Education

188 languages
 Article
 Talk

 Read

 View source

 View history

Tools



 

Appearance
hide
Text


Small

Standard

Large
Width


Standard

Wide
Color (beta)

 Automatic

Light

Dark

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Education (disambiguation).
 Education is a wide phenomenon that applies to all age groups
and covers formal education (top row) as well as non-
formal and informal education (bottom row).
Education is the transmission of knowledge, skills,
and character traits and manifests in various forms.
Formal education occurs within a structured institutional
framework, such as public schools, following a
curriculum. Non-formal education also follows a
structured approach but occurs outside the formal
schooling system, while informal education entails
unstructured learning through daily experiences. Formal
and non-formal education are categorized into levels,
including early childhood education, primary
education, secondary education, and tertiary education.
Other classifications focus on teaching methods, such as
teacher-centered and student-centered education, and
on subjects, such as science education, language
education, and physical education. Additionally, the term
"education" can denote the mental states and qualities of
educated individuals and the academic field studying
educational phenomena.
The precise definition of education is disputed, and there
are disagreements about the aims of education and the
extent to which education differs from indoctrination by
fostering critical thinking. These disagreements impact
how to identify, measure, and enhance various forms of
education. Essentially, education socializes children into
society by instilling cultural values and norms, equipping
them with the skills necessary to become productive
members of society. In doing so, it stimulates economic
growth and raises awareness of local and global
problems. Organized institutions play a significant role in
education. For instance, governments
establish education policies to determine the timing of
school classes, the curriculum, and attendance
requirements. International organizations, such
as UNESCO, have been influential in promoting primary
education for all children.
Many factors influence the success of
education. Psychological factors
include motivation, intelligence, and personality. Social
factors, such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity,
and gender, are often associated with discrimination.
Other factors encompass access to educational
technology, teacher quality, and parental involvement.
The primary academic field examining education is
known as education studies. It delves into the nature of
education, its objectives, impacts, and methods for
enhancement. Education studies encompasses various
subfields, including philosophy, psychology, sociology,
and economics of education. Additionally, it explores
topics such as comparative education, pedagogy, and
the history of education.
In prehistory, education primarily occurred informally
through oral communication and imitation. With the
emergence of ancient civilizations, the invention
of writing led to an expansion of knowledge, prompting a
transition from informal to formal education. Initially,
formal education was largely accessible to elites and
religious groups. The advent of the printing press in the
15th century facilitated widespread access to books, thus
increasing general literacy. In the 18th and 19th
centuries, public education gained significance, paving
the way for the global movement to provide primary
education to all, free of charge, and compulsory up to a
certain age. Presently, over 90% of primary-school-age
children worldwide attend primary school.
Definitions
Main article: Definitions of education
The term "education" originates from the Latin
words educare, meaning "to bring up," and educere,
meaning "to bring forth."[1] The definition of education has
been explored by theorists from various fields.[2] Many
agree that education is a purposeful activity aimed at
achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge,
skills, and character traits.[3] However, extensive debate
surrounds its precise nature beyond these general
features. One approach views education as a process
occurring during events such as schooling, teaching, and
learning.[4] Another perspective perceives education not
as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of
educated individuals resulting from this process.
[5]
Furthermore, the term may also refer to the academic
field that studies the methods, processes, and social
institutions involved in teaching and learning.[6] Having a
clear understanding of the term is crucial when
attempting to identify educational phenomena, measure
educational success, and improve educational practices.
[7]

Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying

specific features exclusive to all forms of education.
Education theorist R. S. Peters, for instance, outlines
three essential features of education, including imparting
knowledge and understanding to the student, ensuring
the process is beneficial, and conducting it in a morally
appropriate manner.[8] While such precise definitions
often characterize the most typical forms of education
effectively, they face criticism because less common
types of education may occasionally fall outside their
parameters.[9] Dealing with counterexamples not covered
by precise definitions can be challenging, which is why
some theorists prefer offering less exact definitions
based on family resemblance instead. This approach
suggests that all forms of education are similar to each
other but need not share a set of essential
features common to all.[10] Some education theorists,
such as Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, argue that
the term "education" is context-dependent.[a][11]
Evaluative or thick conceptions[b] of education assert that
it is inherent in the nature of education to lead to some
form of improvement. They contrast with thin
conceptions, which offer a value-neutral explanation.
[13]
Some theorists provide a descriptive conception of
education by observing how the term is commonly used
in ordinary language. Prescriptive conceptions, on the
other hand, define what constitutes good education or
how education should be practiced.[14] Many thick and
prescriptive conceptions view education as an endeavor
that strives to achieve specific objectives,[15] which may
encompass acquiring knowledge, learning to
think rationally, and cultivating character traits such as
kindness and honesty.[16]
Various scholars emphasize the importance of critical
thinking in distinguishing education from indoctrination.
[17]
They argue that indoctrination focuses solely on
instilling beliefs in students, regardless of their rationality;
[18]
whereas education also encourages the rational ability
to critically examine and question those beliefs.
[19]
However, it is not universally accepted that these two
phenomena can be clearly distinguished, as some forms
of indoctrination may be necessary in the early stages of
education when the child's mind is not yet fully
developed. This is particularly relevant in cases where
young children must learn certain things without
comprehending the underlying reasons, such as specific
safety rules and hygiene practices.[20]
Education can be characterized from both the teacher's
and the student's perspectives. Teacher-centered
definitions emphasize the perspective and role of the
teacher in transmitting knowledge and skills in
a morally appropriate manner.[21] On the other hand,
student-centered definitions analyze education based on
the student's involvement in the learning process,
suggesting that this process transforms and enriches
their subsequent experiences.[22] It's also possible to
consider definitions that incorporate both perspectives. In
this approach, education is seen as a process of shared
experience, involving the discovery of a common world
and the collaborative solving of problems.[23]
Types
There are several classifications of education. One
classification depends on the institutional framework,
distinguishing between formal, non-formal, and informal
education. Another classification involves different levels
of education based on factors such as the student's age
and the complexity of the content. Further categories
focus on the topic, teaching method, medium used, and
funding.[24]
Formal, non-formal, and informal
Tutoring exemplifies non-formal education, whereas learning how
to cook from one's parents falls under informal education.
The most common division is between formal, non-
formal, and informal education.[25][c] Formal education
occurs within a structured institutional framework,
typically with a chronological and hierarchical order. The
modern schooling system organizes classes based on
the student's age and progress, ranging from primary
school to university. Formal education is usually
overseen and regulated by the government and
often mandated up to a certain age.[27]
Non-formal and informal education occur outside the
formal schooling system, with non-formal education
serving as a middle ground. Like formal education, non-
formal education is organized, systematic, and pursued
with a clear purpose, as seen in activities such
as tutoring, fitness classes, and participation in
the scouting movement.[28] Informal education, on the
other hand, occurs in an unsystematic manner through
daily experiences and exposure to the environment.
Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is typically
no designated authority figure responsible for teaching.
[29]
Informal education unfolds in various settings and
situations throughout one's life, often spontaneously,
such as children learning their first language from their
parents or individuals mastering cooking skills by
preparing a dish together.[30]
Some theorists differentiate between the three types
based on the learning environment: formal education
occurs within schools, non-formal education takes place
in settings not regularly frequented, such as museums,
and informal education unfolds in the context of
everyday routines.[31] Additionally, there are disparities in
the source of motivation. Formal education tends to be
propelled by extrinsic motivation, driven by external
rewards. Conversely, in non-formal and informal
education, intrinsic motivation, stemming from the
enjoyment of the learning process, typically prevails.
[32]
While the differentiation among the three types is
generally clear, certain forms of education may not
neatly fit into a single category.[33]
In primitive cultures, education predominantly occurred
informally, with little distinction between educational
activities and other daily endeavors. Instead, the entire
environment served as a classroom, and adults
commonly assumed the role of educators. However,
informal education often proves insufficient for imparting
large quantities of knowledge. To address this limitation,
formal educational settings and trained instructors are
typically necessary. This necessity contributed to the
increasing significance of formal education throughout
history. Over time, formal education led to a shift towards
more abstract learning experiences and topics,
distancing itself from daily life. There was a greater
emphasis on understanding general principles and
concepts rather than simply observing and imitating
specific behaviors.[34]
Levels

Children in a Japanese kindergarten

Types of education are often categorized into different
levels or stages. One influential framework is
the International Standard Classification of Education,
maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This classification
encompasses both formal and non-formal education and
distinguishes levels based on factors such as the
student's age, the duration of learning, and the
complexity of the content covered. Additional criteria
include entry requirements, teacher qualifications, and
the intended outcome of successful completion. The
levels are grouped into early childhood education (level
0), primary education (level 1), secondary
education (levels 2–3), post-secondary non-tertiary
education (level 4), and tertiary education (levels 5–8).[35]
Early childhood education, also referred to as preschool
education or nursery education, encompasses the period
from birth until the commencement of primary school. It
is designed to facilitate holistic child development,
addressing physical, mental, and social aspects. Early
childhood education is pivotal in fostering socialization
and personality development, while also imparting
fundamental skills in communication, learning, and
problem-solving. Its overarching goal is to prepare
children for the transition to primary education.[36] While
preschool education is typically optional, in certain
countries such as Brazil, it is mandatory starting from the
age of four.[37]

Primary school classroom in Ethiopia

Primary (or elementary) education usually begins
between the ages of five and seven and spans four to
seven years. It has no additional entry requirements and
aims to impart fundamental skills in reading, writing, and
mathematics. Additionally, it provides essential
knowledge in subjects such as history, geography,
the sciences, music, and art. Another objective is to
facilitate personal development.[38] Presently, primary
education is compulsory in nearly all nations, with over
90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attending
such schools.[39]
Secondary education succeeds primary education and
typically spans the ages of 12 to 18 years. It is normally
divided into lower secondary education (such as middle
school or junior high school) and upper secondary
education (like high school, senior high school,
or college, depending on the country). Lower secondary
education usually requires the completion of primary
school as its entry prerequisite. It aims to expand and
deepen learning outcomes, with a greater focus on
subject-specific curricula, and teachers often specialize
in one or a few specific subjects. One of its goals is to
acquaint students with fundamental theoretical concepts
across various subjects, laying a strong foundation
for lifelong learning. In certain instances, it may also
incorporate rudimentary forms of vocational training.
[40]
Lower secondary education is compulsory in
numerous countries across Central and East Asia,
Europe, and the Americas. In some nations, it represents
the final phase of compulsory education. However,
mandatory lower secondary education is less common in
Arab states, sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West
Asia.[41]

A high school senior (twelfth grade)

classroom in the United States
Upper secondary education typically commences around
the age of 15, aiming to equip students with the
necessary skills and knowledge for employment or
tertiary education. Completion of lower secondary
education is normally a prerequisite. The curriculum
encompasses a broader range of subjects, often
affording students the opportunity to select from various
options. Attainment of a formal qualification, such as
a high school diploma, is frequently linked to successful
completion of upper secondary education.[42] Education
beyond the secondary level may fall under the category
of post-secondary non-tertiary education, which is akin to
secondary education in complexity but places greater
emphasis on vocational training to ready students for the
workforce.[43]
 Students in a laboratory at Saint
Petersburg State Polytechnical University, Russia
In some countries, tertiary education is synonymous
with higher education, while in others, tertiary education
encompasses a broader spectrum.[44] Tertiary education
builds upon the foundation laid in secondary education
but delves deeper into specific fields or subjects. Its
culmination results in an academic degree. Tertiary
education comprises four levels: short-cycle
tertiary, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral education.
These levels often form a hierarchical structure, with the
attainment of earlier levels serving as a prerequisite for
higher ones.[45] Short-cycle tertiary education
concentrates on practical aspects, providing advanced
vocational and professional training tailored to
specialized professions.[46] Bachelor's level education,
also known as undergraduate education, is typically
longer than short-cycle tertiary education. It is commonly
offered by universities and culminates in an intermediary
academic credential known as a bachelor's degree.
[47]
Master's level education is more specialized than
undergraduate education and often involves independent
research, normally in the form of a master's thesis.
[48]
Doctoral level education leads to an advanced
research qualification, usually a doctor's degree, such as
a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). It usually involves the
submission of a substantial academic work, such as
a dissertation. More advanced levels include post-
doctoral studies and habilitation.[49]
Successful completion of formal education typically leads
to certification, a prerequisite for advancing to higher
levels of education and entering certain professions.
Undetected cheating during exams, such as utilizing
a cheat sheet, poses a threat to this system by
potentially certifying unqualified students.[50]
In most countries, primary and secondary education is
provided free of charge. However, there are significant
global disparities in the cost of tertiary education. Some
countries, such as Sweden, Finland, Poland, and
Mexico, offer tertiary education for free or at a low cost.
Conversely, in nations like the United States and
Singapore, tertiary education often comes with
high tuition fees, leading students to rely on substantial
loans to finance their studies.[51] High education costs can
pose a significant barrier for students in developing
countries, as their families may struggle to cover school
fees, purchase uniforms, and buy textbooks.[52]
Others
The academic literature explores various types of
education,
including traditional and alternative approaches.
Traditional education encompasses long-standing and
conventional schooling methods, characterized by
teacher-centered instruction within a structured school
environment. Regulations govern various aspects, such
as the curriculum and class schedules.[53]

Homeschooling represents one form

of alternative education.
Alternative education serves as an umbrella term for
schooling methods that diverge from the conventional
traditional approach. These variances might encompass
differences in the learning environment, curriculum
content, or the dynamics of the teacher-student
relationship. Characteristics of alternative schooling
include voluntary enrollment, relatively modest class and
school sizes, and customized instruction, fostering a
more inclusive and emotionally supportive environment.
This category encompasses various forms, such
as charter schools and specialized programs catering to
challenging or exceptionally talented students,
alongside homeschooling and unschooling. Alternative
education incorporates diverse educational philosophies,
including Montessori schools, Waldorf education, Round
Square schools, Escuela Nueva schools, free schools,
and democratic schools.[54] Alternative education
encompasses indigenous education, which emphasizes
the preservation and transmission of knowledge and
skills rooted in indigenous heritage. This approach often
employs traditional methods such as oral narration and
storytelling.[55] Other forms of alternative schooling
include gurukul schools in India,[56] madrasa schools in
the Middle East,[57] and yeshivas in Jewish tradition.[58]
Some distinctions revolve around the recipients of
education. Categories based on the age of the learner
are childhood education, adolescent education, adult
education, and elderly education.[59] Categories based on
the biological sex of students include single-sex
education and mixed-sex education.[60] Special
education is tailored to meet the unique needs of
students with disabilities, addressing various
impairments on intellectual, social, communicative,
and physical levels. Its goal is to overcome the
challenges posed by these impairments, providing
affected students with access to an appropriate
educational structure. In the broadest sense, special
education also encompasses education for
intellectually gifted children, who require adjusted
curricula to reach their fullest potential.[61]
Classifications based on the teaching method include
teacher-centered education, where the teacher plays a
central role in imparting information to students,
and student-centered education, where students take on
a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom
activities.[62] In conscious education, learning and
teaching occur with a clear purpose in mind.
Unconscious education unfolds spontaneously without
conscious planning or guidance.[63] This may occur, in
part, through the influence of teachers' and
adults' personalities, which can indirectly impact the
development of students' personalities.[64] Evidence-
based education employs scientific studies to determine
the most effective educational methods. Its aim is to
optimize the effectiveness of educational practices and
policies by ensuring they are grounded in the best
available empirical evidence. This encompasses
evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and
school effectiveness research.[65]
Autodidacticism, or self-education, occurs independently
of teachers and institutions. Primarily observed in adult
education, it offers the freedom to choose what and
when to study, making it a potentially more fulfilling
learning experience. However, the lack of structure and
guidance may lead to aimless learning, while the
absence of external feedback could result in autodidacts
developing misconceptions and inaccurately assessing
their learning progress.[66] Autodidacticism is closely
associated with lifelong education, which entails
continuous learning throughout one's life.[67]
Categories of education based on the subject
encompass science education, language education, art
education, religious education, physical education,
and sex education.[68] Special mediums such as radio or
websites are utilized in distance education, including e-
learning (use of computers), m-learning (use of mobile
devices), and online education. Often, these take the
form of open education, wherein courses and materials
are accessible with minimal barriers, contrasting with
traditional classroom or onsite education. However, not
all forms of online education are open; for instance,
some universities offer full online degree programs that
are not part of open education initiatives.[69]
State education, also known as public education,[d] is
funded and controlled by the government and available
to the general public. It typically does not require tuition
fees and is therefore a form of free education. In
contrast, private education is funded and managed by
private institutions. Private schools often have a more
selective admission process and offer paid education by
charging tuition fees.[71] A more detailed classification
focuses on the social institutions responsible for
education, such as family, school, civil society, state, and
church.[72]
Compulsory education refers to education that
individuals are legally mandated to receive, primarily
affecting children who must attend school up to a certain
age. This stands in contrast to voluntary education,
which individuals pursue based on personal choice
rather than legal obligation.[73]
Role in society
 Highly specialized professionals,
such as medical researchers, often undergo extensive
education to master their fields and make significant
contributions to society.
Education serves various roles in society, spanning
social, economic, and personal domains. Socially,
education establishes and maintains a stable society by
imparting fundamental skills necessary for interacting
with the environment and fulfilling individual needs and
aspirations. In contemporary society, these skills
encompass speaking, reading, writing, arithmetic, and
proficiency in information and communications
technology. Additionally, education facilitates
socialization by instilling awareness of dominant social
and cultural norms, shaping appropriate behavior across
diverse contexts. It fosters social cohesion, stability, and
peace, fostering productive engagement in daily
activities. While socialization occurs throughout life, early
childhood education holds particular significance.
Moreover, education plays a pivotal role
in democracies by enhancing civic participation through
voting and organizing, while also promoting equal
opportunities for all.[74]
On an economic level, individuals become productive
members of society through education, acquiring the
technical and analytical skills necessary for their
professions, as well as for producing goods and
providing services to others. In early societies, there was
minimal specialization, with children typically learning a
broad range of skills essential for community functioning.
However, modern societies are increasingly complex,
with many professions requiring specialized training
alongside general education. Consequently, only a
relatively small number of individuals master certain
professions. Additionally, skills and tendencies acquired
for societal functioning may sometimes conflict, with their
value dependent on context. For instance, fostering
curiosity and questioning established teachings
promotes critical thinking and innovation, while at times,
obedience to authority is necessary to maintain social
stability.[75]

Higher educational attainment in the

US corresponds with higher median household wealth.[76]
By facilitating individuals' integration into society,
education fosters economic growth and
diminishes poverty. It enables workers to enhance their
skills, thereby improving the quality of goods and
services produced, which ultimately
fosters prosperity and enhances competitiveness.
[77]
Public education is widely regarded as a long-term
investment that benefits society as a whole, with primary
education showing particularly high rates of return.
[78]
Additionally, besides bolstering economic prosperity,
education contributes to technological and scientific
advancements, reduces unemployment, and
promotes social equity.[79] Moreover, increased education
is associated with lower birth rates, partly due to
heightened awareness of family planning, expanded
opportunities for women, and delayed marriage.[80]
Education plays a pivotal role in equipping a country to
adapt to changes and effectively confront new
challenges. It raises awareness and contributes to
addressing contemporary global issues, including climate
change, sustainability, and the
widening disparities between the rich and the poor.[81] By
instilling in students an understanding of how their lives
and actions impact others, education can inspire
individuals to strive towards realizing a more sustainable
and equitable world.[82] Thus, education not only serves to
maintain societal norms but also acts as a catalyst
for social development.[83] This extends to evolving
economic circumstances, where technological
advancements, notably increased automation, impose
new demands on the workforce that education can help
meet.[84] As circumstances evolve, skills and knowledge
taught may become outdated, necessitating curriculum
adjustments to include subjects like digital literacy, and
promote proficiency in handling new technologies.
 Moreover, education can embrace innovative forms
[85]

such as massive open online courses to prepare

individuals for emerging challenges and opportunities.[86]
On a more individual level, education fosters personal
development, encompassing learning new skills,
honing talents, nurturing creativity, enhancing self-
knowledge, and refining problem-solving and decision-
making abilities.[87] Moreover, education contributes
positively to health and well-being. Educated individuals
are often better informed about health issues and adjust
their behavior accordingly, benefit from stronger social
support networks and coping strategies, and enjoy
higher incomes, granting them access to
superior healthcare services.[88] The social significance of
education is underscored by the annual International
Day of Education on January 24, established by
the United Nations, which designated 1970 as the
International Education Year.[89]
Role of institutions

Governmental institutions such as

the Chinese Ministry of Education influence numerous
aspects of public education.
Organized institutions play a pivotal role in multiple
facets of education. Entities such as schools,
universities, teacher training institutions, and ministries of
education comprise the education sector. They interact
not only with one another but also with various
stakeholders, including parents, local communities,
religious groups, non-governmental
organizations, healthcare professionals, law
enforcement agencies, media platforms, and political
leaders. Numerous individuals are directly engaged in
the education sector, such as students, teachers, school
principals, as well as school nurses and curriculum
developers.[90]
Various aspects of formal education are regulated by
the policies of governmental institutions. These policies
determine at what age children need to attend school
and at what times classes are held, as well as issues
pertaining to the school environment, such as
infrastructure. Regulations also cover the exact
qualifications and requirements that teachers need to
fulfill. An important aspect of education policy concerns
the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges,
and universities. A curriculum is a plan of instruction or a
program of learning that guides students to achieve their
educational goals. The topics are usually selected based
on their importance and depend on the type of school.
The goals of public school curricula are usually to offer a
comprehensive and well-rounded education, while
vocational training focuses more on specific practical
skills within a field. The curricula also cover various
aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the
teaching method, the objectives to be reached, and the
standards for assessing progress. By determining the
curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact
on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to the
students.[91] Examples of governmental institutions
include the Ministry of Education in India,
[92]
the Department of Basic Education in South Africa,
[93]
and the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico.[94]

International organizations, such

as UNESCO, have wielded significant influence in
shaping educational standards and policies worldwide.
International organizations also play a pivotal role in
education. For example, UNESCO is an
intergovernmental organization that promotes education
through various means. One of its activities is advocating
for education policies, such as the treaty Convention on
the Rights of the Child, which declares education as a
fundamental human right for all children and young
people. The Education for All initiative aimed to provide
basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults
by 2015, later succeeded by the Sustainable
Development Goals initiative, particularly goal 4.
[95]
Related policies include the Convention against
Discrimination in Education and the Futures of
Education initiative.[96]
Some influential organizations are non-governmental
rather than intergovernmental. For instance,
the International Association of Universities promotes
collaboration and knowledge exchange among colleges
and universities worldwide, while the International
Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs.
[97]
Institutions like the Erasmus Programme facilitate
student exchanges between countries,[98] while initiatives
such as the Fulbright Program provide similar services
for teachers.[99]
Factors of educational success
Educational success, also referred to as student and
academic achievement, pertains to the extent to which
educational objectives are met, such as the acquisition of
knowledge and skills by students. For practical purposes,
it is often primarily measured in terms of official exam
scores, but numerous additional indicators exist,
including attendance rates, graduation rates, dropout rat
es, student attitudes, and post-school indicators such as
later income and incarceration rates.[100] Several factors
influence educational achievement, such
as psychological factors related to the individual student,
and sociological factors associated with the student's
social environment. Additional factors encompass
access to educational technology, teacher quality, and
parental involvement. Many of these factors overlap and
mutually influence each other.[101]
Psychological
On a psychological level, relevant factors
include motivation, intelligence, and personality.
[102]
Motivation is the internal force propelling people to
engage in learning.[103] Motivated students are more likely
to interact with the content to be learned by participating
in classroom activities like discussions, resulting in a
deeper understanding of the subject. Motivation can also
help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An
important distinction lies between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by
an interest in the subject and the learning experience
itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek external
rewards such as good grades and recognition from
peers. Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial,
leading to increased creativity, engagement, and long-
term commitment.[104] Educational psychologists aim to
discover methods to increase motivation, such as
encouraging healthy competition among students while
maintaining a balance of positive and negative feedback
through praise and constructive criticism.[105]
Intelligence significantly influences individuals'
responses to education. It is a cognitive trait associated
with the capacity to learn from experience, comprehend,
and apply knowledge and skills to solve problems.
Individuals with higher scores in intelligence metrics
typically perform better academically and pursue higher
levels of education.[106] Intelligence is often closely
associated with the concept of IQ, a standardized
numerical measure assessing intelligence based on
mathematical-logical and verbal abilities. However, it has
been argued that intelligence encompasses
various types beyond IQ. Psychologist Howard
Gardner posited distinct forms of intelligence in domains
such as mathematics, logic, spatial cognition, language,
and music. Additional types of intelligence influence
interpersonal and intrapersonal interactions. These
intelligences are largely autonomous, meaning that an
individual may excel in one type while performing less
well in another.[107]
A closely related factor concerns learning styles, which
denote preferred methods of acquiring knowledge and
skills. According to proponents of learning style theory,
students with an auditory learning style find it easy to
comprehend spoken lectures and discussions, while
visual learners benefit from information presented
visually, such as in diagrams and videos. To facilitate
efficient learning, it may be advantageous to incorporate
a wide variety of learning modalities.[108] The learner's
personality may also influence educational achievement.
For instance, characteristics such
as conscientiousness and openness to experience,
identified in the Big Five personality traits, are associated
with academic success.[109] Other mental factors
include self-efficacy, self-esteem,
and metacognitive abilities.[110]
Sociological
Sociological factors center not on the psychological
attributes of learners but on their environment and
societal position. These factors
encompass socioeconomic status, ethnicity, cultural
background, and gender, drawing significant interest
from researchers due to their association with inequality
and discrimination. Consequently, they play a pivotal role
in policy-making endeavors aimed at mitigating their
impact.[111]
Socioeconomic status is influenced by factors beyond
just income, including financial security, social
status, social class, and various attributes related
to quality of life. Low socioeconomic status impacts
educational success in several ways. It correlates with
slower cognitive development in language and memory,
as well as higher dropout rates. Families with limited
financial means may struggle to meet their children's
basic nutritional needs, hindering their development.
Additionally, they may lack resources to invest in
educational materials such as stimulating toys, books,
and computers. Financial constraints may also prevent
attendance at prestigious schools, leading to enrollment
in institutions located in economically disadvantaged
areas. Such schools often face challenges such as
teacher shortages and inadequate educational materials
and facilities like libraries, resulting in lower teaching
standards. Moreover, parents may be unable to afford
private lessons for children falling behind academically.
In some cases, students from economically
disadvantaged backgrounds are compelled to drop out of
school to contribute to family income. Limited access to
information about higher education and challenges in
securing and repaying student loans further exacerbate
the situation. Low socioeconomic status is also
associated with poorer physical and mental health,
contributing to a cycle of social inequality that persists
across generations.[112]
Ethnic background correlates with cultural distinctions
and language barriers, which can pose challenges for
students in adapting to the school environment and
comprehending classes. Moreover, explicit and implicit
biases and discrimination against ethnic
minorities further compound these difficulties. Such
biases can impact students' self-esteem, motivation, and
access to educational opportunities. For instance,
teachers may harbor stereotypical perceptions, albeit not
overtly racist, leading to differential grading of
comparable performances based on a child's ethnicity.[113]
Historically, gender has played a pivotal role in education
as societal norms dictated distinct roles for men and
women. Education traditionally favored men, who were
tasked with providing for the family, while women were
expected to manage households and care for children,
often limiting their access to education. Although these
disparities have improved in many modern
societies, gender differences persist in education. This
includes biases and stereotypes related to gender roles
in various academic domains, notably in fields such
as science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM), which are often portrayed as
male-dominated. Such perceptions can deter female
students from pursuing these subjects.[114] In various
instances, discrimination based on gender and social
factors occurs openly as part of official educational
policies, such as the severe restrictions imposed on
female education by the Taliban in Afghanistan,[115] and
the school segregation of migrants and locals in urban
China under the hukou system.[116]
One facet of several social factors is characterized by
the expectations linked to stereotypes. These
expectations operate externally, influenced by how
others respond to individuals belonging to specific
groups, and internally, shaped by how individuals
internalize and conform to them. In this regard, these
expectations can manifest as self-fulfilling prophecies by
affecting the educational outcomes they predict. Such
outcomes may be influenced by both positive and
negative stereotypes.[117]
Technology and others
Technology plays a crucial role in educational success.
While educational technology is often linked with modern
digital devices such as computers, its scope extends far
beyond that. It encompasses a diverse array of
resources and tools for learning, including traditional aids
like books and worksheets, in addition to digital devices.
[118]
 Introducing children in Haiti to a One
Laptop per Child device.
Educational technology can enhance learning in various
ways. In the form of media, it often serves as the primary
source of information in the classroom, allowing teachers
to allocate their time and energy to other tasks such as
lesson planning, student guidance, and performance
assessment.[119] By presenting information using graphics,
audio, and video instead of mere text, educational
technology can also enhance comprehension. Interactive
elements, such as educational games, further engage
learners in the learning process. Moreover, technology
facilitates the accessibility of educational materials to a
wide audience, particularly through online resources,
while also promoting collaboration among students and
communication with teachers.[120] The integration
of artificial intelligence in education holds promise for
providing new learning experiences to students and
supporting teachers in their work. However, it also
introduces new risks related to data
privacy, misinformation, and manipulation.[121] Various
organizations advocate for student access to educational
technologies, including initiatives such as the One
Laptop per Child initiative, the African Library Project,
and Pratham.[122]
School infrastructure also plays a crucial role in
educational success. It encompasses physical aspects
such as the school's location, size, and available
facilities and equipment. A healthy and safe
environment, well-maintained classrooms, appropriate
classroom furniture, as well as access to a library and
a canteen, all contribute to fostering educational
success.[123] Additionally, the quality of teachers
significantly impacts student achievement. Skilled
teachers possess the ability to motivate and inspire
students, and tailor instructions to individual abilities and
needs. Their skills depend on their own education,
training, and teaching experience.[124] A meta-analysis by
Engin Karadağ et al. concludes that, compared to other
influences, factors related to the school and the teacher
have the greatest impact on educational success.[125]
Parent involvement also enhances achievement and can
increase children's motivation and commitment when
they know their parents are invested in their educational
endeavors. This often results in heightened self-esteem,
improved attendance rates, and more positive behavior
at school. Parent involvement covers communication
with teachers and other school staff to raise awareness
of current issues and explore potential resolutions.
[126]
Other relevant factors, occasionally addressed in
academic literature, encompass historical, political,
demographic, religious, and legal aspects.[127]
Education studies
Main article: Education sciences
 John Locke's book Some Thoughts
Concerning Education from 1693 is a foundational work
in education studies.[128]
The primary field exploring education is known as
education studies, also termed education sciences. It
seeks to understand how knowledge is transmitted and
acquired by examining various methods and forms of
education. This discipline delves into the goals, impacts,
and significance of education, along with the cultural,
societal, governmental, and historical contexts that
influence it.[129] Education theorists draw insights from
various disciplines, including philosophy, psychology,
sociology, economics, history, politics, and international
relations. Consequently, some argue that education
studies lacks the clear methodological and subject
delineations found in disciplines like physics or history.
[130]
Education studies focuses on academic analysis and
critical reflection and differs in this respect from teacher
training programs, which show participants how to
become effective teachers. Furthermore, it encompasses
not only formal education but also explores all forms and
facets of educational processes.[131]
Various research methods are utilized to investigate
educational phenomena, broadly categorized
into quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods
approaches. Quantitative research mirrors the
methodologies of the natural sciences, employing
precise numerical measurements to collect data from
numerous observations and utilizing statistical tools for
analysis. Its goal is to attain an objective and impartial
understanding. Conversely, qualitative research typically
involves a smaller sample size and seeks to gain a
nuanced insight into subjective and personal factors,
such as individuals' experiences within the educational
process. Mixed-methods research aims to integrate data
gathered from both approaches to achieve a balanced
and comprehensive understanding. Data collection
methods vary and may include direct observation, test
scores, interviews, and questionnaires.[132] Research
projects may investigate fundamental factors influencing
all forms of education or focus on specific applications,
seek solutions to particular problems, or evaluate the
effectiveness of educational initiatives and policies.[133]
Subfields
Education studies encompasses various subfields such
as pedagogy, educational research, comparative
education, and
the philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics,
and history of education.[134] The philosophy of education
is the branch of applied philosophy that examines many
of the fundamental assumptions underlying the theory
and practice of education. It explores education both as
a process and a discipline while seeking to provide
precise definitions of its nature and distinctions from
other phenomena. Additionally, it delves into the purpose
of education, its various types, and the conceptualization
of teachers, students, and their relationship.
[135]
Furthermore, it encompasses educational ethics,
which examines the moral implications of education,
such as the ethical principles guiding it and how teachers
should apply them to specific situations. The philosophy
of education boasts a long history and was a subject of
discourse in ancient Greek philosophy.[136]
The term "pedagogy" is sometimes used interchangeably
with education studies, but in a more specific sense, it
refers to the subfield focused on teaching methods.[137] It
investigates how educational objectives, such as
knowledge transmission or the development
of skills and character traits, can be achieved.
[138]
Pedagogy is concerned with the methods and
techniques employed in teaching within conventional
educational settings. While some definitions confine it to
this context, in a broader sense, it encompasses all
forms of education, including teaching methods beyond
traditional school environments.[139] In this broader
context, it explores how teachers can facilitate learning
experiences for students to enhance
their understanding of the subject matter and how
learning itself occurs.[140]
The psychology of education delves into the mental
processes underlying learning, focusing on how
individuals acquire new knowledge and skills and
experience personal development. It investigates the
various factors influencing educational outcomes, how
these factors vary among individuals, and the extent to
which nature or nurture contribute to these outcomes.
Key psychological theories shaping education
encompass behaviorism, cognitivism,
and constructivism.[141] Related disciplines
include educational neuroscience and the neurology of
education, which explore
the neuropsychological processes and changes
associated with learning.[142]
The field of sociology of education delves into how
education shapes socialization, examining how social
factors and ideologies influence access to education and
individual success within it. It explores the impact of
education on different societal groups and its role in
shaping personal identity. Specifically, the sociology of
education focuses on understanding the root causes of
inequalities, offering insights relevant to education policy
aimed at identifying and addressing factors contributing
to inequality.[143] Two prominent perspectives within this
field are consensus theory and conflict theory.
Consensus theorists posit that education benefits society
by preparing individuals for their societal roles, while
conflict theorists view education as a tool employed by
the ruling class to perpetuate inequalities.[144]
The field of economics of education investigates the
production, distribution, and consumption of education. It
seeks to optimize resource allocation to enhance
education, such as assessing the impact of increased
teacher salaries on teacher quality. Additionally, it
explores the effects of smaller class sizes and
investments in new educational technologies. By
providing insights into resource allocation, the economics
of education aids policymakers in making decisions that
maximize societal benefits. Furthermore, it examines the
long-term economic implications of education, including
its role in fostering a highly skilled workforce and
enhancing national competitiveness. A related area of
interest involves analyzing the economic advantages
and disadvantages of different educational systems.[145]

Comparative education
utilizes tools like the Education Index to compare
educational systems across various countries. High-
scoring countries are depicted in green, while low-
scoring ones are shown in red.
Comparative education is the discipline that examines
and contrasts education systems. Comparisons can
occur from a general perspective or focus on specific
factors like social, political, or economic aspects. Often
applied to different countries, comparative education
assesses the similarities and differences of
their educational institutions and practices, evaluating
the consequences of distinct approaches. It can be used
to glean insights from other countries on effective
education policies and how one's own system may be
improved.[146] This practice, known as policy borrowing,
presents challenges as policy success can hinge on the
social and cultural context of students and teachers. A
related and contentious topic concerns whether the
educational systems of developed countries are superior
and should be exported to less developed ones.[147] Other
key topics include the internationalization of
education and the role of education in transitioning
from authoritarian regimes to democracies.[148]
The history of education delves into the evolution of
educational practices, systems, and institutions. It
explores various key processes, their potential causes
and effects, and their interrelations.[149]
Aims and ideologies

Propaganda poster in a primary

school in North Korea. Authoritarian regimes frequently
employ education as a tool for indoctrinating students.[150]
[151]

A central topic in education studies revolves around how

people should be educated and what goals should guide
this process. Various aims have been proposed,
including the acquisition of knowledge and skills,
personal development, and the cultivation of character
traits. Commonly suggested attributes encompass
qualities like curiosity, creativity, rationality, and critical
thinking, along with tendencies to think, feel, and act
morally. Scholars diverge on whether to prioritize liberal
values such as freedom, autonomy, and open-
mindedness, or qualities like obedience to authority,
ideological purity, piety, and religious faith.[152]
Some education theorists concentrate on a single
overarching purpose of education, viewing more specific
aims as means to this end.[153] At a personal level, this
purpose is often equated with assisting the student in
leading a good life.[154] Societally, education aims to
cultivate individuals into productive members of society.
[155]
There is debate regarding whether the primary aim of
education is to benefit the educated individual or society
as a whole.[156]
Educational ideologies encompass systems of
fundamental philosophical assumptions and principles
utilized to interpret, understand, and assess existing
educational practices and policies. They address various
aspects beyond the aims of education, including the
subjects taught, the structure of learning activities, the
role of teachers, methods for assessing educational
progress, and the design of institutional frameworks and
policies. These ideologies are diverse and often
interrelated. Teacher-centered ideologies prioritize the
role of teachers in imparting knowledge to students,
while student-centered ideologies afford students a more
active role in the learning process. Process-based
ideologies focus on the methods of teaching and
learning, contrasting with product-based ideologies,
which consider education in terms of the desired
outcomes. Conservative ideologies uphold traditional
practices, whereas Progressive ideologies advocate for
innovation and creativity. Additional categories
are humanism, romanticism,
essentialism, encyclopaedism, pragmatism, as well
as authoritarian and democratic ideologies.[157]
Learning theories
Learning theories attempt to elucidate the mechanisms
underlying learning. Influential theories
include behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.
Behaviorism posits that learning entails a modification in
behavior in response to environmental stimuli. This
occurs through the presentation of a stimulus, the
association of this stimulus with the desired response,
and the reinforcement of this stimulus-response
connection. Cognitivism views learning as a
transformation in cognitive structures and emphasizes
the mental processes involved in encoding, retrieving,
and processing information. Constructivism asserts that
learning is grounded in the individual's personal
experiences and places greater emphasis on social
interactions and their interpretation by the learner. These
theories carry significant implications for instructional
practices. For instance, behaviorists often emphasize
repetitive drills, cognitivists may advocate
for mnemonic techniques, and constructivists typically
employ collaborative learning strategies.[158]
Various theories suggest that learning is more effective
when it is based on personal experience. Additionally,
aiming for a deeper understanding by connecting new
information to pre-existing knowledge is considered more
beneficial than simply memorizing a list of unrelated
facts.[159] An influential developmental theory of learning is
proposed by psychologist Jean Piaget, who outlines four
stages of learning through which children progress on
their way to adulthood: the sensorimotor, pre-
operational, concrete operational, and formal operational
stages. These stages correspond to different levels of
abstraction, with early stages focusing more on simple
sensory and motor activities, while later stages involve
more complex internal representations and information
processing, such as logical reasoning.[160]
Teaching methods
The teaching method pertains to how the content is
delivered by the teacher, such as whether group work is
employed rather than focusing on individual learning.
There is a wide array of teaching methods available, and
the most effective one in a given scenario depends on
factors like the subject matter and the learner's age and
level of competence.[161] This is reflected in modern
school systems, which organize students into different
classes based on age, competence, specialization,
and native language to ensure an effective learning
process. Different subjects often employ distinct
approaches; for example, language education frequently
emphasizes verbal learning, while mathematical
education focuses on abstract and symbolic thinking
alongside deductive reasoning.[162] One crucial aspect of
teaching methodologies is ensuring that learners remain
motivated, either through intrinsic factors like interest and
curiosity or through external rewards.[163]
The teaching method also includes the utilization of
instructional media, such as books, worksheets, and
audio-visual recordings, as well as implementing some
form of test or evaluation to gauge learning
progress. Educational assessment is the process of
documenting the student's knowledge and skills, which
can happen formally or informally and may take place
before, during, or after the learning activity. Another
significant pedagogical element in many modern
educational approaches is that each lesson is part of a
broader educational framework governed by a syllabus,
which often spans several months or years.[164] According
to Herbartianism, teaching is broken down into phases.
The initial phase involves preparing the student's mind
for new information. Subsequently, new ideas are
introduced to the learner and then linked to concepts
already familiar to them. In later phases, understanding
transitions to a more general level beyond specific
instances, and the ideas are then applied in practical
contexts.[165]
History
Main article: History of education
The history of education delves into the processes,
methods, and institutions entwined with teaching and
learning, aiming to elucidate their interplay and influence
on educational practices over time.[166] Education
during prehistory primarily facilitated enculturation,
emphasizing practical knowledge and skills essential for
daily life, such as food production, clothing, shelter, and
safety. Formal schools and specialized instructors were
absent, with adults in the community assuming teaching
roles, and learning transpiring informally through daily
activities, including observation and imitation of elders.
In oral societies, storytelling served as a pivotal means
of transmitting cultural and religious beliefs across
generations.[167][e] With the advent of agriculture during
the Neolithic Revolution around 9000 BCE, a gradual
educational shift toward specialization ensued, driven by
the formation of larger communities and the demand for
increasingly intricate artisanal and technical skills.[169]
Commencing in the 4th millennium BCE and spanning
subsequent eras, a pivotal transformation in educational
methodologies unfolded with the advent of writing in
regions such as Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, the Indus
Valley, and ancient China.[170][f] This breakthrough
profoundly influenced the trajectory of education. Writing
facilitated the storage, preservation, and dissemination of
information, ushering in subsequent advancements such
as the creation of educational aids like textbooks and the
establishment of institutions such as schools.[172]

Plato's Academy, depicted in

a mosaic from Pompeii, is frequently regarded as the
inaugural institution of higher education.
Another significant aspect of ancient education was the
establishment of formal education. This became
necessary as civilizations evolved and the volume of
knowledge expanded, surpassing what informal
education could effectively transmit across generations.
Teachers assumed specialized roles to impart
knowledge, leading to a more abstract educational
approach less tied to daily life. Formal education
remained relatively rare in ancient societies, primarily
accessible to the intellectual elite.[173] It covered fields like
reading and writing, record keeping, leadership, civic and
political life, religion, and technical skills associated with
specific professions.[174] Formal education introduced a
new teaching paradigm that emphasized discipline and
drills over the informal methods prevalent earlier.[175] Two
notable achievements of ancient education include the
founding of Plato's Academy in Ancient Greece, often
regarded as the earliest institution of higher learning,
[176]
and the establishment of the Great Library of
Alexandria in Ancient Egypt, renowned as one of the
ancient world's premier libraries.[177]
Many facets of education during the medieval period
were profoundly influenced by religious traditions. In
Europe, the Catholic Church wielded considerable
authority over formal education.[178] In the Arab world, the
rapid spread of Islam led to various educational
advancements during the Islamic Golden Age,
integrating classical and religious knowledge and
establishing madrasa schools.[179] In Jewish
communities, yeshivas emerged as institutions dedicated
to the study of religious texts and Jewish law.[180] In
China, an expansive state educational and examination
system, shaped by Confucian teachings, was instituted.
[181]
As new complex societies emerged in regions like
Africa, the Americas, Northern Europe, and Japan, some
adopted existing educational practices, while others
developed new traditions.[182] Additionally, this era
witnessed the establishment of various institutes of
higher education and research. Prominent among these
were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris,
and Oxford University in Europe.[183] Other influential
centers included the Al-Qarawiyyin University in
Morocco,[184] Al-Azhar University in Egypt,[185] and
the House of Wisdom in Iraq.[186] Another significant
development was the formation of guilds, associations of
skilled craftsmen and merchants who regulated their
trades and provided vocational education. Prospective
members underwent various stages of training on their
journey to mastery.[187]

The invention of the printing press

made written media widely available and led to a
significant increase in general literacy levels.
Starting in the early modern period, education in Europe
during the Renaissance slowly began to shift from a
religious approach towards one that was more secular.
This development was tied to an increased appreciation
of the importance of education and a broadened range of
topics, including a revived interest in ancient literary texts
and educational programs.[188] The turn toward
secularization was accelerated during the Age of
Enlightenment starting in the 17th century, which
emphasized the role of reason and the empirical
sciences.[189] European colonization affected education in
the Americas through Christian missionary initiatives.
[190]
In China, the state educational system was further
expanded and focused more on the teachings of neo-
Confucianism.[191] In the Islamic world, the outreach of
formal education increased and remained under the
influence of religion.[192] A key development in the early
modern period was the invention and popularization of
the printing press in the middle of the 15th century,
which had a profound impact on general education. It
significantly reduced the cost of producing books, which
were hand-written before, and thereby augmented the
dissemination of written documents, including new forms
like newspapers and pamphlets. The increased
availability of written media had a major influence on the
general literacy of the population.[193]
These alterations paved the way for the advancement of
public education during the 18th and 19th centuries. This
era witnessed the establishment of publicly funded
schools with the goal of providing education for all, in
contrast to previous periods when formal education was
primarily delivered by private schools, religious
institutions, and individual tutors.[194] An exception to this
trend was the Aztec civilization, where formal education
was compulsory for youth across social classes as early
as the 14th century.[195] Closely related changes were to
make education compulsory and free of charge for all
children up to a certain age.[196] The promotion of public
education and universal access to education gained
momentum in the 20th and 21st centuries, endorsed by
intergovernmental organizations such as the UN. Key
initiatives included the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the
Education for All initiative, the Millennium Development
Goals, and the Sustainable Development Goals.
[197]
These endeavors led to a consistent increase in all
forms of education, particularly impacting primary
education. In 1970, 28% of all primary-school-age
children worldwide were not enrolled in school; by 2015,
this figure had decreased to 9%.[198]
The establishment of public education was accompanied
by the introduction of standardized curricula for public
schools as well as standardized tests to assess the
progress of students. Contemporary examples are
the Test of English as a Foreign Language, which is a
globally used test to assess language proficiency in non-
native English speakers, and the Programme for
International Student Assessment, which evaluates
education systems across the world based on the
performance of 15-year-old students in reading,
mathematics, and science. Similar shifts impacted
teachers, with the establishment of institutions and
norms to regulate and oversee teacher training, including
certification mandates for teaching in public schools.[199]
Emerging educational technologies have significantly
influenced modern education. The widespread
availability of computers and the internet has notably
expanded access to educational resources and
facilitated new forms of learning, such as online
education. This became particularly pertinent during
the COVID-19 pandemic when schools worldwide closed
for prolonged periods, prompting many to adopt remote
learning methods through video conferencing or pre-
recorded video lessons to sustain instruction.
[200]
Additionally, contemporar