. When creating course objectives, you need to
be aware of the level you want students to perform a particular task(s).
Objectives for an introductory course maybe appropriately concentrated in
the lower levels while those for an upper level course will normally be
concentrated at the higher levels. However, since it is our mission not just to
pass information to our learners but also to encourage their critical thinking
and reasoning skills, we need to encourage higher order thinking from the
beginning through our objectives.

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 So without further sermonizing or detailing, here are the three domains
of learning, their complexities or hierarchical levels and examples of
educational activities or task that can be assigned at each level.

Cognitive domain
The cognitive domain deals with the mental processes. Here the
educational objectives are expressed in terms of knowledge and mental
processes. (Cognitive objectives vary from simple recall or remembering of
learned material to the creation of new ideas). This domain comprises of six
levels arranged in hierarchical order from the simplest to the most complex.

 Knowledge
This level tests the learner’s ability to recall previously learned material. It
refers to simple remembrance of facts, concepts, theories or principles. Here
a learner is expected to reproduce information exactly as it is presented in a
textbook or from a classroom lesson (lecture).questions asked at this level
simply expect learners to define, list, identify, name, label, select etc.

 Comprehension
This is the ability to grasp the meaning of material. At this level, the learner is
expected to translate facts, to interpret a problem and state it in his/her own
words and to extrapolate or make predictions based on the understanding of
the material. Questions asked at this level expect the learner to explain,
estimate, give examples, interpret etc.

 Application

This is the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations.
Application expects a learner to use abstractions (general ideas) to apply
concepts, laws, rules and theories to solve real life situations. Verbs used at
this level include; organize, solve, relate, etc.

 Analysis

The ability to break down material into its component parts so that its
organizational structure can be understood. Analysis requires the learner to

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break down information into its component parts in order to view the
relationship among the parts, recognize the effects and understand the
meaning of the information. The following are some verbs used at this level;
identify, differentiate, compare, contrast, etc.

 Synthesis

This is the ability to combine elements or parts to form a completely new

idea, procedure, or object. It is the reverse or opposite of analysis and
expects the learner to assemble or put parts together, to form a whole with
emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure. This level also expects the
learner to be creative and original in his thinking ability. Verbs used at this
level expect the learner to; combine, compile, create, etc.

 Evaluation

This is the highest level in the cognitive domain of Bloom’s taxonomy. It is

the ability to make qualitative and quantitative judgment on the value of
something. This level requires the learner to make judgments about the value
of ideas or material. It comprises of all the other levels of the cognitive
domain. Verbs used here are; summarize, decide, evaluate, appraise, justify,
criticize etc.

The various levels above can be easily remembered by the use of the
acronym; “KCAASE”

For quick review, the cognitive domain is summarized in the table below.

Table 1.1: Summary of the cognitive domain

Level Definition Sample Verbs used
Knowledge Recall and remember Define, describe, identify,
information know, label, list, match,
name, outline, recall,
recognize, reproduce,
select, state, memorize, tell,
and repeat.
Comprehension Understand the meaning, convert, extend, generalize,
state a problem in one’s estimate, explain, give
own words examples, interpret,
paraphrase, translate,

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 21

 characterize
Application Use a concept in a new Apply, change, compute,
situation, Applies what was demonstrate, discover,
learned in the classroom operate, predict, prepare,
into novel situation, produce, relate, solve, use,
Facilitate transfer of synthesize, experiment,
knowledge to new or practice, exercise, organize.
unique situation
Analysis Separate material or analyze, break down,
concepts into component compare, contrast,
parts so that its differentiate, discriminate,
organizational structure distinguish, illustrate, infer,
may be understood, outline, relate, select,
Distinguishes between separate, investigate,
facts and make inferences. discover, determine,
observe
Synthesis Build a structure or pattern Categories, combine,
from diverse elements. compile, compose, create,
Puts parts together to form devise, design, generate,
a whole, with emphasis on organize, plan, rearrange,
creating a new meaning or reconstruct, reorganize,
structure. Entails originality synthesize, conceive,
and creativity. conclude, invent, theorize,
construct.
Evaluation Make judgment about the Appraise, complete,
value of ideas or materials. conclude, contrast, criticize,
critique, defend, describe,
discriminate, evaluate,
explain, interpret, justify,
summarize, support,
calculate, estimate, consult,
judge, measure, discuss,
value,

The effective domain

This domain tackles the attitudes, feelings, interests and emotions of the
learners. A student’s behaviour towards a particular subject or teacher can be
accounted for in this domain, hence teachers can exploit this domain to tailor
the learner’s attitude. This level comprises of five levels that run hierarchically
from the lowest to the highest.

Receiving

This deals with the learner’s willingness to be sensitive to a given stimulus.

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 22

Stimulus here could be a problem, event, condition etc. Receiving requires a
learner’s awareness and willingness to be sensitive to selected attention.
This definition reveals that receiving can be sub divided into three levels:
awareness, willingness and selected attention.

Responding

This aspect expects active participation on the side of the learner. Here the
learner is not only expected to be willing to learn but also to contribute to the
teaching learning process. There are some learning outcomes that may
require or emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond and
satisfaction in responding (motivation). From the above sentence this level
can be split into three sub levels;

 Compliance
 Willingness and
 Satisfaction
Valuing

This refers to the worth or value a learner attaches to a particular

phenomenon, behaviour or learning situation. It ranges from simple
acceptance to more complex state of commitment. Like receiving and
responding, valuing is also divided into three sub levels;

 Acceptance of value
 Preference for the value
 Commitment to the value
Organization

Here the learner is expected to assemble values into priorities by comparing

different values and resolving conflicts between them in order to create a
unique value system. It comprises of two sublevels.

 Conceptualization of the value

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  Organization of value
Value complex

This is the act of making a value or feeling part of the way you think and
behave. At this level, the learner has developed a value system that controls
his/her behaviour. This level too comprises of two sublevels.

 Generalization sets and

 Characterization
The affective domain is summarized on the table below.

Table 1.2: Summary f the affective domain

Level Definition Sample verbs

Receiving Awareness, willingness to choose, describe, follow,
hear selected attention give, hold, identify, locate,
point to, select, reply, use
Responding Active participation on the part Answer, assist, confirm,
of the learner. Attends and greet, perform, present,
reacts to a particular read, recite, report, tell,
phenomenon. and write.
Valuing The worth or value a person Demonstrate,
attaches to a particular object, differentiate, explain,
phenomenon or behaviour. follow, form, initiate,
This ranges from simple invite, justify, propose,
acceptance to more complex read, report, select, and
state of commitment. share.
Organization Organizes values into Adhere, alter, arrange,
priorities by contrasting combine, compare,
different values, and creating a defend, explain, formulate,
unique value system. The generalize, integrate,
emphasis is on comparing, order, organize,
relating, and synthesizing synthesize, rank.
values.
Internalizing Have a value system that Act, display, influence,

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 values controls their behaviour. The modify, perform, practice,
behaviour is pervasive, propose, qualify, question,
consistent, predictable, and revise, serve, solve, verify.
most importantly
characteristic of the learner.

The psychomotor domain

Psychomotor objectives are those specific to physical functions and reflex
(involuntary) actions. Traditionally, these types of objectives are concerned
with the physical encoding of information with movements or activities
involving the muscles, parts of the body or the whole body. This domain can
simply be seen as those involving kinesthetic activities. This domain
comprises of six levels ranked from simple to complex.

Reflex movement

Objectives at this level focus on those actions or movements that are

involuntary. These actions or movements are either present at birth or
immerge through maturation. They include; blinking of the eye, sneezing etc.

Fundamental movements

Objectives here refer to those basic skills, movements or behaviour which is

voluntary. They include, walking, jumping, pushing, pulling and manipulating
with objects.

Perceptional ability

Objectives in this area relate to the coordination ability of the learner. Here
the learner is expected to be in touch with his/her five senses. That is the use
of senses to distinguish information from the environment.

Physical ability

Objectives at this level should be related to skills such as; endurance,

flexibility agility, strength dancing and dexterity.

Skilled movements

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Objectives here relateto skills and movements involving creativity such as
sporting, performances, art etc.

Non discursive communication

This is the highest level in the psychomotor domain. Objectives in this level
refer to expressive movements through posture, gesture, facial expression
and creative movements. It also entails the ability to communicate meaning
without the aid of verbal commands.

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 26

 WEEK FOUR CHAPTER FOUR

GROUPING FOR INSTRUCTIONS

In the mid 1800s, the revolutionary idea of mass public education created the
need for an efficient and economical way of grouping this large number of
learners. This led to the adoption of two major ways of grouping learning,
vertical and horizontal organization.

Vertical organization

This refers to the classification of learners into different levels or different

curriculum complexities from their year of admission till the year of
graduation. There are two approaches involved; the graded and the non
graded approaches.

 Graded approach
In this approach,learners are placed into various levels based on their
ages and are expected to move a level ahead at the end of each school
year based on their academic performance or mastery of the curriculum.
Those who fail to meet a certain level of performance are bound to
repeat the level, even though this is recently criticized in favour of
collective promotion. The collective promotion approach to education
assumes that students who are of the same age are basically at the
same cognitive development or abilities and that if taught in the same
way, they will all progress at the same rate. Research findings do not
really support this assumption. Cameroon’s basic and secondary
education follows the graded approach of education.

 Non graded approach

Here, levels and grades are not involved. The learners are put into
classrooms without considering their academic strengths. Based on
individual abilities, the learners move from easier to more difficult
materials at their own pace, making continuous progress rather than
being promoted once every year. In other words, learners spend
different durations of time depending on their ability of understanding

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 27

 concepts. Each learner is assigned or allocated task depending on how
much he/she can tackle at a particular time. Here, no learner is
expected to repeat a class but may spend more time to master
instructions compared to others. For example, the curriculum for the
bachelor’s degree level in the faculty of education is programmed for
three years. Students, who are capable of grasping the concepts or
tasks at the required rate, put in three years while those who cannot
meet up spend more than three years.

Horizontal organization

This method of grouping learners focuses on their cognitive abilities. Like the
vertical organization, it has two major approaches; the ability and mixed
ability groupings.

 Ability grouping
In this approach, learners are put into classroom based on their
achievements levels. For example, a secondary school may decide
admit students passed in list “A” into form one A and those passed in
list “B” into form one B. Each of these groups (A and B) is known as a
stream. It should be noted that learners are fitted into any given stream
according to the intelligence quotient (IQ). That is the more capable
students are separated from the less capable ones. Ability grouping is
also known as homogenous grouping.

Advantages

 The teacher can easily focus instructions at the level of all students in
the group, hence, time is efficiently utilized as bright students do not
wait for elementary explanations to be given to the slow learners and
slow learners too are not troubled with instructions that are above their
understanding. In other words, the teacher can best tailor the pace and
content of instruction to students abilities and needs.
 Slow learners are given the chance to learn at their own pace
 Slow learners gain from more remediation, repetition and reviews from
the teacher.
UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 28
  Fast learners are not dragged behind by their slow peers as in mixed
ability settings.
Disadvantages

 Slow learners can be exposed to a weaker curriculum in the course of

adjusting learning to their ability and pace. This continues to widen the
gap of achievement between them and their bright peers.
 Slow learners can be stigmatized being considered as weaker students.
 Fast learners can become too pompous as a result of competition
amongst themselves.
 Slow learners are stigmatized when separated from the fast learners.
 Neglect inclusive education


Mixed ability grouping

In this approach, learners are put into classrooms without considering their
cognitive abilities. That is, both bright learners and weaker ones are placed in
the same class. A class may still be divided into streams but it does not
mean that those in A are brighter than those in B and C. The letters A, B and
C are just to identify the groups or streams of that form or class.

Advantages

 Bright students assist their weak peers in learning.

 Less able students are not stigmatized as is the case in ability grouping.
 Teachers’ expectations for all learners are maintained at higher levels.
Disadvantages

 Bright learners are dragged behind by their slow peers.

 Bright learners maybe bored as a result of learning elementary material
or things they already know.

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  Slow learners may be frustrated with materials above their
understanding in the case where the teacher is struggling to meet the
needs of the fast learners.

Students with special needs

As a teacher it is inevitable working with special needs students in your
classroom. But as a professional you have to accommodate and cater for
such needs by modifying, adopting and devising new strategies. Special
needs students can be;

 Slow learners
 Gifted learners
 Of poor auditory memory
 Visually impaired
 Easily confused
 Handicapped
 Poor hand writing skills etc.
Teaching these individuals (special needs students), presents some unique
challenges. Not only will this demand more of your time and patience, so too,
will they require specialized instructional strategies and might be in a
structured environment that supports and enhances their learning potentials.
This provides an opportunity for all the learners to benefit from the lessons
(inclusive learning).

Allocating teachers for teaching

Not only students are grouped, there are ways too of assigning teachers to
teach based on the available resources, qualification and other factors. Let’s
look at a few ways of assigning teachers for teaching.

Self-contained classroom

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A self-contain classroom operates on the assumption that an elementary
school teacher is “a jack of all trades” and is capable of teaching all areas of
the curriculum effectively. Here a single teacher is assigned to a class and
he/she is responsible for teaching all the subjects recommended for that
class for the whole year. This kind of arrangement is only successful at the
elementary level (nursery and primary schools).

Advantages

 The length of time spent with the learners enables the teacher to
understand the learners individually and address their needs to a higher
extent.
 Learners become adapted to teacher’s strategies, methods and
techniques of teaching as well as other supportive personal traits that
promote their learning.
 Students gain more confidence in expressing themselves and relating
to others when working with a particular teacher for a long time.
Disadvantages

 Teaching many subjects reduces the general efficiency of the teacher

as effort, time and talents are spread over a wide range of subjects.
 It reduces teachers’ interaction with other staff members.
 Evaluating learners here is more tedious since many subjects are
evaluated by a single class teacher.
 When students become too used to a teacher, they also become too
relaxed in obeying his/her rules. Eg some deliberately refuse to do their
home work saying ‘‘we know our teacher very well, he doesn’t punish
us.’’
Semi-departmentalization

In this arrangement, a single teacher is assigned to teach most of the

subjects in a particular class while other teachers come in from time to time
to teach some special subjects. For instance, let us take class two in a

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primary school, a class teacher may be assigned all the subjects taught in
class two, while other teachers come in to teach only special subjects like
drawing, drama and music.

Departmentalization

In this arrangement, each teacher teaches only one or two subjects which
he/she is specialized in. That is students receive daily instructions from
several teachers because each teacher specializes in a single subject. This
arrangement is common in almost all secondary schools and high schools.
This method is adopted because the instructional content of each subject in
the secondary and high schools require teachers who are experts in the area
for their effective implementation. In departmentalization, teachers either
move from class to class to teach students or students move from class to
class to meet various subject specialists.

Advantages

 There is greater efficiency as teachers are specialized in only or two

subjects.
 Teachers interact and benefit from their colleagues.
 Evaluation is less demanding as a teacher gets to evaluate only one or
two subjects.
 Students enjoy outstanding and quality lessons plus a variety of
approaches from different specialists.
Disadvantages

 A closerelationship between teachers and learners that can completely

expose their individual needs is hardly achieved.
 Student who change teachers for each period of the day will not relate
to any of them as strongly as when only one teacher is in their
classroom as in the primary and nursery schools.
 Transition from one class to another leads to loss of instructional time.

Team teaching
UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 32
 This is a “division of labour” kind of arrangement where two or more
teachers who are specialized in different areas of the curriculum combine
their skills to teach a single class or classes of pupils. In some of our nursery
and primary schools today, you can find two or even three teachers assigned
to a single class. In this case, a teacher who is good in languages can teach
subjects like English, French, drama,etcwhile the teacher who is good with
figure can teach mathematics etc.

WEEK FIVE CHAPTER FIVE

COMMUNICATION IN THE CLASSROOM

Introduction
Communication is the process of passing information or transmitting
one’s meaning to others. It is of prime importance in the classroom. No
matter how well a lesson is planned, its implementation depends greatly on a

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 33

good communication scheme. Communication can either be verbal or non
verbal.

Verbal communication
This type of communication involves spoken words. It is simply the act of
talking and may involve encoding and decoding massages. Verbal
communication result to verbal learning and vocal learning.
Verbal learning
This is the acquisition and retention of verbal information. It can also be
simply seen as what a learner learns in the course of a discussion.
Verbal learning depends on the learner’s auditory skills and attention
accorded to the words. Verbal learning improves reasoning, expression
and language creativity.
Vocal learning
This focuses on the teacher’s manipulation of his/her voice or
modification of his sounds. The loudness, pitch and tone of a teacher’s
voice may not only boost students’ attention but also reveals the degree
of importance of what is being communicates.

Non verbal communication

This is communication that does not involve speech or spoken words. It
is more important because it conveys more information. Whether
planned or accidental, non verbal communication can greatly improve
understanding in the classroom.
Types of non verbal communication

There exist wide ranges of non verbal communication that if well mastered,
can improve the effectiveness of classroom interactions for a positive
outcome. Some of these are:

1. Facial language: This is the movement of the facial muscles either

voluntarily or involuntarily to express emotions. These expressions give

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 34

 strong clues to the true emotional state of the person. Facial language
can include; stretching of the mouth to one side of the jaw indicating
dissatisfaction, a smile to indicate satisfaction, a frown to indicate
frustration, lifting of the eyebrows to indicate surprise, using eye
contact to indicate confidence and authority, wrinkling of the fore head
to indicate deep thoughts doubts etc. many students communicate
their doubts to the teacher through facial language hence teachers
should adapt the habit of glancing at individual students during lesson.
Class control can equally be achieved by the use of facial language for
instance a deep stare gets a student to order.
2. Body language: Body movements can be used to reinforce or emphasis
what a person is saying and also offer information about the emotions
and attitude of the person. Body language include: gestures, posture
and touch.
i. Gestures: A gesture is a movement made with hands, head or face
to show a particular meaning. Examples of gestures include:
- The movement of the hands to illustrate what is being said.
- Nodding of the head for acceptance or turning it from side to side
for denial.
- Biting of finger nails when nervous. etc
ii. Posture: Posture can reflect people’s emotions, attitudes and
intentions. Posture can either be open or close. With open posture, a
person is relaxed with hands not folded, body not tilted and not
leaning on anything. Close posture is the opposite of open posture
and indicate; discomfort, disinterest and lack of confidence.
iii. Touch: Touch is used to express warmth and welcome. It is only
advisable at the basic level.
Body language is very important in the classroom but if over
exploited, it can instead distract learners.

3. Language of space and motion: this is concerned with class

arrangement and the space available for movement in the classroom. It
UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 35
 is also concerned with the teacher’s positioning in class. The
conventional position of the teacher’s table in the primary level is in
front of the class and at the corner to the right of the students. In order
to keep an eye on all the students, the teacher is expected to move
slowly from one end of the class to another. This increases the
proximity between the teacher and his learners. This practice is an
important technique of class control.
4. The language of time: In the teaching learning process, time is an
excellent indicator of the relative strength and importance of various
topics of a subject or areas of a curriculum. The amount of time a
teacher spend on a particular topic, tells the student the degree of
importance of the topic and equally the attention to be accorded to the
topic. Pause and silence time is an application of the language of time
in the classroom.
5. Para - language: Para-language involves all aspects of the voice which
are not strictly part of the verbal message. It include the tone and pitch
of the voice, the speed and volume (audibility) at which the message is
being delivered and the pause between words. These signals can serve
to indicate feelings about what is being said. For instance emphasizing
a particular word can imply whether feedback is required or not.

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 36

 WEEK SIX CHAPTER SIX

CURRICULUM PLANNING

Curriculum planning at the classroom refer to the process of developing ,

implementing and evaluating a program or a curriculum plans.
Below are some curriculum plans:

1. Syllabus
A syllabus is a subject or subject outline comprising a collection of subject
matters or topic and a series of statements of what is to be learned within a
given time frame. Syllabuses are designed by panels of specialists, experts
and teachers with experience in the subject. A number of consultations are
done before the final document is produced.

Some syllabuses are printed in the fairly general manner indicating only the
statements of what is to be learned. For example, a syllabus in geography will
comprise of weather, longitude and latitude, agriculture activities etc.
however; a well drawn up syllabus should consist of goals and objectives, the
content, teaching strategies and evaluation methods. Syllabus can be in the
form of the subjects or learning activities that take place during the course
of study.

E.g. a primary school syllabus will include all the subjects taught from class
one to class six. Syllabus can also be seen as all the topics or subject matter
taught in the course of study. E.g. the English syllabus for primary school or
the mathematics syllabus for form three. It should be however noted that in
Cameroon syllabuses are printed and prepared centrally at the ministerial
level then handed down to schools for implementation at this level school
and the individual teacher will have to do some planning before teaching. In
this case, they will be responsible for breaking down the syllabuses into
schemes of work, and further into the general and the individual lesson plan.
This stage is also known as lesson planning.

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 37

Scheme of work:
The scheme of work is a plan that teachers make on how they will
successfully accomplish their syllabuses by the end of the academic year.
Typically teachers break up the syllabus contents into the number of
weeks that make up the school year. Scheme of work are similar to the
course outline. The scheme of work is the breakdown of topics into
teachable units or lessons that are arrange in a sequential manner in order
to facilitate learning in a particular subject area. A scheme of work also
known as a course outline and is usually planned for weeks, a term, a
semester or a year. A scheme of work must give suggestion for allocation
of time for the teaching of a particular unit, or topic. It should also provide
a list of recommended test books to be used for the course. E.g. the
course outline page 86 manual.

One objective and unless these objectives are attained, the teacher cannot
say he/she has been successful. Objectives must be stated clearly. They
are effective guide to the teacher’s activities during the lesson. At the end
of the lesson the objectives will help the teacher determining the extent to
which the lesson has been successful.

Lesson plan
A lesson is a teaching learning interaction involving the teacher and learners. There
are two types of lesson plans, the general and the individual lesson plans.

Lesson plan help teachers to think carefully about what they are going to
teach, why they are teaching it and how they are going to teach what they are
teaching, how to motivate their pupils to learn and how to find out if teaching
has taken place. Planning helps teachers to be more effective. When
teachers plan their teaching become more secured and confident in what he
or she teaches. When teachers are confident in the classroom, students tend
to learn better. Planning is therefore necessary to ensure effective teacher-
pupils interaction in the classroom.

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 38

Reasons for planning
i) Planning ensures chronology so that teaching can be organized in a
logical manner i.e. From simple to complex, near to far, etc.

ii) Planning gives room for more research. During planning, sources
such as text books, internet etc are consulted. This ensures a better
understanding or mastery of the content to be delivered.

iii) Planning equally ensures an effective management of time since

teaching runs through stages and with objectives in mind, the time
frame must be respected so as to better achieve the set objectives.

iv) Planning enables the teacher to select the most effective teaching
aids from a myriad of others that are more suitable for the subject
matter.

v) Planning also boast the teacher’s confidence.

Types of lesson plans

There are two type of lesson lesson plans; the general/ unit or weekly lesson
plan and the daily or individual lesson plan.

General lesson plan/unit/topic/weekly

This is a curriculum guide that breaks down a topic or unit into teachable
lessons alongside the major or general objectives to be achieved within the topic
and runs for a week.

Daily lesson plan.

A daily lesson plan is a guide drawn up from the general lesson plan to
indicate the specific objectives that will be achieve within a given lesson. It is also
called an individual lesson plan and limited to just one lesson period.

Models of the individual lesson plan

So many models of the daily lesson plan exist. The teacher is required to choose
the model that best matches his professional experience, teaching strategy to be
used, type of lesson to be taught etc. some models include: slavin model, Hunters
model, common model, traditional model. The common model is the most used in

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 39

secondary school milieu today.

Component of a daily lesson plan

A common model lesson plan has the following components;

 Motivation
This is the act of gaining, regulating and sustaining student’s interest in a
lesson so as to illicit the desired behavior.

 Objectives
These are the things that the teacher intends his learners to achieve from the
lesson. The objectives of the day must be stated clearly to the students.

 Rationale
The teacher should provide reasons why he expect his learners to master
what they are about to learn. That is, why they are to master the objectives.

 Content/subject matter

This is the actual material that is expected to bring about the desired change
in learners behavior.

 Procedure
This has to do with the strategies methods and techniques employed to
transmit the content to the students.

 Materials
These are materials that facilitate teaching and learning.

 Testing
An assurance whether objectives have been achieved. This can be done

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 40

either through formative or summative evaluation.

 Enrichment and remediation

This entails re-teaching the whole or part of the lesson to ensure an inclusive
understanding by all students.

Preamble
This is the introductory part of a lesson plan that presents information
regarding the school, subject, topic, lesson title, previous knowledge, objectives etc.
Generally, a lesson plan (daily lesson plan) is divided into three stages; introduction
or planning, implementation or presentation and evaluation.

Summary of chapter

Table 1.3: summary for chapter six.

Instructional package Developer Goals to achieve

Curriculum Developed at the National goals
ministerial level
(ministry of basic
education etc)
Syllabus Developed by Proximate goals
specialized bodies such
as the GCE board
Scheme of work Developed at the Mediate goals
delegation
General lesson plan Developed or drawn by General objectives
the head teacher
Daily/individual lesson Drawn by individual Specific objectives
plan teachers

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 41

 WEEK SEVEN CHAPTER SEVEN

TEACHING STRATEGIES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION

Teachers help students understand facts and concepts and go beyond the
knowledge level to higher levels of thinking. They help them to apply, analyze,
synthesize, create new ideas as well as solve problems. As teachers, it is our
job to recognize our challenge to go beyond knowledge and achieve effective
teaching. We need to apply strategies, analyze and adopt what works for us
as individuals and teams of teachers.

TEACHING STRATAGIES
Helping students learn is our main challenge as teachers. Identifying
effective teaching strategies therefore should be of concern as we both
assess the effectiveness of our current strategies and consider innovative
ways to improve our teaching to match our students’ learning styles.

Teaching strategies are the ways teachers generally behave when

interacting with students. In this study, we shall focus on the following
teaching strategies:

 Direst teaching
 Indirect teaching
 Interactive teaching
 Experiential learning and
 Independent study
a. Direct Teaching: This is a teaching practice where by the teacher present

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 42

 his lesson with little or limited contribution from the students. It is mostly
applied in situation where the teacher’s skills are low and where teaching
materials are scarce. In direct teaching, students play a very passive role.
It might be aimed at helping students acquire procedural knowledge
exercised in the performance of some task. It can be done inductively or
deductively.
Advantages

 Direct teaching is best for teaching specific concepts and skills.

 The specificity of the objectives or learning targets also makes it easier
for teachers to create assessment test of high validity and reliability.
 It helps in teaching material that is logically organized and can be
taught in a step-by-step manner.
 Students on their own part do not suffer much confusion in determining
which part of the lesson is most important and which part is not.
 Learning objectives are easily attained.
Disadvantages

 Direct teaching can hinder the teacher’s creativity since there is very
little room for improvising.
 If utilized by an unprepared teacher, direct teaching can be disastrous
since its content is logically organized.
 It is not suitable for developing higher order thinking skills in the
students.

b. Indirect teaching: This is a teaching strategy that provides a lot of

interaction opportunities for the learners. It is learner centered and
features teaching methods and techniques like dramatization, laboratory
method, inquiry and discovery learning. Indirect teaching can be used to
develop higher order thinking skills (problem solving skills and discovery)
in learners. Here the teacher is seen as a facilitator who only guides
UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 43
 learners to develop potentials.
Advantages

 It provides room for creativity and improvising on the part of the

teacher since the content is flexible.
 It is highly suitable for developing higher order thinking skills in learners.
 It makes learning meaningful to the learners since they are actively
involved in lessons.
Disadvantages

 It is not suitable for teaching material that is logically arranged.

 The teacher does not have full control of the learning process
 It is time consuming
 It makes the teacher lazy.
c. Interactive teaching: In this approach, the classroom environment is an
interactive one with less teacher talk and more student talk. Students
are given the opportunity to interact with the teacher as well as other
students. This is achieved through discussions where the students are
expected to construct knowledge and meaning out of what they have
been taught by connecting them to prior learning or experience.
Advantages

 Develops group or team spirit in the learners.

 Develops critical and creative thinking skills in the learners.
 Leads to the development of communication and leadership skills in
the learners.
Disadvantages

 Not suitable for presenting well structured material that is expected to

be delivered in a step-by-step manner.

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  It is time demanding.
d. Experiential learning
Experiential learning emphasizes the role of hands-on and personal
experience in constructing knowledge. It is inductive, learner centered and
activity oriented. Experiential learning methods are particular useful for
skill development because they provide learners with an opportunity to
practice their skills and reflect on the experience. It is based on the
assumptions that:

i. Learners learn best when they are personally involved in the learning
experience
ii. When learners discover knowledge by themselves, it is more
meaningful to them.
iii. Learners are more committed to learning when they are free to set
their own learning goals and pursue them within a set frame work
(Tambo, 2012)
In experiential learning the learner uses his personal experience to come
out with concepts and generalizations that can be tested in new situation.
The role of the educator is to design "direct experiences" that include
preparatory and reflective exercises.

Advantages

 Material can easily be understood and retained

 It boosts learners’ interest as they actively participate and discuss their
work with one another.
 It is an ideal strategy in the case where “hands-on” experience is
needed before the use of teaching methods.
Disadvantages

 Situations that provide “hands-on” experiences are limited.

 It demands a lot of time and financial resources.

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 e. Independent study: The purpose of the school is not only to impart
knowledge, skills and attitudes unto learners but also to prepare them
for a continuous but self determined learning after graduating from
school. This means that independent study prepares learners to set and
achieve their own learning objectives. It provides students with
opportunities to explore their interests deeper and make important
decisions about how and where they will direct their talents in the future.
Independent study may be initiated by the student or the teacher. The
students might work in groups or as individuals. In independent study,
the teacher may only come in to assess students’ progress. It is
important because it develops curiosity in the learners allowing them to
study at a pace that matches their abilities. Examples of independent
studies include project writing and distance education.
Advantages

 Since students find solutions to problems on their own, the skills and
knowledge acquired are easily retained.
 Enhances students’ rate of learning, adaptability and self – reliance.
 Gives students the opportunity for a self-disciplined approach of
problem solving and improves their confidence.

Disadvantages

 Not suitable for elementary level students and complex subjects that
need detailed explanations.
 May require self – motivation for the study to be effective.
 Needs efficient planning and monitoring from the teacher.
 May be disconnected from immediate objectives

 May be difficult to identify/access appropriate materials

 Computer-based materials are time-consuming and expensive to

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 develop and may lack complexity needed for more advanced learners

TEACHING METHODS
A teaching method is a series of activities performed by a teacher and
students to achieve the objectives of the lesson. It can also be seen as a
standard procedure for presenting subject matter and organizing student-
teacher interaction during a lesson. Any given lesson determines the type or
choice of teaching method to adopt. The preference for any method depends
on the extent to which it favours the attainment of the stated objectives.
Below are some of the methods to be examined:

 Explicit teaching
 Recitation
 Drill and practice
 Pure lecture
 Lecture – demonstration
 Lecture – illustration
 Discussion
 Laboratory
 Dramatization and role play
 Cooperative learning

Explicit teaching
This is a teacher centered method of teaching and involves the step-by-
step delivery of a lesson with active participation of all the students. This
method is suitable for teaching specific skills, mathematical concepts
and introducing new topics. Explicit teaching is good for a body of
knowledge that requires a step-by-step understanding e.g. mathematical
concepts and grammar.

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Advantages

 Learners are taught well organized material

 It helps in developing cognitive abilities.

Disadvantages

 Learners are almost passive

 It consumers time.

Recitation
In this method the teacher appoints individual students to answer
questions, read intend or give answers to home work and other
assignments (Tambo, 2012). It is learner centered and used to review a
lesson in order to introduce a new one. It can also be used to find out if
homework was done or well done. The success of this method highly
depends on the questioning skills of the teacher.
Advantages

 Students review previous knowledge

 It improves the communication skills and boosts self confidence in the
students.
 Provides feedback on learners’ progress.

Disadvantages

 It may encourage rote learning.

 Shy (timid) students are not favoured by this method.

Drill and Practice

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 The old adage that “practice makes perfect” is also true in teaching. Drill is
an intensive repetition and paced review of ideas for a quick recall.
Practice is the use of an idea to do something or to gain expertise. This
method can be used to help students cement (retain) newly learnt skills
but if over used, students will only be enriching their knowledge store
without understanding the material learnt.
Advantages

 Students connect deep with their information (insight) through practice

 Improves memorizing skills
 It gives students the opportunity to learn certain concepts (basic skills)
quickly and effectively.

Disadvantages

 Drilled material must relate practice. That is the must be a clear link
between the material that has been learned (drilled) and the practice to
be performed.
 It promotes rote learning
 It is not suitable for teaching more abstract concepts.

Pure lecture method

A lecture is an oral presentation of information on a particular fact, concept
or topic to an audience. This is a teacher centered method of teaching and
involves the teacher exposing subject matter to students. It can also be seen
as a discourse in which a teacher presents a series of events, facts and
principles to students. The students are not expected to ask questions during
the lecture.

Advantage

 It is convenient for a large group

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  Saves time
 They are useful supplements for other teaching methods.
 Facts, ideas and principles that have been logically organized can be
concisely presented.
 Suitable for introducing new topics and for explain the necessary
background information.
Disadvantages

 Inhibits students’ participation

 It does not lead to the attainment of certain learning outcomes. For
instance it is difficult to learn motor skills by listening to a lecture.
 The method does not easily permit the teacher to estimate students’
understanding as the material is being covered.
 It is difficult for the instructor to hold the attention of all the students
throughout the lecture period.
Lecture Demonstration method
In this method the teacher does something or manipulates a concrete
material in the presence of the learner’s in order to support his lesson or to
illustrate a principle. It is a teacher centered method of teaching and
suitable for teaching occupational skills. In order to carry out a successful
demonstration, the teacher must rehearse the presentation in advance of
the lesson.
Advantages

 It can support a large group size

 It saves time
 It minimizes damage and waste of material since the teacher carry out
the demonstration himself and may only appoint one or two students to
practice on behalf of the entire class

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  It can be useful in teaching safety rules.
Disadvantages

 Requires careful preparation and rehearsals

 Requires special classroom management.

Lecture illustration
In this method, the teacher uses graphic materials such as pictures, charts,
diagrams, graphs, film slides etc to illustrate or explain relationships or
facts, principles and ideas. The main difference between a lecture
demonstration and lecture illustration is that while in a lecture
demonstration the teacher uses a concrete material such as a book,
pineapple, pot, shoe etc to demonstrate his lesson, in a lecture illustration,
he uses a graphic material such as charts, diagrams, etc to illustrate his
lesson.

Advantages

 It can support a large class size

 It saves time

 It boosts students’ imagination since it enables them to visualize the

lesson as a result of the illustration.

Disadvantages

 Learners are not actively involved in the lesson.

Discussion Method

A discussion is a two-way communication between a teacher and

his/her students. It involves the sharing of ideas between the students and
the teacher and amongst the students themselves. It is a learner centered
approach and suitable for teaching almost all subjects. A discussion method
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of teaching can take the form of a debate, panels, buzz sessions, forum and
whole-class discussion.

Advantages

 Provides students with the opportunity to practice their oral

communication skills.
 It enables students practice in critical and evaluative thinking and
listening
 Utilizes students’ knowledge and experience
 Results in a more permanent learning because of the high degree of
students’ participation.
Disadvantages

 It consumes time, limiting the amount of content covered.

 It may give opportunities for the brighter students to show up.
 It is difficult to achieve maximum interaction when the group size or
class is large.

The Laboratory Method

This refers to a set of first hand learning activities where in the students
under the guidance of the teacher investigate some aspects of a topic in
order to make such aspects clear to themselves. It is learner centered and
often geared towards problem solving or answering a question. The teacher
is expected to carefully guide the students on how to handle tools or
equipments and process data more objectively. He also explains the entire
activity and gives enough time for students to carry out the experiment while
he goes round to ensure that the steps are carefully followed.

Advantages

 Students do not easily forget what is learnt.

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  The method demystifies science concepts
 It increases students interest in science
 It fosters co-operation among students.
Disadvantages

 It is time consuming
 Breakages and damage of equipments can occur
 It involves the liberal use of equipments and materials that may be
costly.
 Students may sustain injuries in the course of the experiment.
 The method is only suitable for science subjects

Dramatization and Role-Play

Dramatization is a method where learners seek to make a life situation

clear to themselves or an audience by assuming the roles of real or imaginary
people related to the situation. The method is based on some prepared
scripts which are memorized and rehearsed by the learners.

Role-play is similar to dramatization but for the fact that prepared

scripts are not used. The learners improvise their own words that suit their
roles.

Advantages

 It increases the participants’ self confidence

 It gives learners the opportunity to understand and feel empathy for
others viewpoints.
 Promotes creativity in learners.
Disadvantages

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  Its success depends on the willingness of the learners to take active
parts.
 Some learners may hesitate to assume certain roles if their objectives
are not well explained to them.
 It is time consuming
Cooperative learning Method

It involves three or more students working collaboratively

inheterogeneous (mixed-ability) groups to complete a task or project. In this
setting, students learn from the teacher, one another and the environment
around them evaluating one another’s ideas. The method is based on five
principles;

i) Positive interdependence
ii) Mixed – ability (heterogeneous) group
iii) Individual and group responsibility
iv) Purposeful talk or promotive interaction
v) Social skills, that is, interpersonal and group skills.
Advantages

 It has the potential to produce a level of engagement that other forms

of methods cannot.
 Students may explain certain things to one another better than a
teacher to a class.
 Questions are more likely to be asked and answered when students
interact amongst themselves.
 Team spirit is developed as students learn that they cannot succeed
except everyone in the group succeeds.
 Lower ability students benefit from their higher ability counterparts in
the group.

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 
Disadvantages

 Studies have proven that in a mixed ability group, low ability students
become passive and only focus less on the task.
 The success of the method depends mainly on students’ motivation
and interest on the subject or task.
 It is time consuming
 It is difficult for the teacher to manage all the groups at the same time,
hence students can easily engage in off topic discussions.

TEACHING TECHNIQUES

They are specific or particular ways of teaching meant to bring about specific
learning outcomes. They can also refer to the personal art or style use by the
teacher in carrying out the procedures of teaching. Teachers use teaching
techniques based on their specific styles, subject matter or characteristics of
the learners.

These techniques are:

Inductive Teaching
This is a method of reasoning that proceeds from a specific
observation to general conclusion(s). That is teaching in which inference is
made from a specific case to a general one. In this technique of teaching, the
teacher presents so many examples from which students are expected to
come out with a general conclusion. For example in teaching verbs, the
teacher might decide to present many sentences containing verbs from
which students are expected to induct (reason out) the meaning of the verb

Advantages

 It enhances critical thinking and self – reliance in learners.

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  Learners are more active in this learning process.
Disadvantages

 The approach is time consuming since the teacher must fully lead
learners to have the appropriate concept of the rule.

Deductive teaching
This is the complete reverse of inductive teaching. Deductive teaching
is carried out from a general rule to specific observation. Instead of
presenting examples of verbs and students bringing out the meaning of a
verb as in the example of inductive teaching, in deductive teaching, the
teacher instead defines a verb and asks students to provide examples of
sentences containing verbs.

Advantages

 It is time saving since it goes straight to the point

 A number of practice examples are immediately given by the students.
Disadvantages

 It lead to rote learning

 It does not develop inferential thinking skills.

Inquiry teaching
This is a problem solving approach where the teacher teaches specific
matter (facts, concepts, principles, laws) within the context of a problem. In
this teaching approach, students are required to solve problems through
direct experiences provided by the teacher. The approach develops thinking
skills in the learners. In planning the task(s), it must be kept in mind that
problems relevant to the students provide a better chance for successful
work. The method comprises of four steps.

 Generating hypothesis or tentative solutions to the problem

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  Gathering information relevant to the study
 Evaluating the data and,
 Reaching conclusion.
The success of these techniques of teaching also depends on teacher’s
questing skills.

Mastery learning

In this teaching technique, the entire class is made to practice a

particular subject, task, activity or unit until at least 80% of it is mastered. For
the class to proceed to the next unit or topic, they must master at least 80%
of the current unit being taught. Therefore, more than one formative test may
be necessary to assure that such a standard has been achieved. For the
teacher to easily reach the target, he/she must provide regular correctives
instructions that address individual difficulties.

The approach is based on the assumptions that;

1. Almost all learners have the ability to learn what is taught in school but
they differ in the time it takes to learn the material.
2. Virtually, all learners can learn what is taught if teaching is systematic,
they receive assistance when they encounter difficulties; they have
sufficient time to master the learning task and if there is a clearly stated
level of criterion of mastery.

Cognitive learning techniques

Teachers should not only focus on passing content unto the learners
but should take some time to teach these learners some learning techniques
that can facilitate the assimilation of this content. Some of these learning
techniques are examined below.

Rehearsal
This is the constant repetition of material in order to master it. There
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are two types:

i) Rote Rehearsal
This is use for learning simple material such as names and numbers
by frequently repeating it aloud until it is mastered or learned. This
information is stored in the short term memory where it can be
readily used.

ii) Complex Rehearsal

As the name sound, it is used in bulky or difficult concepts for
instance reading and making jottings, underlining keywords etc.

Elaboration
It is easier to remember something you are learning if it is associated
with what you already know. In elaboration, the teacher adds details,
uses examples, associating new ideas to what the learner already know.
It also involves giving notes, analogies and asking questions.

Organization
It involves the teacher helping the learners to organize materials in a
way that new concepts can easily be learnt and remembered. There are
many ways of achieving this;

i. Outlining: This is the act of summarizing what has been taught

ii. Mapping: Involves establishing/creating links between concepts
iii. Mnemonics: These are associations (that do not normally exist) that
are formed by learners to enable them remember information easily.
This can be in the form of a rhyme or chunking Acrostic
Metacognition
This refers to a learner’s awareness of his/her own thinking ability. It is
also the ability of a learner to understand, control and manipulate his
UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 58
 own cognitive process. A knowledge of one’s own thinking ability
enables you to select the learning techniques that suits your ability.

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 WEEK EIGHT CHAPTER EIGHT

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
One major challenge we have as teachers is often to create a friendly
environment in which teaching and learning can proceed in the most efficient
and effective way. Classroom management is a true test of a teacher’s
pedagogic skills. It refers to all those plans, decisions etc, made by the
teacher in order to create and maintains a conducive environment for
effective and efficient teaching and learning. Classroom management is
broader than discipline because it does not only involve controlling students’
but also teaching them how to manage their own behaviour. Effective
classroom managers often establish their classroom management strategies
right from the first day of encounter with their learners and often ensure that
students take part in making these decisions. There are several approaches
of classroom management, some of which are analyzed below.

The Authoritarian approach

In this approach, the teacher strictly controls learner’s behavior by setting up
specific rules and regulation and seeing into it that they are carefully followed.
This approach is achieved through five main strategies.

a. Making and enforcing rules

Here, the teacher and his students establish the “do’s” and the “don’ts”
of the class and then work hard to ensure that they are respected.

b. Giving directives
In this strategy, the teacher mainly uses verbal commands to control
the class. Some of such commands can be; stop looking outside, look
up etc.

c. Using soft reprimands

Soft reprimands are mild form of punishment or correction that the
teacher uses to control disruptive behavior. For instance the teacher
might ask a student who is not focused to stand up for two minutes or

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 change the students sitting position to the first bench where he/she
has no choice than to focus.

d. Using proximity control

By this strategy, the teacher addresses a disruptive behavior by moving
close to the student. The student immediately adjusts and focuses on
the lesson without others being disturbed.

e. Using isolation and exclusion

This strategy is scarcely applied and only used in extreme situations of
serious misbehaviors. Isolation describes a situation where the student
is asked to kneel in front of the class, pick a pin etc, while exclusion
means sending the student entirely out of the classroom.

The instructional management approach

This approach holds that if the teacher plans and deliver his lessons in a
captive manner, then classroom management will automatically take care of
itself. This can be achieved through eight strategies as follows.

a. Providing relevant and interesting content

For any content to be relevant, it must be planned sequentially, that is,
from simple to complex, near to far etc. in order to deliver lessons in an
interesting manner, the principles of teaching must be carefully
followed. When lessons are relevant and interesting, the unwanted
elements in students are suppressed.

b. Managing the flow of classroom activities

This has to do with the transition from one activity to the other.
Teachers should make sure that they move smoothly from one activity
to the other. That is teaching should be continuous because at any
given time that the students feel unoccupied, they will tend to occupy
themselves and the outcome of this can be well predicted.

c. Establishing classroom routines

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 It is very important as a teacher to let the students understand clearly
how you want certain things to always be done in class (routines) and
why they should be done that way. This should be done on the first day
in class. When students are aware of what they need to do at any given
time or situation, they can better manage their own behavior.

d. Giving clear directives

The strategy holds that the teacher needs to be clear in his directives.
The teacher should give directives that can be clearly understood by all
the learners, not those that each learner will understand in his/her own
way as this can spark argument and other forms of disruptive behavior
in class.

e. Boosting learners’ interest

Learners’ interest doesn’t come to stay. It dies down as the lesson
progresses. In order to boost learners’ interest, remind them constantly
about the learning objectives. You could both ask a student or the entire
class to stand and sit in order to draw their attention back on the lesson.

f. Providing hurdle help

Most students always disturb when they encounter a hurdle (difficulty)
in the course of the lesson. They either distract their friends in the
course of seeking for help or they deliberately give up on the lesson.
When the teacher identify and help these students out of their difficulty,
they tend to focus even more. Soa teacher always looks up for such
cases.

g. Planning for environmental changes

Some changes are bound to occur in the classroom and its
environment. Prepare the learners mentally so that these changes will
not compete with their attention for the lesson when they finally occur.
For instance might be a loud machine will be working nearby, fee drive
etc.

h. Planning the classroom environment

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 There are some classroom arrangements that cause students to
disturb while there are others that promote order and discipline in class.
For instance when students are tightly sited, with tall students in front
and short one behind and with no spaces between benches, it becomes
comes difficult for a student to go out or even stand without disturbing
the others. On the other hand, if the class is orderly arranged and
students well sited, they respect themselves and less energy is fueled
into classroom management.

The Behaviour Modification approach

This approach holds that all behavior can be learnt or unlearnt. This can be
achieved through the following basic principles:

a. Positive reinforcement
This is a strategy where by the teacher rewards a desirable behavior in
order to promote the reoccurrence of such a behavior in future. For
instance in a group exposé some members spoke very well and the
teacher decided to award them extra two marks each. You will discover
that in subsequent exposés these students will strive to expose even
better because of the positive reinforcement from the teacher. This
implies that positive reinforcement is a way of encouraging good
(deserved) behavior to occur again and again.

b. Punishment
Punishment refers to a penalty or sanction given to somebody as a
result of an undesirable behavior in order to cancel the reoccurrence of
such a behavior. In the classroom, punishment refers to any action (that
a student considers harsh) made by the teacher towards a student as a
result of his/her undesirable behavior. This discourages the
reoccurrence of such a behavior. For instance a student dresses poorly
for an exposé and the teacher decides to ban her from all class
exposés has applied punishment on the student.

c. Extinction

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 This is the removal of a reward inorder to moderate a behavior. It is
applied when a previously rewarded behavior becomes excessive or
has decreased. For instance in another exposé, the previously rewarded
students either were now showing up (excessive) or exposed less than
they did previously (decrease) and the teacher decided not to give any
additional mark (removal of reward).

d. Negative reinforcement
This is used to increase the occurrence of the expected behavior. For
instance the student who was banned from class exposés starts to
dress decently and the teacher readmitted her in class exposés.

WEEK NINE CHAPTER NINE

QUESTIONING
A question is a versatile tool in the classroom. The degree of interaction in
class greatly depends on the teacher’s questioning skills. Questioning is of
great importance in the teaching learning process.

Purpose of questioning

 Teachers ask questions to find out if previous knowledge can

successfully link learners to the new lesson
 To find out if learners are following up.
 Learners ask questions in order to clarify their doubts
UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 64
  To lay emphasis on important points or areas. Etc.
Levels of questioning

Questions are divided into two levels; narrow and broad questions.

Narrow questions
These are questions that have only specific answers. They test only the
knowledge and comprehension levels of bloom’s taxonomy. Narrow
questions are also called convergent (closed ended) questions. Example;

- What is the name of your HOD?

- What is the name of the highest mountain in West Africa?
- What is the colour of blood?
NB: The above questions have only one right answer.

Broad questions
Broad questions on the other hand have many true answers. They are open
ended (divergent). Example: What is the role of pedagogy in teaching?

Categories of questions

There exist four categories of questions:

Practical questions: These are narrow questions and require simple

recall of knowledge or information. Example: Which country won the
2015 African nations’ cup?
Empirical questions: They are also narrow questions but need
reflection or experience in answering them. Example: compare and
contrast the tropical climate and the temperate climate.
Productive questions: they can be reasoned in many ways hence have
many answers. Example, what will happen to the economy if the
unemployment rate is halved?
Evaluative questions: These are broad questions that expect students
to determine the worth of something.
UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 65
Types of questions
In the classroom, questions can fall under any of the three types of questions.

Focusing questions:These types of questions focus learners’ attention

on the lesson. They also help to review a lesson, check understanding
and boost students’ interest.
Prompting questions: These are guiding questions (clues) that assist
students to answer questions or to correct an answer. Examples of
prompting questions are given below.
Teacher: when did Pope Benedict XVI visit Cameroon?
Jennifer: Sir, I think it was in 2006
Teacher: That same year Obama was voted as the first black president
of America.
Jennifer: Sir, that was in 2009
Teacher: Correct

Probing questions
These are questions that require students to support or provide details
to their answer. It is a way of digging for more details from the learners.

Questioning Techniques
These are strategies that are used to improve the quality and quantity of
responses in the teaching learning process. There are:

a. Redirecting: This is a questioning strategy where the teacher asks a

question, a student answers it and the teacher forwards or redirects the
question to another student without commenting on the answer. This is
done to increase class participation and the quality and quantity of the
answer.
b. Wait Time: This is the time that the teacher allows for students to

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 reflect on the answer to the question before demanding for the
response. Studies have shown that an ideal wait time is between 3-5
seconds. Studies have also proven that:
- The average wait-time teachers allow after posing a question is only
one second.
- Students whom teachers perceive as slow learners are given very little
wait time, compared to those they consider more capable. That is
teachers are generally impatient with slow learners.
c. Halting time: this refers to breaks or pauses given during explanation to
enable students understand what have been said.
d. Listening and silent time: This is the time the teacher waits for a
student to finish answering a question without any interruption. The
teacher also gives some time after the answer for other students to
reason the answer.
e. Feedback: This is information that the teacher gives the students about
their performance. Feedback should be provided as quickly as possible
so as to keep the students motivated.

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 WEEK TEN CHAPTER TEN

Assessment and evaluation.

Assessment
Evaluation in the classroom starts with assessment. Assessment is
the process of developing, administering and making test and other
evaluation instruments. It can also be seen as the process of using
appropriate instruments to ascertain the degree to which an individual
possesses a particular characteristic. The results of assessment are express
in the form of numerical values. For instant, if a student scores a 5/10 or
7/10 or 10/10 in a test, then he has been assessed by the teacher.

Evaluation
Evaluation is the systematic collection and analysis of data needed to
make decision. It can also be seen as the process of determining the worth
or value of something according to definite criteria. It is defined as the
interpretation of marks or scores produced from the assessment process. It
involves making judgment about the performance of the learner or program
based on information obtained from the assessment process. Depending on
the scores obtained in a test or exams, judgment of the scores can be made
such as excellent, very good, average, poor etc. evaluation can also be seen
as conversion of test scores into grades. The Reasons for assessment

 It provide a summary of learning

 Provides information on learners’ progress that is the extent to which

learners are mastering skills that are being taught.

 Helps to find out specific strength and weaknesses in individual

learners

 It motivates learners for further learning.

 To identify areas for remedial instructions

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 68

Types of evaluation
They are basically three main types of evaluation; diagnostic, formative
and summative evaluation.

 Diagnostic evaluation.

This is an evaluation that is carried out before the introduction of a

program. At the micro level, diagnostic evaluation is usually administered
before instruction or before the onset of teaching, in other to assess the
learner’s prior knowledge for further learning. It is used to identify problem
areas before teaching begins. It is sometimes referred to as pre-assessment
because it is used to check the ability level of the learners in order to begin
instruction at the appropriate level. Also, it is used to classify learners into
their respective cognitive abilities. Diagnostic evaluation provides the teacher
with information on the knowledge, skills and attitudes that the learners
already have. It is usually the bases for remedial or special instructions.
Interview granted to students before admission into secondary schools is an
example of diagnostic evaluation. At the macro level, diagnostic evaluation
provides education planners with valuable information regarding the
appropriateness of the curriculum to be implemented. That is it provides the
planners with information on the strength and weaknesses of a program
before it is finally adopted.

 Formative evaluation

This is an evaluation that takes place during the course of a program

that is when teaching is ongoing. At the macro level, it can be defined as the
provision of information for the sake of facilitating decision making at
developmental stages of the curriculum. It is meant to give feedback that will
enable further improvement to be done before the final adoption of the
program. That is we focus on the curriculum plan with the view of
discovering the level of adequacy of various components of the curriculum.
At the micro or classroom level, formative evaluation is at the instructional
stand point. It is defined as a systematic process of determining the extent
to which learners are achieving the instructional objectives. Its purpose is to
ensure that both learners and teachers are constantly aware of the objectives

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 69

 to be achieved, and consequently the type of adjustments to be made. It has
a major of promoting learning. It can take the form of classroom questions,
assignment, continuous assessment (CA) etc.

 Summative evaluation.

Summative evaluation is that evaluation that is done at the end of a

program or at the end of a learning epistle. At the macro level, it provides
educational planners with valuable information on the general effectiveness
on the entire program after it has successfully developed. This forms the
bases for giving the final judgment of the usefulness of the program. At the
micro level, it is the evaluation that takes place at the end of a learning
epistle for example, end of semester examination, first school leaving
certificate examination, GCE O/A level etc.

Forms of Evaluation
Classroom evaluation can take any of the three forms; an oral test,
written test and a performance test.

 An oral test
With this test, assessment is done verbally. That is only verbal
responses are requiring from the learners. Eg an interview

 A written test
Here, learners’ responses are required to be written down. That is the
use of a pen and paper as the case may demand. Eg GCE O/A level etc.

 A performance test.
Here, the learners are expected to apply the acquired knowledge into
practical situations. This is aimed at finding out if learners can effectively
make use of the learnt theories in practical aspects e.g teaching practice

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 70

Characteristics of evaluation instruments
 Validity

This is the extent to which an evaluation instrument measures what it

is designed to measure.

 Reliability

This is when an evaluation instrument measures what it intends to

measure consistently.

 Usability

The instrument must be easy to use, easy to construct, administer and

mark. Equally it should be economical to use.

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 71

UNIVERSITY OF BUEA

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATION
DEPARTMENT: CST COURSE COORDINATOR:
Nekang, Fabian Nfon
MONTH: COURSE CODE & NUMBER: CST 202
YEAR: 2015/2016 COURSE TITLE: General Pedagogy
DATE: 04/07/2016TIME: 8:00 — 11:00

SECTION A

INSTRUCTIONS: ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS

1. Define educere ________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

2. What is mixed ability grouping ____________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

3. What is streaming? _____________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

4. Give two characteristics of an effective teacher _______________________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________2mk

5. Define learning ________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________1mk

6. Educare _____________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________1mk

7. Team teaching _________________________________________________

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 72

 __________________________________________________________1mk

8. Daily lesson plan _______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________1mk

9. What is diagnostic evaluation? ____________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________1mk

10. What is formative evaluation?

____________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________1mk

11. What is diagnostic evaluation?

___________________________________

______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________1mk

12. Give the difference between direct and indirect teaching

______________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________2mk

13. State two direct teaching methods

_________________________________

__________________________________________________________1mk

14. State two indirect teaching methods

________________________________

__________________________________________________________1mk

15. Lists all the levels in the affective domain of bloom’s taxonomy
UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 73
 _________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________2mk

16. Describe the main approaches for grouping student vertically

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________2mk

17. Give two disadvantages of the lecture method

________________________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________2mk

18. Give two advantages of the discussion method

_______________________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________2mk

19. List 8 components of the daily lesson plan

__________________________

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________ 4mks

20. What is experiential teaching strategy

______________________________

______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________2mk

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 74

SECTION B

INSTRUCTIONS: ANSWER ANY TWO QUESTIONS

1. a) define classroom management 2mks

b) Differentiate between verbal and non verbal communication in the

classroom 4mks

c) Discuss the various ways teachers communicate non verbally in the

classroom 14mks

2. a) What is classroom management 2mks

b) Discuss the strategies of the instructional management approach to

classroom management 18mks

3. a) Identify 5 purposes of questioning 5mks

b) Discuss the different questioning techniques 15mks

UNIVERSITY OF BUEA
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
RESIT EXAMINATION
DEPARTMENT: CST COURSE COORDINATOR: Nekang, Fabian Nfon

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 75

MONTH: September COURSE CODE & NUMBER: CST 202
YEAR: 2015/2016 COURSE TITLE: General Pedagogy
DATE: 29/09/2016TIME: 8:00 — 11:00

INSTRUCTIONS: Answer question one and two (2) others. Credit shall be
given for good English and orderly presentation of materials.

1. a) What is a lesson plan? ( 2marks)

b) List 8 components of a lesson plan. ( 8marks)

c) Draw a daily lesson plan for a topic in your field of study. Showing
the vertical and the horizontal sections (the traditional model).( 5,
15marks)

2. a) What is education?( 2marks)

b) State and briefly explain the three categories into which the definition
of education can be grouped.
( 6marks)

c) Distinguish between (i) education and schooling (ii) education and

training (iii) education and indoctrination.( 4×3= 12marks)

3. a) what do you understand by classroom communication?( 2marks)

b) Describe the verbal and the vocal in the classroom. ( 8,8marks)

4. a) Identify and explain two ways in which pupils/students are

grouped for teaching.

b) Identify and describe the four most common methods of teacher

utilization. ( 10,10marks)

UNIVERSITY OF BUEA
FACULTY OF EDUCATION

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 76

 SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATION
DEPARTMENT: CST COURSE COORDINATOR: Nekang, Fabian Nfon
MONTH: September COURSE CODE & NUMBER: CST 202
YEAR: 2014/2015 COURSE TITLE: General Pedagogy
DATE: 02/07/2015TIME: 8:00 — 11:00

INSTRUCTIONS: Answer question one and two (2) others. Credit shall be
given for good English and orderly presentation of materials.

1. a) What is a lesson plan?( 2marks)

b) List 8 components of a lesson plan.( 8marks)

c) Draw a daily lesson plan for a topic in your field of study. Showing
the vertical and the horizontal sections (the traditional model).( 5,
15marks)

2. a) What do you understand by classroom management?

b)Describe the instructional approach to classroom

management.( 20marks)

3. Explain briefly the following concepts in questioning.

a) Halt time.
b) Wait time.
c) Prompting.
d) Silent time.
e) Probing( 20marks)
4. a) what do you understand by classroom communication?

b) Describe the non-verbal communication in the

classroom.( 20marks)

5. a) What do you understand by teaching methods?

b) Discuss four teaching methods used in the classroom.

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 77

( 20marks)

UNIVERSITY OF BUEA
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
RESIT EXAMINATION
DEPARTMENT: CST COURSE COORDINATOR:
Nekang, Fabian Nfon
MONTH: September COURSE CODE & NUMBER:
CST 202
YEAR: 2013/2014 COURSE TITLE: General Pedagogy
DATE: 28/09/2014 TIME: 8:00 — 11:00
TME ALLOWED: 3 Hours CREDIT VALUE: 6C
INSTRUCTIONS: Answer question one and two (2) others. Credit shall be
given for good
English and orderly presentation of materials.
1. a) What is a lesson plan? (5 marks)
b) List 10 components of a lesson plan. (10 marks)
c) Draw a daily lesson plan for a topic in your field of study. (15 marks)
2. a) What do you understand by classroom management?
b) Describe the instructional approach to classroom management. (20 marks)
3. Explain briefly the following concepts in questioning.
a) Halt time
b) Wait time
c) Prompting
d) Silent time
e) Probing
4. a) What do you understand by classroom communication?
b) Describe the nonverbal communication languages. (20 marks

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 78

 2012 SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATION

CST 202 GENERAL PEDAGOGY

Answer any three questions. Time allowed: 3 hours

1. a.) what do you understand by classroom management (5 marks)
b) Describe two (02) differentapproaches to classroommanagement and
show how you may use eachapproach practically in the classroom (20mks)
2. a) Differentiate between teaching, schooling and learning (15 marks)
b) Discuss any two major roles of a teacher (10 marks)
3. Explain briefly the following concepts in questioning ( 25 marks)
a. questioning
b. waiting time
c. prompting

d. Silent time
e. probing.
4. a) identify and explain two ways in which students are grouped for
teaching (10 marks)
b) Discuss three disadvantages and three advantages of each of the ways
above. (I 5 marks)

GOOD LUCK

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 79

 UNIVERSITY OF BUEA
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM STUDIES AND TEACHING
DEPARTMENT: CST
COURSE CODE: CST 202 STATUS: C .
COURSE TITLE: GENERAL PEDAGOGY INSTUCTORS: DRS
ENDELEY,NEKANG, DIANGHA,
CHONGWAIN, MRS, YARO, NEBA,MR AWANDIA
DATE: 28/06/2013
DURATION:3HOURS
SECTION A SHORT ANSWERS (30 MARKS)

1. Differentiate between silent time and wait time

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. State one example of a divergent question

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
__________________
3. What is the pedagogical name for a strategy whereby the teacher controls
noise making by moving towards the student making noise?

4. State one importance of assignments

____________________________________________________________________

5. Differentiate between critical thinking and creative thinking

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________6. What is the
difference in function between diagnostic evaluation and formative
evaluation

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 80

7. What do you understandby deductive teaching

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
8. Explain the meaning of validity

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________9. Explain the
meaning of the following elements of effective teaching?
a. Avoiding vagueness

____________________________________________________________________b.
Performance Orientation

____________________________________________________________________c.Teachi
ng systematically_____________________________________________

10. Which teaching method is most ideal for teaching parts of a

plant___________
11. What role does the teacher play when he effectively schedules his time
between marking scripts, recording marks, teaching, updating his knowledge
and skills______________________

12 State four characteristics of an effective teacher

a._________________________________________________________________
b._________________________________________________________________
c._______________________________________
d.___________________________________
14 State one disadvantage of indirect teaching methods

__________________________________________________________________
15. Relate the following categories of learning to the cognitive domain of
Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives.

a. Facts_________________________________________________________
b. concept and
UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 81
 principles___________________________________________________
c. criticalthinking______________________________________________
16. Discussion,role play, cooperative learning are examples of
________________________________________________teaching strategy
17. Define teaching as used in the present daycontext.
_____________________________________________________________
18. Differentiate between inter-class and intra-class allocation of
students for teaching
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
19. What is streaming__________________________________________
20. Explain the meaning of departmentalization in allocating teachers
for teaching

________________________________________________________________
21. State an example of performance assessment

SECTION B ESSAY (40 MARKS)

Instruction: Answer questions 1, 2 and any other
1. Discussusing concrete examples the cognitivedomain of Boom’s
taxonomy of educational objectives. (15 marks)
2. Draw up a lesson plan on any lesson of your choice (15 marks)
3. Discuss the different types of non-verbal languages exhibited by
students. Why are they
important to the teacher (10 marks)
4. Discuss the behaviour modification approach to classroom
management (10 marks)

Good luck

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 82

 UNIVERSITY OF BUEA
FACULTY OFEDUCATION
RSIT EXAMINATION
DEPARTMENT: CST COURSE INSTRUCTOR(S):DRS,
ENDELEY,CHONGWAIN,
COURSE TITLE: GENERAL PEDAGOGY MRS YARO LOVELINE
DATE 22/09/2010 TIME: 08:00—11:00
TIME ALLOWED: 3LIOURS CREDIT VALUE: 6C
INSTRUCTION(S) ANS\VER ALL QUESTIONS

1) Describe one of the classroom management models/ approaches showing

how it isused tomaintained desired behavior during lessons (20 marks)
2. Describe very briefly two teaching methods and give four advantages and
four disadvantages for each. (20 marks)
3 (a) what a lesson plan? (15 marks)
(b) List 10 components of a lesson plan (l0mks)
(c).Draw a lesson plan in a subject area of your choice. (1 5mks)

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 83

 CA 2011

1 .Pedagogy is:
a. the science of teaching children
b. The theory of teaching young people
c. The theory of teaching by renowned teachers
d. The theory of methods and principles of teaching
2. The fo1lowing are strategies for grouping Students for teaching, their
advantages and disadvantages. Place the number of each response in the
right box below.
1. Each child is assigned to task or progresses according to his or her level.
2. Classifies children from first class to last after they have fulfilled the
requirements for each class.
3.Does not discriminate against any child
4. There are no classes so no child is required to repeat
5. Students in a classroom are grouped according to their ability in exam
(streaming).
6. Children of the same age group are put in a class or grade

Vertical organization Horizontal organization

3. Teaching is______________________________________________________
4. Learning is_______________________________________________________
5.In the space provided describe the role of the teacher as: (a) Instructional
expert__________________
(b) Manager________________________________(c)
counselor_____________________________

6. List three indications of effective teaching and four qualities of an effective

teacher.

UNDERSTANDING G. PEDAGOGY Page 84