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Coordinates: 22°N 96°E

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Burma)
"Burma" redirects here. For other uses, see Burma
(disambiguation).

Republic of the Union of

Myanmar
 ပြည်ထောင်စု
သမ္မတ
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ
တော်‌(Burmese)
 Pyidăuzu Thammăda Myăma
 Năingandaw

Flag

State Seal
Anthem: ကမ္ဘာမကျေ
Kaba Ma Kyei
"Till the End of the World"
Duration: 40 seconds.0:40

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 Location of Myanmar (green)
in ASEAN (dark grey) – [Legend]
Capital Naypyidaw[b]
21°00′N 96°00′E
Largest city Yangon[a]
Official Burmese
language
Recognised Chin
regional Kachin
languages[1] Karen
Kayah
Mon
Rakhine
Shan
Ethnic group 68.78% Bamar
s 6.69% Kayin
(2019[2][3][4]) 4.61% Rakhine
4.51% Shan
2.19% Mon
2.09% Chin
1.50% Kachin
0.39% Kayah
9.24% Others
Religion 89.8% Buddhism (off
icial)[5]
6.2% Christianity
2.3% Islam
1.6% other[6]
Demonym(s) Burmese
Myanma
[7]
 Government Unitary assembly-
independent republic
under a military junta
• President Min Aung
Hlaing (acting)
• SAC Min Aung Hlaing
Chairman and
Prime
Minister
• SAC Vice Soe Win[c]
Chairman and
Deputy Prime
Minister
Legislature State Administration
Council
Formation
• Pagan era 23 December 849
• Taungoo era 16 October 1510
• Konbaung era 29 February 1752
• Colonial era 1 January 1886
• Independence 4 January 1948
from
the United
Kingdom
• 1962 coup 2 March 1962
d'état
• 1988 coup 18 September 1988
d'état
• Current 31 January 2011
constitution
• 2021 coup 1 February 2021
d'état
 Area
• Total 676,579 km2 (261,229
sq mi) (39th)
• Water (%) 3.06
Population
• 2022 estimate 55,770,232[11] (26th)
• Density 196.8/sq mi
(76.0/km2) (125th)
GDP (PPP) 2024 estimate
• Total $283.572
billion[12] (64th)
• Per capita $5,200[13] (146th)
GDP (nomina 2024 estimate
l)
• Total $68.006
billion[14] (87th)
• Per capita $1,250[15] (167th)
Gini (2017) 30.7[16]
medium
inequality (106th)
HDI (2022) 0.608[17]
medium (144th)
Currency Kyat (K) (MMK)
Time zone UTC+06:30 (MMT)
Drives on right
Calling code +95
ISO 3166 MM
 code
Internet .mm
TLD

This article contains Burmese script. Without proper rendering

support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other
symbols instead of Burmese script.
Myanmar,[d] officially the Republic of the Union of
Myanmar[e] and also known as Burma (the official name
until 1989), is a country in Southeast Asia. It is the
largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and
has a population of about 55 million.[18] It is bordered
by Bangladesh and India to its northwest, China to its
northeast, Laos and Thailand to its east and southeast,
and the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal to its south
and southwest. The country's capital city is Naypyidaw,
and its largest city is Yangon (formerly Rangoon).[19]
Early civilisations in the area included the Tibeto-
Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Myanmar and
the Mon kingdoms in Lower Myanmar.[20] In the 9th
century, the Bamar people entered the
upper Irrawaddy valley, and following the establishment
of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese
language, culture, and Theravada Buddhism slowly
became dominant in the country. The Pagan
Kingdom fell to Mongol invasions, and several warring
states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by
the Taungoo dynasty, the country became the largest
empire in the history of Southeast Asia for a short period.
 The early 19th-century Konbaung dynasty ruled over
[21]

an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly

controlled Manipur and Assam as well. The British East
India Company seized control of the administration of
Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th
century, and the country became a British colony. After a
brief Japanese occupation, Myanmar was reconquered
by the Allies. On 4 January 1948, Myanmar
declared independence under the terms of the Burma
Independence Act 1947.
Myanmar's post-independence history has continued to
be checkered by unrest and conflict. The coup d'état in
1962 resulted in a military dictatorship under the Burma
Socialist Programme Party. On 8 August 1988, the 8888
Uprising then resulted in a nominal transition to a multi-
party system two years later, but the country's post-
uprising military council refused to cede power, and has
continued to rule the country through to the present. The
country remains riven by ethnic strife among its myriad
ethnic groups and has one of the world's longest-running
ongoing civil wars. The United Nations and several other
organisations have reported consistent and
systemic human rights violations in the country.[22] In
2011, the military junta was officially dissolved following
a 2010 general election, and a nominally civilian
government was installed. Aung San Suu
Kyi and political prisoners were released and the 2015
Myanmar general election was held, leading to
improved foreign relations and eased economic
sanctions,[23] although the country's treatment of its ethnic
minorities, particularly in connection with the Rohingya
conflict, continued to be a source of international tension
and consternation.[24] Following the 2020 Myanmar
general election, in which Aung San Suu Kyi’s party won
a clear majority in both houses, the Burmese military
(Tatmadaw) again seized power in a coup d'état.[25] The
coup, which was widely condemned by the international
community, led to continuous ongoing widespread
protests in Myanmar and has been marked by
violent political repression by the military, as well as a
larger outbreak of the civil war.[26] The military also
arrested Aung San Suu Kyi in order to remove her from
public life, and charged her with crimes ranging
from corruption to violation of COVID-19 protocols; all of
the charges against her are "politically motivated"
according to independent observers.[27]
Myanmar is a member of the East Asia Summit, Non-
Aligned Movement, ASEAN, and BIMSTEC, but it is not
a member of the Commonwealth of Nations despite once
being part of the British Empire. Myanmar is a Dialogue
Partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The
country is very rich in natural resources, such
as jade, gems, oil, natural gas, teak and other minerals,
as well as also endowed with renewable energy, having
the highest solar power potential compared to other
countries of the Great Mekong Subregion.[28] However,
Myanmar has long suffered from instability, factional
violence, corruption, poor infrastructure, as well as a long
history of colonial exploitation with little regard to human
development.[29] In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at
US$56.7 billion and its GDP (PPP) at US$221.5 billion.
[30]
The income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in
the world, as a large proportion of the economy is
controlled by cronies of the military junta.[31] Myanmar is
one of the least developed countries; as of 2020,
according to the Human Development Index, it ranks 147
out of 189 countries in terms of human development, the
lowest in Southeast Asia.[32] Since 2021, more than
600,000 people were displaced across Myanmar due to
the surge in violence post-coup, with more than 3 million
people in dire need of humanitarian assistance.[33]
Etymology
Main article: Names of Myanmar
The name of the country has been a matter of dispute
and disagreement, particularly in the early 21st century,
focusing mainly on the political legitimacy of those
using Myanmar versus Burma.[34][35] Both names derive
from the earlier Burmese Mranma or Mramma,
an ethnonym for the majority Burman ethnic group, of
uncertain etymology.[36] The terms are also popularly
thought to derive from Sanskrit Brahma Desha, 'land
of Brahma'.[37]
In 1989, the military government officially changed the
English translations of many names dating back
to Burma's colonial period or earlier, including that of the
country itself: Burma became Myanmar. The renaming
remains a contested issue.[38] Many political and ethnic
opposition groups and countries continue to
use Burma because they do not recognise the legitimacy
or authority of the military government.[39]
The country's official full name is "Republic of the Union
of Myanmar" (Burmese: ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်, Pyihtaungsu Thamada
Myanma
Naingngantaw, pronounced [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà n
àɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀ ]). Countries that do not officially recognise that
name use the long form "Union of Burma" instead.[19][40] In
English, the country is popularly known as
either Burma or Myanmar. In Burmese, the pronunciation
depends on the register used and is
either Bama (pronounced [bəmà])
or Myamah (pronounced [mjəmà]).[38]
Official United States foreign policy retains Burma as the
country's name although the State Department's website
lists the country as Burma (Myanmar).[41] The United
Nations uses Myanmar, as does the ASEAN and as
do Australia,[42] Russia, Germany,[43] China, India, Banglad
esh, Norway,[44] Japan,[45] Switzerland,[46] and Canada.[47] M
ost English-speaking international news media refer to
the country by the name Myanmar, including the BBC,
[48]
CNN,[49] Al Jazeera,[50] Reuters,[51] and the Australian
Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)/Radio Australia.
[52]
Myanmar is known by a name deriving
from Burma in Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Greek.
[53]
French-language media consistently use Birmanie.[54][55]
There are at least nine different pronunciations of the
English name Myanmar, and no single one is standard.
Pronunciations with two syllables are found most often in
major British and American dictionaries.[pronunciations
1]
Dictionaries—such as Collins—and other sources also
report pronunciations with three syllables.[pronunciations 2][56]
As John Wells explains, the English spellings of both
Myanmar and Burma assume a non-rhotic variety of
English, in which the letter r before a consonant or finally
serves merely to indicate a long
vowel: [ˈmjænmɑː, ˈbɜːmə]. So the pronunciation of the
last syllable of Myanmar as [mɑːr] or of Burma
as [ˈbɜːrmə] by some speakers in the UK and most
speakers in North America is in fact a spelling
pronunciation based on a misunderstanding of non-rhotic
spelling conventions.
History
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Main article: History of Myanmar
Prehistory
Main articles: Prehistory of Myanmar and Migration
period of ancient Burma

Pyu city-states, c. 8th century

Archaeological evidence shows that Homo erectus lived
in the region now known as Myanmar as early as
750,000 years ago, with no more erectus finds after
75,000 years ago.[57] The first evidence of Homo
sapiens is dated to about 25,000 BP with discoveries of
stone tools in central Myanmar.[58] Evidence
of Neolithic age domestication of plants and animals and
the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime
between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE has been discovered in
the form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves.[59]
The Bronze Age arrived c. 1500 BCE when people in the
region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and
domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first
people in the world to do so.[60] Human remains and
artefacts from this era were discovered in Monywa
District in the Sagaing Region.[61] The Iron Age began
around 500 BCE with the emergence of iron-working
settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay.
[62]
Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing
settlements of large villages and small towns that traded
with their surroundings as far as China between 500
BCE and 200 CE.[63] Iron Age Burmese cultures also had
influences from outside sources such
as India and Thailand, as seen in their funerary practices
concerning child burials. This indicates some form of
communication between groups in Myanmar and other
places, possibly through trade.[64]
Early city-states
Main articles: Pyu city-states and Mon kingdoms
Around the second century BCE the first-known city-
states emerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were
founded as part of the southward migration by the
Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu people, the earliest
inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant,
from present-day Yunnan.[65] The Pyu culture was heavily
influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as
well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts,
which would have an enduring influence on later
Burmese culture and political organisation.[66]
By the 9th century, several city-states had sprouted
across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon
along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the
western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu
came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between the
750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century
the Bamar people founded a small settlement at Bagan.
It was one of several competing city-states until the late
10th century, when it grew in authority and grandeur.[67]
Pagan Kingdom
Main articles: Pagan Kingdom, Toungoo dynasty,
and Konbaung dynasty
See also: Kingdom of Ava, Hanthawaddy
Kingdom, Kingdom of Mrauk U, and Shan States

Pagodas and kyaungs in present-

day Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom
Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states
until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded
the Pagan Kingdom, the first ever unification of the
Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th
centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer
Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast
Asia.[68] The Burmese language and culture gradually
became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley,
eclipsing the Pyu, Mon and Pali norms[clarification needed] by the
late 12th century.[69] Theravada Buddhism slowly began
to spread to the village level,
although Tantric, Mahayana, Hinduism, and folk
religion remained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and
wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan
capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions in the
late 13th century toppled the four-century-old kingdom in
1287.[69]

Temples at Mrauk U
Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political
fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like
the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who
arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several
competing Shan States came to dominate the entire
northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy
valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until
the late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava
Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom, emerged. In the
west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under
competing influences of its stronger neighbours until
the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for
the first time in 1437. The kingdom was a protectorate of
the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods.[70]
In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ava fought wars of
unification but could never quite reassemble the lost
empire. Having held off Ava, the Mon-speaking
Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went
on to become a power in its own right for the next 350
years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly
weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward.
In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered
Ava and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555.
Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and the
Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the
wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is
considered a golden age for Burmese culture. Burmese
literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically
diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law
codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma
chronicles emerged.[71] Hanthawaddy monarchs
introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest
of the country.[72]
Taungoo and Konbaung

Portuguese ruler mounting an

Elephant and his soldiers . Philips, Jan Caspar
(draughtsman and engraver)
Toungoo Empire under Bayinnaung in 1580Myanmar (缅
甸国) delegates in Peking in 1761, at the time of
Emperor Qianlong. 萬國來朝圖/万国来朝图
Political unification returned in the mid-16th century,
through the efforts of Taungoo, a former vassal state of
Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious
King Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful
Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War. His
successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath
of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan
states, Lan Na, Manipur, Mong Mao, the Ayutthaya
Kingdom, Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the
largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled
soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely
collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and
Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries
established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam).
The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in
1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored a smaller, more
manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower
Myanmar, Upper Myanmar, Shan states, Lan Na and
upper Tenasserim. The restored Toungoo kings created
a legal and political framework whose basic features
continued well into the 19th century. The crown
completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with
appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley
and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs.
Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a
prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the
1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with
repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a
nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower
Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom.
Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the
266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty.

A British 1825 lithograph

of Shwedagon Pagoda shows British occupation during
the First Anglo-Burmese War.
After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung–Hanthawaddy
War involved one resistance group
under Alaungpaya defeating the Restored Hanthawaddy,
and by 1759 he had reunited all of Myanmar and
Manipur and driven out the French and the British, who
had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770,
Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos and
fought and won the Burmese–Siamese
War against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese
War against Qing China.[73]
With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat,
Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770 and went on
to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war
until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate,
exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to
Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent
Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west,
acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam
(1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese
history but also one with a long ill-defined border
with British India.[74]
In 1826, Burma lost Arakan, Manipur, Assam and
Tenasserim to the British in the First Anglo-Burmese
War. In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in
the Second Anglo-Burmese War. King Mindon Min tried
to modernise the kingdom and in 1875 narrowly avoided
annexation by ceding the Karenni States. The British,
alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina,
annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-
Burmese War in 1885.
Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's
administrative reforms and achieved unprecedented
levels of internal control and external expansion. For the
first time in history, the Burmese language and culture
came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The
evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre
continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy
rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).
[75]
Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were
uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the
advance of British colonialism.
British Burma (1885–1948)
Main articles: British rule in Burma and Burma campaign

The landing of British forces in

Mandalay after the last of the Anglo-Burmese Wars,
which resulted in the abdication of the last Burmese
monarch, King Thibaw MinBritish troops firing
a mortar on the Mawchi road, July 1944
In the 19th century, Burmese rulers sought to maintain
their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam,
Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was
the British East India Company, which was expanding its
interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the
next sixty years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and
compromises, known collectively as the Anglo-Burmese
Wars, continued until Britain proclaimed control over
most of Burma.[76] With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma
came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January
1886.
Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as
soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders
and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community,
dominated commercial and civil life in
Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma
and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore.
Burmese resentment was strong, and was vented in
violent riots that periodically paralysed Rangoon until the
1930s.[77] Some of the discontent was caused by a
disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions. Buddhist
monks became the vanguards of the independence
movement. U Wisara, an activist monk, died in prison
after a 166-day hunger strike.[78]
On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately
administered colony of Britain, and Ba Maw became the
first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was
an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule, and he
opposed the participation of Britain, and by extension
Burma, in World War II. He resigned from the Legislative
Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940,
before Japan formally entered the war, Aung San formed
the Burma Independence Army in Japan.
As a major battleground, Burma was devastated during
World War II by the Japanese invasion. Within months
after they entered the war, Japanese troops had
advanced on Rangoon, and the British administration
had collapsed. A Burmese Executive
Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by
the Japanese in August 1942. Wingate's
British Chindits were formed into long-range
penetration groups trained to operate deep behind
Japanese lines.[79] A similar American unit, Merrill's
Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese
jungle in 1943.[80]
Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of
offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July
1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid
waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some
150,000 men in Burma with 1,700 prisoners taken.
[81]
Although many Burmese fought initially for the
Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army,
many Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, served
in the British Burma Army.[82] The Burma National
Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the
Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to
the Allied side in 1945. Overall, 170,000 to 250,000
Burmese civilians died during World War II.[83]
Following World War II, Aung San negotiated
the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that
guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as a unified
state. Aung Zan Wai, Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung, Sir Maung
Gyi, Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were
among the negotiators of the historic Panglong
Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung
San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San
became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of
Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947,
political rivals[84] assassinated Aung San and several
cabinet members.[85]
Independence (1948–1962)
Main article: Post-independence Burma (1948–1962)
On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent
republic, under the terms of the Burma Independence
Act 1947. The new country was named the Union of
Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first president and U
Nu as its first prime minister. Unlike most other former
British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not
become a member of the Commonwealth.
A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of
a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities,
[86]
and multi-party elections were held in 1951–
1952, 1956 and 1960.
The geographical area Burma encompasses today can
be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined
Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and
Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been
administered separately by the British.[87]
In 1961, U Thant, the Union of Burma's Permanent
Representative to the United Nations and former
secretary to the prime minister, was elected Secretary-
General of the United Nations, a position he held for ten
years.[88]
When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for
autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian
government at the centre, the military leadership staged
a coup d'état in 1962. Though incorporated in the 1947
Constitution, successive military governments construed
the use of the term 'federalism' as being anti-national,
anti-unity and pro-disintegration.[89]
Military rule (1962–2011)
On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne
Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état, and the
government had been under direct or indirect control by
the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974,
Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by
the general. Almost all aspects of society (business,
media, production) were nationalised or brought under
government control under the Burmese Way to
Socialism,[90] which combined Soviet-style nationalisation
and central planning.
A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union
of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country
was ruled as a one-party system, with the general and
other military officers resigning and ruling through
the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP).[91] During
this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most
impoverished countries.[92] There were sporadic protests
against military rule during the Ne Win years, and these
were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July
1962, the government broke up demonstrations at
Rangoon University, killing 15 students.[90] In 1974, the
military violently suppressed anti-government protests at
the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976,
and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming
force.[91]
In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and
political oppression by the government led to widespread
pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country
known as the 8888 Uprising. Security forces killed
thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw
Maung staged a coup d'état and formed the State Law
and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989,
SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests.
The military government finalised plans for People's
Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.[93] SLORC changed
the country's official English name from the "Socialist
Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of
Myanmar" on 18 June 1989 by enacting the adaptation
of the expression law.
In May 1990, the government held free multiparty
elections for the first time in almost 30 years, and
the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of
Aung San Suu Kyi, won[94] earning 392 out of a total 492
seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta
refused to cede power[95] and continued to rule the nation,
first as SLORC and, from 1997, as the State Peace and
Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in
March 2011. General Than Shwe took over the
Chairmanship – effectively the position of Myanmar's top
ruler – from General Saw Maung in 1992 and held it until
2011.[96]
On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations. On 27 March
2006, the military junta, which had moved the national
capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in
November 2005, officially named the new
capital Naypyidaw, meaning "city of the kings".[97]

Protesters in Yangon during

the 2007 Saffron Revolution with a banner that
reads non-violence: national movement in Burmese. In
the background is Shwedagon Pagoda.

Cyclone Nargis in southern

Myanmar, May 2008
In August 2007, an increase in the price of fuel led to
the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were
dealt with harshly by the government.[98] The government
cracked down on them on 26 September 2007, with
reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and
monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement
within the Burmese armed forces, but none was
confirmed. The military crackdown against
unarmed protesters was widely condemned as part of
the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and
led to an increase in economic sanctions against
the Burmese Government.
In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage
in the densely populated rice-farming delta of
the Irrawaddy Division.[99] It was the worst natural disaster
in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000
people dead or missing, damages totalled to 10 billion
US dollars, and as many as 1 million were left homeless.
[100]
In the critical days following this disaster,
Myanmar's isolationist government was accused of
hindering United Nations recovery efforts.
[101]
Humanitarian aid was requested, but concerns about
foreign military or intelligence presence in the country
delayed the entry of United States military planes
delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.[102]
In early August 2009, a conflict broke out in Shan State
in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops
fought against ethnic minorities including the Han
Chinese,[103] Wa, and Kachin.[104][105] During 8–12 August,
the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese
civilians fled to Yunnan in neighbouring China.[104][105][106]
Civil wars
Main article: Internal conflict in Myanmar
Civil wars have been a constant feature of Myanmar's
socio-political landscape since the attainment of
independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly
struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the
areas surrounding the ethnically Bamar central districts
of the country serving as the primary geographical
setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require
a special travel permit to visit the areas in which
Myanmar's civil wars continue.[107]
In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar
included the Kachin conflict,[108] between the Pro-
Christian Kachin Independence Army and the
government;[109] a civil war between
the Rohingya Muslims and the government and non-
government groups in Rakhine State;[110] and a conflict
between the Shan,[111] Lahu, and Karen[112][113] minority
groups, and the government in the eastern half of the
country. In addition, al-Qaeda signalled an intention to
become involved in Myanmar.[114]
Armed conflict between ethnic Chinese rebels and
the Myanmar Armed Forces resulted in the Kokang
offensive in February 2015. The conflict had forced
40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek
shelter on the Chinese side of the border.[115] During the
incident, the government of China was accused of giving
military assistance to the ethnic Chinese rebels.
[116]
Clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent
groups have continued, fuelling tensions between China
and Myanmar.[117]
Period of liberalisation, 2011–2021
See also: 2011–2015 Myanmar political reforms
The military-backed Government had promulgated
a "Roadmap to Discipline-flourishing Democracy" in
1993, but the process appeared to stall several times,
until 2008 when the Government published a new draft
national constitution, and organised a (flawed) national
referendum which adopted it. The new constitution
provided for election of a national assembly with powers
to appoint a president, while practically ensuring army
control at all levels.[118]

U.S. President Barack Obama and

Secretary of State Hillary Clinton with Aung San Suu
Kyi and her staff at her home in Yangon, 2012
A general election in 2010 - the first for twenty years -
was boycotted by the NLD. The military-backed Union
Solidarity and Development Party declared victory,
stating that it had been favoured by 80 per cent of the
votes; fraud, however, was alleged.[119][120] A nominally
civilian government was then formed, with
retired general Thein Sein as president.[121]
A series of liberalising political and economic actions – or
reforms – then took place. By the end of 2011 these
included the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San
Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of
the National Human Rights Commission, the granting of
general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners,
new labour laws that permitted labour unions and strikes,
a relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of
currency practices.[122] In response, United States
Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Myanmar in
December 2011 – the first visit by a US Secretary of
State in more than fifty years[123] – meeting both President
Thein Sein and opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi.[124]
Aung San Suu Kyi's NLD party participated in the 2012
by-elections, facilitated by the government's abolition of
the laws that previously barred it.[125] In the April 2012 by-
elections, the NLD won 43 of the 45 available seats. The
2012 by-elections were also the first time that
international representatives were allowed to monitor the
voting process in Myanmar.[126]
Myanmar's improved international reputation was
indicated by ASEAN's approval of Myanmar's bid for the
position of ASEAN chair in 2014.[127]
 Map of Myanmar and its divisions,
including Shan State, Kachin State, Rakhine
State and Karen State.
2015 general elections

General elections were held on 8 November 2015.

These were the first openly contested elections held in
Myanmar since the 1990 general election (which was
annulled[128]). The results gave the NLD an absolute
majority of seats in both chambers of the national
parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would
become president, while NLD leader Aung San Suu
Kyi is constitutionally barred from the presidency.[128][129]
The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016,
[130]
and on 15 March 2016, Htin Kyaw was elected as the
first non-military president since the military coup of
1962.[131] On 6 April 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi assumed
the newly created role of state counsellor, a role akin to
a prime minister.[132]
Coup d'état and civil war
Main articles: 2021 Myanmar coup d'état and Myanmar
civil war (2021–present)
See also: Myanmar protests (2021–present)
In Myanmar's 2020 parliamentary election, the ostensibly
ruling National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of
State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi, competed with
various other smaller parties – particularly the military-
affiliated Union Solidarity and Development Party
(USDP).[133] Suu Kyi's NLD won the 2020 Myanmar
general election on 8 November in a landslide.[133][134]
[135]
The USDP, regarded as a proxy for the military,
suffered a "humiliating" defeat[136][137] – even worse than in
2015[137] – capturing only 33 of the 476 elected seats.[135][136]
As the election results began emerging, the USDP
rejected them, urging a new election with the military as
observers.[133][137] More than 90 other smaller parties
contested the vote, including more than 15 who
complained of irregularities. However, election observers
declared there were no major irregularities.[136][135]
[138]
However, despite the election commission validating
the NLD's overwhelming victory,[138] the USDP and
Myanmar's military persistently alleged fraud.[139][140][136][141][142]
[143][144][excessive citations]
In January, 2021, just before the new
parliament was to be sworn in, The NLD announced that
Suu Kyi would retain her State Counsellor role in the
upcoming government. [145]
In the early morning of 1 February 2021, the day
parliament was set to convene, the Tatmadaw,
Myanmar's military, detained Suu Kyi and other
members of the ruling party.[136] [146][147] The military handed
power to military chief Min Aung Hlaing and declared a
state of emergency for one year[148][146] and began closing
the borders, restricting travel and electronic
communications nationwide.[147] The military announced it
would replace the existing election commission with a
new one, and a military media outlet indicated new
elections would be held in about one year – though the
military avoided making an official commitment to that.
[147]
The military expelled NLD party Members of
Parliament from the capital city, Naypyidaw.[147] By 15
March 2021 the military leadership continued to extend
martial law into more parts of Yangon, while security
forces killed 38 people in a single day of violence.[149]

Protesters against the military coup

in Myanmar
By the second day of the coup, thousands of protesters
were marching in the streets of Yangon, and other
protests erupted nationwide, largely halting commerce
and transportation. Despite the military's arrests and
killings of protesters, the first weeks of the coup found
growing public participation, including groups of civil
servants, teachers, students, workers, monks and
religious leaders – even normally disaffected ethnic
minorities.[150][151][147]
The coup was immediately condemned by the United
Nations Secretary General, and leaders of democratic
nations. The U.S. threatened sanctions on the military
and its leaders, including a "freeze" of US$1 billion of
their assets in the U.S.[150]
[147]
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Russia, Vietnam, Thaila
nd, the Philippines and China refrained from criticizing
the military coup.[152][153][154][155] A United Nations Security
Council resolution called for the release of Aung San
Suu Kyi and the other detained leaders[150][147] – a position
shared by the United Nations High Commissioner for
Human Rights.[147]
International development and aid partners – business,
non-governmental, and governmental – hinted at
suspension of partnerships with Myanmar. Banks were
closed and social media communications platforms,
including Facebook and Twitter, removed Tatmadaw
postings. Protesters appeared at Myanmar embassies in
foreign countries.[150][147] The National Unity Government
then declared the formation of an armed wing on 5 May
2021, a date that is often cited as the start of a full-scale
civil war. This armed wing was named the People's
Defence Force (PDF) to protect its supporters from
military junta attacks and as a first step towards a
Federal Union Army. The civil war is ongoing as of 2024.
[156][157][25]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Myanmar
Myanmar has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres
(262,000 sq mi). It lies between latitudes 9° and 29°N,
and longitudes 92° and 102°E. Myanmar is bordered in
the northwest by the Chittagong
Division of Bangladesh and the Mizoram,
Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh states of
India. Its north and northeast border is with the Tibet
Autonomous Region and Yunnan for a Sino-Myanmar
border total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). It is bounded
by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Myanmar has
1,930 km (1,200 mi) of contiguous coastline along
the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest
and the south, which forms one quarter of its total
perimeter.[19]
In the north, the Hengduan Mountains form the border
with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an
elevation of 5,881 metres (19,295 ft), is the highest point
in Myanmar.[158] Many mountain ranges, such as
the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, the Shan Hills and
the Tenasserim Hills exist within Myanmar, all of which
run north-to-south from the Himalayas.[159] The mountain
chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are
the Irrawaddy, Salween (Thanlwin), and
the Sittaung rivers.[160] The Irrawaddy River, Myanmar's
longest river at nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi), flows
into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the
valleys between the mountain chains.[159] The majority of
Myanmar's population lives in the Irrawaddy valley,
which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and
the Shan Plateau.
Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of Myanmar
Myanmar is divided into seven states (ပြည်နယ်) and
seven regions (တိုင်းဒေသကြီး), formerly called
divisions.[161] Regions are predominantly Bamar (that is,
mainly inhabited by Myanmar's dominant ethnic group).
States, in essence, are regions that are home to
particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions
are further subdivided into districts, which are further
subdivided into townships, wards, and villages.
Below are the number of districts, townships,
cities/towns, wards, village groups and villages in each
division and state of Myanmar as of 31 December 2001:
[162]

Tow Cities Villag

No State/ Distric n / War e Villag
. Region ts ship Town ds group es
s s s

Kachin
1 4 18 20 116 606 2630
State

Kayah
2 2 7 7 29 79 624
State

3 Kayin State 3 7 10 46 376 2092

4 Chin State 2 9 9 29 475 1355

Sagaing
5 8 37 37 171 1769 6095
Region

Tanintharyi
6 3 10 10 63 265 1255
Region

Bago
7 4 28 33 246 1424 6498
Region
 Magway
8 5 25 26 160 1543 4774
Region

Mandalay
9 7 31 29 259 1611 5472
Region

10 Mon State 2 10 11 69 381 1199

Rakhine
11 4 17 17 120 1041 3871
State

Yangon
12 4 45 20 685 634 2119
Region

13 Shan State 11 54 54 336 1626 15513

Ayeyarwad
14 6 26 29 219 1912 11651
y Region

Total 63 324 312 2548 13742 65148

Climate
Main article: Climate of Myanmar
 Myanmar map of Köppen
climate classification.
Much of the country lies between the Tropic of
Cancer and the Equator. It lies in the monsoon region of
Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm
(196.9 in) of rain annually. Annual rainfall in
the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (98.4 in),
while average annual rainfall in the dry zone in central
Myanmar is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 in). The northern
regions of Myanmar are the coolest, with average
temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions
have an average maximum temperature of 32 °C
(89.6 °F).[160] Previously and currently analysed data, as
well as future projections on changes caused by climate
change predict serious consequences to development
for all economic, productive, social, and environmental
sectors in Myanmar.[163] In order to combat the hardships
ahead and do its part to help combat climate
change Myanmar has displayed interest in expanding its
use of renewable energy and lowering its level of carbon
emissions. Groups involved in helping Myanmar with the
transition and move forward include the UN Environment
Programme, Myanmar Climate Change Alliance, and
the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental
Conservation which directed in producing the final draft
of the Myanmar national climate change policy that was
presented to various sectors of the Myanmar
government for review.[164]
In April 2015, it was announced that the World Bank and
Myanmar would enter a full partnership framework aimed
to better access to electricity and other basic services for
about six million people and expected to benefit three
million pregnant woman and children through improved
health services.[165] Acquired funding and proper planning
has allowed Myanmar to better prepare for the impacts
of climate change by enacting programs which teach its
people new farming methods, rebuild its infrastructure
with materials resilient to natural disasters, and transition
various sectors towards reducing greenhouse gas
emissions.[166]
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of Myanmar

The limestone landscape of Kayin

State
Further information: Deforestation in Myanmar and List
of protected areas of Myanmar
Myanmar is a biodiverse country with more than
16,000 plant, 314 mammal, 1131 bird, 293 reptile, and
139 amphibian species, and 64
terrestrial ecosystems including tropical and subtropical
vegetation, seasonally inundated wetlands, shoreline
and tidal systems, and alpine ecosystems. Myanmar
houses some of the largest intact natural ecosystems
in Southeast Asia, but the remaining ecosystems are
under threat from land use intensification and over-
exploitation. According to the IUCN Red List of
Ecosystems categories and criteria more than a third of
Myanmar's land area has been converted
to anthropogenic ecosystems over the last 2–3
centuries, and nearly half of its ecosystems are
threatened. Despite large gaps in information for some
ecosystems, there is a large potential to develop a
comprehensive protected area network that protects its
terrestrial biodiversity.[167]
Myanmar continues to perform badly in the
global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an
overall ranking of 153 out of 180 countries in 2016,
among the worst in the South Asian region. The
environmental areas where Myanmar performs worst
(i.e. highest ranking) are air quality (174), health impacts
of environmental issues (143)
and biodiversity and habitat (142). Myanmar performs
best (i.e. lowest ranking) in environmental impacts of
fisheries (21) but with declining fish stocks. Despite
several issues, Myanmar also ranks 64 and scores very
good (i.e. a high percentage of 93.73%) in environmental
effects of the agricultural industry because of an
excellent management of the nitrogen cycle.[168]
[169]
Myanmar is one of the most highly vulnerable
countries to climate change; this poses a number of
social, political, economic and foreign policy challenges
to the country.[170] The country had a 2019 Forest
Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.18/10,
ranking it 49th globally out of 172 countries.[171]
Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the
preservation of much of its environment and
ecosystems. Forests, including dense tropical growth
and valuable teak in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of
the country, including areas
of acacia, bamboo, ironwood and Magnolia
champaca. Coconut and betel palm and rubber have
been introduced. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine
and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.[172]
Heavy logging since the new 1995 forestry law went into
effect has seriously reduced forest area and wildlife
habitat.[173] The lands along the coast support all varieties
of tropical fruits and once had large areas
of mangroves although much of the protective
mangroves have disappeared. In much of central
Myanmar (the dry zone), vegetation is sparse and
stunted.
Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers, occur sparsely
in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there
are rhinoceros, wild water buffalo, clouded leopard, wild
boars, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also
tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals,
particularly in the lumber industry. Smaller mammals are
also numerous, ranging
from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes. The
abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species,
including parrots, myna, peafowl, red
junglefowl, weaverbirds, crows, herons, and barn owl.
Among reptile species there
are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons,
and turtles. Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are
wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food
sources.[174]
Government and politics
 Head of Government, Deputy Head of Government, and acting
Head of State

 Min Aung Hlaing, Prime Minister and Chairman of the State

Administration Council
 Soe Win, Deputy Prime Minister and Vice Chairman of the
State Administration Council
 Myint Swe, acting President of Myanmar

Myanmar operates de jure as a unitary assembly-

independent republic under its 2008 constitution. But in
February 2021, the civilian government led by Aung San
Suu Kyi, was deposed by the Tatmadaw. In February
2021, Myanmar military declared a one-year state
emergency and First Vice President Myint Swe became
the Acting President of Myanmar and handed the power
to the Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services Min
Aung Hlaing and he assumed the role Chairman of the
State Administration Council, then Prime Minister.
The President of Myanmar acts as the de jure head of
state and the Chairman of the State Administration
Council acts as the de facto head of government.[175]

Assembly of the Union (Pyidaungsu

Hluttaw)
The constitution of Myanmar, its third since
independence, was drafted by its military rulers and
published in September 2008. The country is governed
as a parliamentary system with a bicameral
legislature (with an executive president accountable to
the legislature), with 25% of the legislators appointed by
the military and the rest elected in general elections.
The legislature, called the Assembly of the Union, is
bicameral and made up of two houses: The 224-seat
upper House of Nationalities and the 440-seat
lower House of Representatives. The upper house
consists 168 members who are directly elected and 56
who are appointed by the Burmese Armed Forces. The
lower house consists of 330 members who are directly
elected and 110 who are appointed by the armed forces.
Political culture
The major political parties are the National League for
Democracy and the Union Solidarity and Development
Party.
Myanmar's army-drafted constitution was approved in
a referendum in May 2008. The results, 92.4% of the 22
million voters with an official turnout of 99%, are
considered suspect by many international observers and
by the National League of Democracy with reports of
widespread fraud, ballot stuffing, and voter intimidation.
[176]

The elections of 2010 resulted in a victory for the

military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party.
Various foreign observers questioned the fairness of the
elections.[177][178][179] One criticism of the election was that
only government-sanctioned political parties were
allowed to contest in it and the popular National League
for Democracy was declared illegal.[180] However,
immediately following the elections, the government
ended the house arrest of the democracy advocate and
leader of the National League for Democracy, Aung San
Suu Kyi,[181] and her ability to move freely around the
country is considered an important test of the military's
movement toward more openness.[180]
Myanmar rates as a corrupt nation on the Corruption
Perceptions Index with a rank of 130th out of 180
countries worldwide, with 1st being least corrupt, as of
2019.[182]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Myanmar

Myanmar President Thein Sein

meets US President Barack Obama in Yangon, 2012
Though the country's foreign relations, particularly
with Western nations, have historically been strained, the
situation has markedly improved since the reforms
following the 2010 elections. After years of diplomatic
isolation and economic and military sanctions,[183] the
United States relaxed curbs on foreign aid to Myanmar in
November 2011[124] and announced the resumption of
diplomatic relations on 13 January
2012[184] The European Union has placed sanctions on
Myanmar, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade
preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception
of humanitarian aid.[185]
Sanctions imposed by the United States and European
countries against the former military government,
coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on
corporations by supporters of the democracy movement,
have resulted in the withdrawal from the country of most
U.S. and many European companies.[186] Despite
Western isolation, Asian corporations have generally
remained willing to continue investing in the country and
to initiate new investments, particularly in natural
resource extraction. The country has close relations with
neighbouring India and China with several Indian and
Chinese companies operating in the country. Under
India's Look East policy, fields of co-operation between
India and Myanmar include remote sensing,[187] oil and
gas exploration,[188] information technology,
[189]
hydropower[190] and construction of ports and buildings.
[191]
Myanmar also has close political relations with
Vietnam[192] and Japan.[193][194]
In May 2013, Thein Sein became the first Myanmar
president to visit the White House in 47 years.
President Barack Obama praised the former general for
political and economic reforms and the cessation of
tensions between Myanmar and the United States.
Political activists objected to the visit because of
concerns over human rights abuses in Myanmar, but
Obama assured Thein Sein that Myanmar will receive
U.S. support. The two governments agreed to sign
a bilateral trade and investment framework agreement
on 21 May 2013.[195]
In June 2013, Myanmar held its first ever summit,
the World Economic Forum on East Asia 2013. A
regional spinoff of the annual World Economic
Forum in Davos, Switzerland, the summit was held on 5–
7 June and attended by 1,200 participants, including 10
heads of state, 12 ministers and 40 senior directors from
around the world.[196]
Military
Main article: Armed forces of Myanmar
Since the late 1950s, Myanmar's military has had major
roles in Myanmar's politics.[197]: 23

A Myanmar Air Force Mikoyan MiG-

29 multirole fighter
Myanmar has received extensive military aid from China
in the past.[198] Myanmar has been a member of ASEAN
since 1997. Though it gave up its turn to hold the
ASEAN chair and host the ASEAN Summit in 2006, it
chaired the forum and hosted the summit in 2014.[199] In
November 2008, Myanmar's political situation with
neighbouring Bangladesh became tense as they began
searching for natural gas in a disputed block of the Bay
of Bengal.[200] Controversy surrounding the Rohingya
population also remains an issue between Bangladesh
and Myanmar.[201]
Myanmar's armed forces are known as the Tatmadaw,
which numbers 488,000. The Tatmadaw comprises
the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force. The
country ranked twelfth in the world for its number of
active troops in service.[40] The military is very influential
in Myanmar, with all top cabinet and ministry posts
usually held by military officials. Official figures for
military spending are not available. Estimates vary widely
because of uncertain exchange rates, but Myanmar's
military forces' expenses are high.[202] Myanmar imports
most of its weapons from Russia, Ukraine, China and
India.
Myanmar is building a research nuclear
reactor near Pyin Oo Lwin with help from Russia. It is
one of the signatories of the nuclear non-
proliferation pact since 1992 and a member of
the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) since
1957. The military junta had informed the IAEA in
September 2000 of its intention to construct the reactor.
[203][204]
In 2010 as part of the leaked diplomatic cables,
Myanmar was suspected of using North Korean
construction teams to build a fortified surface-to-air
missile facility.[205] As of 2019, the United States Bureau
of Arms Control assessed that Myanmar is not in
violation of its obligations under the Non-Proliferation
Treaty but that the Myanmar government had a history of
non-transparency on its nuclear programs and aims.[206]
Until 2005, the United Nations General
Assembly annually adopted a detailed resolution about
the situation in Myanmar by consensus.[207][208][209][210] But in
2006 a divided United Nations General Assembly voted
through a resolution that strongly called upon the
government of Myanmar to end its systematic violations
of human rights.[211] In January 2007, Russia and China
vetoed a draft resolution before the United Nations
Security Council[212] calling on the government of
Myanmar to respect human rights and begin a
democratic transition. South Africa also voted against the
resolution.[213]
Human rights and internal conflicts
Main articles: Human rights in Myanmar and Internal
conflict in Myanmar
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 Map of conflict zones in
Myanmar. States and regions affected by fighting during
and after 1995 are highlighted in yellow.
There is consensus that the former military regime in
Myanmar (1962–2010) was one of the world's most
repressive and abusive regimes.[214][215] In November
2012, Samantha Power, Barack Obama's Special
Assistant to the President on Human Rights, wrote on
the White House blog that "Serious human rights abuses
against civilians in several regions continue, including
against women and children."[111] Members of the United
Nations and major international human rights
organisations have issued repeated and consistent
reports of widespread and systematic human rights
violations in Myanmar. The United Nations General
Assembly has repeatedly[216] called on the Burmese
military junta to respect human rights and in November
2009 the General Assembly adopted a resolution
"strongly condemning the ongoing systematic violations
of human rights and fundamental freedoms" and calling
on the Burmese military regime "to take urgent measures
to put an end to violations of international human rights
and humanitarian law."[217]
International human rights organisations
including Human Rights Watch[218] and Amnesty
International[219] have repeatedly documented and
condemned widespread human rights violations in
Myanmar. The Freedom in the World 2011 report
by Freedom House notes, "The military junta has ...
suppressed nearly all basic rights; and committed human
rights abuses with impunity." In July 2013,
the Assistance Association for Political
Prisoners indicated that there were approximately 100
political prisoners being held in Burmese prisons.[220][221][222]
[223]
Evidence gathered by a British researcher was
published in 2005 regarding the extermination or
"Burmisation" of certain ethnic minorities, such as
the Karen, Karenni and Shan.[224]

Mae La camp, Tak, Thailand, one of

the largest of nine UNHCR camps in Thailand[225]
Based on the evidence gathered by Amnesty
photographs and video of the ongoing armed conflict
between the Myanmar military and the Arakan
Army (AA), attacks escalated on civilians in Rakhine
State. Ming Yu Hah, Amnesty International's Deputy
Regional Director for Campaigns said, the UN Security
Council must urgently refer the situation in Myanmar to
the International Criminal Court.[226] The military is
notorious for rampant use of sexual violence.[22]
Child soldiers

Child soldiers were reported in 2012 to have played a

major part in the Burmese Army.[227] The
Independent reported in June 2012 that "Children are
being sold as conscripts into the Burmese military for as
little as $40 and a bag of rice or a can of petrol."[228] In
September 2012, the Myanmar Armed Forces released
42 child soldiers, and the International Labour
Organization met with representatives of the government
as well as the Kachin Independence Army to secure the
release of more child soldiers.[229]
Slavery and human trafficking
Further information: Sex trafficking in Myanmar
Forced labour and human trafficking are common in
Myanmar.[230] Human trafficking happens mostly to
women who are unemployed and have low incomes.
They are deceived by brokers that better opportunities
and wages exist for them abroad.[231] In 2017, the
government reported 185 trafficking cases. The
government of Burma makes little effort to eliminate
human trafficking. The U.S. State Department reported
that both the government and Tatmadaw were complicit
in sex and labour trafficking.[232] Women and girls from
all ethnic groups and foreigners have been victims of sex
trafficking in Myanmar.[227] They are forced into
prostitution, marriages or pregnancies.[233][234] Sex
trafficking in Myanmar has been fuelled by factors
like internal conflict, political instability, land confiscation,
[235]
poor border management,[236][237] and government
restrictions on providing travel documents.[233]
A cyber-scam industry in Myanmar's borderlands has
involved human trafficking, forced labour and other
abuses.[238] Many of the scam centres are in territories
controlled by junta allies like the Border Guard Force.
[238]
In August 2023, a report from the Office of the U.N.
High Commissioner for Human Rights noted that at least
120,000 people in Myanmar were trapped in such
centres by criminal gangs.[239]
Genocide allegations and crimes against Rohingya people

Displaced Rohingya people of

Myanmar[240][241]
See also: Rohingya conflict, 2013 Myanmar anti-Muslim
riots, and Rohingya genocide
The Rohingya people have consistently faced human
rights abuses by the Burmese regime that has refused to
acknowledge them as Burmese citizens (despite some of
them having lived in Burma for over three generations)—
the Rohingya have been denied Burmese citizenship
since the enactment of a 1982 citizenship law.[242] The
Burmese regime has attempted to forcibly expel
Rohingya and bring in non-Rohingyas to replace them[243]
—this policy has resulted in the expulsion of
approximately half of the 800,000[244] Rohingya from
Burma, while the Rohingya people have been described
as "among the world's least wanted"[245] and "one of the
world's most persecuted minorities."[243][246][247]
Rohingya are not allowed to travel without official
permission, are banned from owning land, and are
required to sign a commitment to have no more than two
children.[242] As of July 2012, the Myanmar government
does not include the Rohingya minority group—classified
as stateless Bengali Muslims from Bangladesh since
1982—on the government's list of more than 130 ethnic
races and, therefore, the government states that they
have no claim to Myanmar citizenship.[248]
Since the democratic transition began in 2011, there has
been continuous violence as 280 people have been
killed and 140,000 forced to flee from their homes in the
Rakhine state in 2014.[249] A UN envoy reported in March
2013 that unrest had re-emerged between
Myanmar's Buddhist and Muslim communities, with
violence spreading to towns that are located closer to
Yangon.[250]
Government reforms

According to the Crisis Group,[251] since Myanmar

transitioned to a new government in August 2011, the
country's human rights record has been improving.
Previously giving Myanmar its lowest rating of 7, the
2012 Freedom in the World report also notes
improvement, giving Myanmar a 6 for improvements in
civil liberties and political rights, the release of political
prisoners, and a loosening of restrictions.[252] In 2013,
Myanmar improved yet again, receiving a score of 5 in
civil liberties and 6 in political freedoms.[253]
The government has assembled a National Human
Rights Commission that consists of 15 members from
various backgrounds.[254] Several activists in exile,
including Thee Lay Thee Anyeint members, have
returned to Myanmar after President Thein Sein's
invitation to expatriates to return home to work for
national development.[255] In an address to the United
Nations Security Council on 22 September 2011,
Myanmar's Foreign Minister Wunna Maung
Lwin confirmed the government's intention to release
prisoners in the near future.[256]
The government has also relaxed reporting laws, but
these remain highly restrictive.[257] In September 2011,
several banned websites, including
YouTube, Democratic Voice of Burma and Voice of
America, were unblocked.[258] A 2011 report by
the Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations found
that, while contact with the Myanmar government was
constrained by donor restrictions, international
humanitarian non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
see opportunities for effective advocacy with government
officials, especially at the local level. At the same time,
international NGOs are mindful of the ethical quandary of
how to work with the government without bolstering or
appeasing it.[259]

A Rohingya refugee camp in

Bangladesh
Following Thein Sein's first ever visit to the UK and a
meeting with Prime Minister David Cameron, the
Myanmar president declared that all of his nation's
political prisoners will be released by the end of 2013, in
addition to a statement of support for the well-being of
the Rohingya Muslim community. In a speech
at Chatham House, he revealed that "We [Myanmar
government] are reviewing all cases. I guarantee to you
that by the end of this year, there will be no prisoners of
conscience in Myanmar."[260]
Homosexual acts are illegal in Myanmar and can be
punishable by life imprisonment.[261][262]
In 2016, Myanmar leader Aung San Suu Kyi was
accused of failing to protect Myanmar's Muslim minority.
[263]
Since August 2017 Doctors Without Borders have
treated 113 Rohingya refugee females for sexual assault
with all but one describing military assailants.[264]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Myanmar
Further information: Golden Triangle (Southeast
Asia), Transport in Myanmar, and Oil and gas industry in
Myanmar
Myanmar's economy is one of the fastest growing
economies in the world with a nominal GDP of US$76.09
billion in 2019 and an estimated purchasing power
adjusted GDP of US$327.629 billion in 2017 according
to the World Bank.[265][improper synthesis?] Foreigners are able to
legally lease but not own property.[266] In December 2014,
Myanmar set up its first stock exchange, the Yangon
Stock Exchange.[267]
The informal economy's share in Myanmar is one of the
biggest in the world and is closely linked to corruption,
smuggling and illegal trade activities.[268][269] In addition,
decades of civil war and unrest have contributed to
Myanmar's current levels of poverty and lack of
economic progress. Myanmar lacks
adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across
the Thai border (where most illegal drugs are exported)
and along the Irrawaddy River.[270] Notably, opium
production in Myanmar is the world's second-largest
source of opium after Afghanistan, producing some 25%
of the world's opium, forming part of the Golden Triangle.
While opium poppy cultivation in Myanmar had declined
year-on-year since 2015, cultivation area increased by
33% totalling 40,100 hectares alongside an 88%
increase in yield potential to 790 tonnes in 2022
according to latest data from the United Nations Office
on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Myanmar Opium Survey
2022.[271] With that said, the United Nations Office on
Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has also warned that opium
production in Myanmar may rise again if the economic
crunch brought on by COVID-19 and the country's
February 1 military coup persists, with significant public
health and security consequences for much of Asia.[272] At
the same time, the Golden Triangle, and specifically
Shan State of Myanmar, is believed to be the
largest methamphetamine producing area in the world.
The growing signs of an intensification of
methamphetamine manufacturing activity within and
around the Golden Triangle, and a corresponding
decrease in the number of production facilities
dismantled in other parts of the region, suggests that
methamphetamine manufacture in East and Southeast
Asia is now consolidated into the lower Mekong region.
[273]
Countries in East and Southeast Asia have
collectively witnessed sustained increases in seizures of
methamphetamine over the last decade, totalling over
171 tons and a record of over 1 billion methamphetamine
tablets in 2021 according to the United Nations Office on
Drugs and Crime, more than any other part of the world.
 In April and May 2020, Myanmar authorities reported
[274]

Asia's largest ever drug operation in Shan State totalling

what was believed to be 193 million methamphetamine
tablets, hundreds of kilogrammes of crystal
methamphetamine as well as some heroin, and over
162,000 litres and 35.5 tons of drug precursors as well
as sophisticated production equipment and several
staging and storage facilities.[275]
Both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties
with the government for economic benefit in the early
2010s. Many Western nations, including the United
States and Canada, and the European Union, historically
imposed investment and trade sanctions on Myanmar.
The United States and European Union eased most of
their sanctions in 2012.[276] From May 2012 to February
2013, the United States began to lift its economic
sanctions on Myanmar "in response to the historic
reforms that have been taking place in that
country."[277] Foreign investment comes primarily from
China, Singapore, the Philippines, South Korea, India,
and Thailand.[278] The military has stakes in some major
industrial corporations of the country (from oil production
and consumer goods to transportation and tourism).[279][280]
Economic history
 The trains are relatively slow in
Myanmar. The railway trip
from Bagan to Mandalay takes about 7.5 hours (179 km
or 111 mi).
Under the British administration, the people of Burma
were at the bottom of the social hierarchy,
with Europeans at the top, Indians, Chinese, and
Christianized minorities in the middle, and Buddhist
Burmese at the bottom.[281] Forcefully integrated into the
world economy, Burma's economy grew by involving
itself with extractive industries and cash crop agriculture.
However, much of the wealth was concentrated in the
hands of Europeans. The country became the world's
largest exporter of rice, mainly to European markets,
while other colonies like India suffered mass starvation.
[282]
Being a follower of free market principles, the British
opened up the country to large-scale immigration with
Rangoon exceeding New York City as the greatest
immigration port in the world in the 1920s.
Historian Thant Myint-U states, "This was out of a total
population of only 13 million; it was equivalent to the
United Kingdom today taking 2 million people a year." By
then, in most of Burma's largest
cities, Rangoon, Akyab, Bassein and Moulmein, the
Indian immigrants formed a majority of the population.
The Burmese under British rule felt helpless, and reacted
with a "racism that combined feelings of superiority and
fear".[281]
Crude oil production, an indigenous industry
of Yenangyaung, was taken over by the British and put
under Burmah Oil monopoly. British Burma began
exporting crude oil in 1853.[283] European firms produced
75% of the world's teak.[39] The wealth was, however,
mainly concentrated in the hands of Europeans. In the
1930s, agricultural production fell dramatically as
international rice prices declined and did not recover for
several decades.[284] During the Japanese invasion of
Burma in World War II, the British followed a scorched
earth policy. They destroyed major government
buildings, oil wells and mines that developed for
tungsten (Mawchi), tin, lead and silver to keep them from
the Japanese. Myanmar was bombed extensively by the
Allies.[citation needed]
After independence, the country was in ruins with its
major infrastructure completely destroyed. With the loss
of India, Burma lost relevance and obtained
independence from the British. After a parliamentary
government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U
Nu embarked upon a policy of nationalisation and the
state was declared the owner of all of the land in Burma.
The government tried to implement an eight-year plan
partly financed by injecting money into the economy, but
this caused inflation to rise.[285] The 1962 coup d'état was
followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese
Way to Socialism, a plan to nationalise all industries, with
the exception of agriculture. While the economy
continued to grow at a slower rate, the country eschewed
a Western-oriented development model, and by the
1980s, was left behind capitalist powerhouses
like Singapore which were integrated with Western
economies.[286][92] Myanmar asked for admittance to a least
developed country status in 1987 to receive debt relief.[287]
Agriculture

Rice is Myanmar's largest

agricultural product.
Further information: Agriculture in Myanmar
The major agricultural product is rice, which covers about
60% of the country's total cultivated land area. Rice
accounts for 97% of total food grain production by
weight. Through collaboration with the International Rice
Research Institute, 52 modern rice varieties were
released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping
increase national rice production to 14 million tons in
1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern
varieties were planted on half of the country's ricelands,
including 98 percent of the irrigated areas.[288] In 2008 rice
production was estimated at 50 million tons.[289]
Extractive industries
Myanmar produces precious stones such
as rubies, sapphires, pearls, and jade. Rubies are the
biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the
country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and
hue. Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems.
Myanmar's "Valley of Rubies", the
mountainous Mogok area, 200 km (120 mi) north
of Mandalay, is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies
and blue sapphires.[290]
Many U.S. and European jewellery companies, including
Bulgari, Tiffany and Cartier, refuse to import these
stones based on reports of deplorable working
conditions in the mines. Human Rights Watch has
encouraged a complete ban on the purchase of Burmese
gems based on these reports and because nearly all
profits go to the ruling junta, as the majority of mining
activity in the country is government-run.[291] The
government of Myanmar controls the gem trade by direct
ownership or by joint ventures with private owners of
mines.[292]
Rare-earth elements are also a significant export, as
Myanmar supplies around 10% of the world's rare
earths.[293] Conflict in Kachin State has threatened the
operations of its mines as of February 2021.[294][295]
Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood
products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and
natural gas. Myanmar Engineering Society has identified
at least 39 locations capable of geothermal power
production and some of these hydrothermal reservoirs lie
quite close to Yangon which is a significant underutilised
resource for electrical production.[296]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Myanmar

Tourists in Myanmar

U Bein Bridge in Mandalay

The government receives a significant percentage of the
income of private-sector tourism services.[297] The most
popular available tourist destinations in Myanmar include
big cities such as Yangon and Mandalay; religious sites
in Mon State, Pindaya, Bago and Hpa-An; nature trails
in Inle Lake, Kengtung, Putao, Pyin Oo Lwin; ancient
cities such as Bagan and Mrauk-U; as well as beaches
in Nabule,[298] Ngapali, Ngwe-Saung, and Mergui.
[299]
Nevertheless, much of the country is off-limits to
tourists, and interactions between foreigners and the
people of Myanmar, particularly in the border regions,
are subject to police scrutiny. They are not to discuss
politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment
and, in 2001, the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board
issued an order for local officials to protect tourists and
limit "unnecessary contact" between foreigners and
ordinary Burmese people.[300]
The most common way for travellers to enter the country
is by air.[301] According to the website Lonely Planet,
getting into Myanmar is problematic: "No bus or train
service connects Myanmar with another country, nor can
you travel by car or motorcycle across the border – you
must walk across." They further state that "It is not
possible for foreigners to go to/from Myanmar by sea or
river."[301] There are a few border crossings that allow the
passage of private vehicles, such as the border
between Ruili (China) to Mu-se, the border
between Htee Kee (Myanmar) and Phu Nam
Ron (Thailand)—the most direct border
between Dawei and Kanchanaburi, and the border
between Myawaddy and Mae Sot, Thailand. At least one
tourist company has successfully run commercial
overland routes through these borders since 2013.[302]
Flights are available from most countries, though direct
flights are limited to mainly Thai and
other ASEAN airlines. According to Eleven magazine, "In
the past, there were only 15 international airlines and
increasing numbers of airlines have begun launching
direct flights from Japan, Qatar, Taiwan, South Korea,
Germany and Singapore."[303]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Myanmar

A block of apartments in downtown

Yangon, facing Bogyoke Market. Much of Yangon's
urban population resides in densely populated flats.
Population[304][305]

Year Million

1950 17.1

2000 46.1

2021 53.8

The provisional results of the 2014 Myanmar

Census showed that the total population was
51,419,420.[306] This figure includes an estimated
1,206,353 persons in parts of northern Rakhine
State, Kachin State and Kayin State who were not
counted.[307] People who were out of the country at the
time of the census are not included in these figures.
There are over 600,000 registered migrant workers from
Myanmar in Thailand, and millions more work illegally.
Burmese citizens account for 80% of all migrant workers
in Thailand.[308] At the beginning of the 20th century,
Burma's population was approximately 10 million.[309] The
national population density is 76 per square kilometre
(200/sq mi), among the lowest in Southeast Asia.
Myanmar's fertility rate in 2011 was 2.23, slightly above
the replacement level[310] and low compared to Southeast
Asian countries of similar economic standing.[310] There
has been a significant decline in fertility in the 2000s,
from a rate of 4.7 children per woman in 1983, down to
2.4 in 2001, despite the absence of any national
population policy.[310][311][312] The fertility rate is much lower
in urban areas.
The relatively rapid decline in fertility is attributed to
several factors, including extreme delays in marriage
(almost unparalleled among developing countries in the
region), the prevalence of illegal abortions, and the high
proportion of single, unmarried women of reproductive
age, with 25.9% of women aged 30–34 and 33.1% of
men and women aged 25–34 being single.[312][313]
These patterns stem from economic dynamics, including
high income inequality, which results in residents of
reproductive age opting for delay of marriage and family-
building in favour of attempting to find employment and
establish some form of wealth;[312] the average age of
marriage in Myanmar is 27.5 for men, 26.4 for women.[312]
[313]

Largest cities
Further information: List of cities and largest towns in
Myanmar

Largest cities or to
geohiv
Rank Name
1 Yangon Yang
2 Mandalay Man
3 Naypyidaw Nayp
4 Bago Bago
Yangon
5 Hpa-An Kayi
6 Taunggyi Shan
7 Monywa Saga
8 Myitkyina Kach
Mandalay 9 Mawlamyine Mon
10 Magway Mag
Ethnic groups
Main article: List of ethnic groups in Myanmar
Ethnic Composition in Burma/Myanmar
(rough estimate)
Ethnic group Per cent
Bamar 68%
Shan 10%
Karen 7%
Rakhine 3.5%
Han-Chinese 3%
Mon 2%
Indians 2%
Kachin 1.5%
Chin 1%
Kayah 0.8%
Other groups 5%

Ethnolinguistic groups of
Burma/Myanmar
Myanmar is ethnically diverse. The government
recognises 135 distinct ethnic groups. There are at least
108 different ethnolinguistic groups in Myanmar,
consisting mainly of distinct Tibeto-Burman peoples, but
with sizeable populations of Tai–Kadai, Hmong–Mien,
and Austroasiatic (Mon–Khmer) peoples.[314]
The Bamar form an estimated 68% of the population.[315]
[irrelevant citation]
10% of the population are Shan.[315] The Kayin
make up 7% of the population.[315] The Rakhine
people constitute 4% of the population. Overseas
Chinese form approximately 3% of the population.[315]
[316]
Myanmar's ethnic minority groups prefer the term
"ethnic nationality" over "ethnic minority" as the term
"minority" furthers their sense of insecurity in the face of
what is often described as "Burmanisation"—the
proliferation and domination of the dominant Bamar
culture over minority cultures.
Mon, who form 2% of the population, are ethno-
linguistically related to the Khmer.[315] Overseas
Indians are 2%.[315] The remainder
are Kachin, Chin, Rohingya, Anglo-Indians, Gurkha, Nep
ali and other ethnic minorities. Included in this group are
the Anglo-Burmese. Once forming a large and influential
community, the Anglo-Burmese left the country in steady
streams from 1958 onwards, principally to Australia and
the United Kingdom. It is estimated that 52,000 Anglo-
Burmese remain in Myanmar. As of 2009, 110,000
Burmese refugees were living in refugee camps in
Thailand.[317]
Refugee camps exist along Indian, Bangladeshi and
Thai borders while several thousand are in Malaysia.
Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800
minority refugees from Myanmar, with the majority
being Rohingya, Karen, and Karenni are principally
located along the Thai-Myanmar border.[318] There are
nine permanent refugee camps along the Thai-Myanmar
border, most of which were established in the mid-1980s.
The refugee camps are under the care of the Thai-
Burma Border Consortium (TBBC). Since 2006,[319] over
55,000 Burmese refugees have been resettled in the
United States.[320]
The persecution of Burmese Indians, Burmese
Chinese and other ethnic groups after the military coup
headed by General Ne Win in 1962 led to the expulsion
or emigration of 300,000 people.[321] They migrated to
escape racial discrimination and the wholesale
nationalisation of private enterprise that took place in
1964.[322] The Anglo-Burmese at this time either fled the
country or changed their names and blended in with the
broader Burmese society.
Many Rohingya Muslims have fled Myanmar. Many
refugees headed to neighbouring Bangladesh, including
200,000 in 1978 as a result of the King Dragon operation
in Arakan.[323] 250,000 more left in 1991.[324]
Languages
Main article: Languages of Myanmar
Myanmar is home to four major language families: Sino-
Tibetan, Tai–Kadai, Austroasiatic, and Indo-European.
[325]
Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken.
They include Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Chin, and
Chinese (mainly Hokkien). The primary Tai–Kadai
language is Shan. Mon, Palaung, and Wa are the major
Austroasiatic languages spoken in Myanmar. The two
major Indo-European languages are Pali, the liturgical
language of Theravada Buddhism, and English.[326] More
than a hundred languages are spoken in total. Since
many of them are known only within small tribes around
the country, they may have been lost (many if not all)
after a few generations.
Burmese, the mother tongue of the Bamar and official
language of Myanmar, is related to Tibetan and Chinese.
[326]
It is written in a script consisting of circular and semi-
circular letters, which were adapted from the Mon script,
which in turn was developed from a southern Indian
script in the 5th century. The earliest known inscriptions
in the Burmese script date from the 11th century. It is
also used to write Pali, the sacred language of
Theravada Buddhism, as well as several ethnic minority
languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and
Kayah (Karenni), with the addition of specialised
characters and diacritics for each language.[327]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Myanmar
Many religions are practised in Myanmar. Religious
edifices and orders have been in existence for many
years. The Christian and Muslim populations do,
however, face religious persecution and it is hard, if not
impossible, for non-Buddhists to join the army or get
government jobs, the main route to success in the
country.[328] Such persecution and targeting of civilians is
particularly notable in eastern Myanmar, where over
3,000 villages have been destroyed in the past ten
years.[329][330][331] More than 200,000 Muslims have fled to
Bangladesh by 2007 to escape persecution.[332][333]
A large majority of the population practices Buddhism;
estimates range from 80%[334] to 89%.[335][336] According
to 2014 Myanmar Census, 87.9% of the population
identifies as Buddhists.[337] Theravāda Buddhism is the
most widespread.[335] There are some 500,000 Buddhist
monks and 75,000 nuns in this country of 54 million.
[338]
Other religions are practised largely without
obstruction, with the notable exception of some religious
minorities such as the Rohingya people, who have
continued to have their citizenship status denied and
treated as illegal immigrants instead,[242] and Christians in
Chin State.[339]
According to 2014 census, 6.2% of the population
identifies as Christian; 4.3% as Muslim; 0.8% as
followers of tribal religions; 0.5% as Hindus; 0.2% as
followers of other religions; and 0.1% follow no religion.
[337]
According to the 2010 estimates of the Pew Research
Center, 7% of the population is Christian; 4% is Muslim;
1% follows traditional animistic beliefs; and 2% follow
other religions, including Mahayana
Buddhism, Hinduism, and East Asian religions.[340]
[341]
Jehovah's Witnesses have been present since
1914[342] and have about 80 congregations around the
country and a branch office in Yangon publishing in 16
languages.[343] A tiny Jewish community in Yangon had a
synagogue but no resident rabbi.[344]
 Praying Buddhist monks
in Shwedagon Pagoda
Although Hinduism is practised by 0.5% of the
population, it was a major religion in Myanmar's past.[345]
[346]
Burmese folk religion is practised by
many Bamars alongside Buddhism.
Health
Main article: Health in Myanmar
The general state of health care in Myanmar is poor. The
government spends anywhere from 0.5% to 3% of the
country's GDP on health care, consistently ranking
among the lowest in the world.[347][348] Although health
care is nominally free, in reality, patients have to pay for
medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and
hospitals. Public hospitals lack many of the basic
facilities and equipment. The 2010 maternal mortality
rate per 100,000 births for Myanmar is 240. This is
compared with 219.3 in 2008 and 662 in 1990. The
under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 73 and the
neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality
is 47. According to Doctors without Borders, 25,000
Burmese AIDS patients died in 2007, deaths that could
largely have been prevented by antiretroviral
therapy drugs and proper treatment.[349]
HIV/AIDS, recognised as a disease of concern by
the Myanmar Ministry of Health, is most prevalent
among sex workers and intravenous drug users. In 2005,
the estimated adult HIV prevalence rate in Myanmar was
1.3% (200,000–570,000 people), according to UNAIDS,
and early indicators of any progress against the HIV
epidemic are inconsistent.[350][351][352] However, the National
AIDS Programme Myanmar found that 32% of sex
workers and 43% of intravenous drug users in Myanmar
have HIV.[352]
Education
Main article: Education in Myanmar

Students on their way to

school, Kalaymyo, Sagaing Region, Myanmar
According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics,
Myanmar's official literacy rate as of 2000 was 90%.
[353]
Historically, Myanmar has had high literacy rates. The
educational system of Myanmar is operated by the
government agency, the Ministry of Education. The
education system is based on the United Kingdom's
system after nearly a century of British and Christian
presences in Myanmar. Nearly all schools are
government-operated, but there has been an increase in
privately funded English language schools in the early
21st century. Schooling is compulsory until the end of
elementary school, approximately 9 years old, while the
compulsory schooling age is 15 or 16 at international
level.
There are 101 universities, 12 institutes, 9 degree
colleges and 24 colleges in Myanmar, a total of 146
higher education institutions.[354] There are 10 technical
training schools, 23 nursing training schools, 1 sport
academy and 20 midwifery schools. There are four
international schools acknowledged by WASC and
College Board—The International School
Yangon, Myanmar International School, Yangon
International School, and International School of
Myanmar in Yangon. Myanmar was ranked 127th in
the Global Innovation Index in 2021.
Crime
Further information: Crime in Myanmar
Myanmar had a murder rate of 15.2 per 100,000
population with a total of 8,044 murders in 2012.
[355]
Factors influencing Myanmar's high murder rate
include communal violence and armed conflict.
[356]
Myanmar is one of the world's most corrupt nations.
The 2012 Transparency International Corruption
Perceptions Index ranked the country at number 171, out
of 176 countries in total.[357] Myanmar is the world's
second largest producer of opium after Afghanistan,
producing some 25% of the world's opium, and forms
part of the Golden Triangle. The opium industry was a
monopoly during colonial times and has since been
illegally operated by corrupt officials in the Burmese
military and rebel fighters,[358] primarily as the basis for
heroin manufacture. Myanmar is the largest producer of
methamphetamines in the world, with the majority of Ya
ba found in Thailand produced in Myanmar, particularly
in the Golden Triangle and northeastern Shan State,
which borders Thailand, Laos and China.[359] Burmese-
produced ya ba is typically trafficked to Thailand via
Laos, before being transported through the northeastern
Thai region of Isan.[360]
Culture
Main article: Culture of Myanmar

Burmese Kinnayi Kinnaya dance

A diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar,
with majority culture primarily Buddhist and Bamar.
Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of
neighbouring countries, manifested in its language,
cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly
literature, have historically been influenced by the local
form of Theravada Buddhism. Considered the national
epic of Myanmar, the Yama Zatdaw, an adaptation of
India's Ramayana, has been influenced greatly by Thai,
Mon, and Indian versions of the play.[361] Buddhism is
practised along with nat worship, which involves
elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37
nats.[362][363]

A Buddhist Shinbyu ceremony

in Mandalay.
In a traditional village, the monastery is the centre of
cultural life. Monks are venerated and supported by the
lay people. A novitiation ceremony called shinbyu is the
most important coming of age events for a boy, during
which he enters the monastery for a short time.[364] All
male children in Buddhist families are encouraged to be
a novice (beginner for Buddhism) before the age of
twenty and to be a monk after the age of twenty. Girls
have ear-piercing ceremonies (နားသ) at the same time.
[364]
Burmese culture is most evident in villages where
local festivals are held throughout the year, the most
important being the pagoda festival.[365][366] Many villages
have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are
commonplace.
 An Arakan (Rakhine) girl pours water
at revellers during the Burmese New
Year Thingyan Water Festival in Yangon.
British colonial rule introduced Western elements of
culture to Myanmar. Myanmar's education system is
modelled after that of the United Kingdom. Colonial
architectural influences are most evident in major cities
such as Yangon.[367] Many ethnic minorities, particularly
the Karen in the southeast and the Kachin and Chin who
populate the north and northeast, practice Christianity.
[368]
According to The World Factbook, the Burman
population is 68% and the ethnic groups constitute 32%.
In contrast, the exiled leaders and organisations claim
the country is 40% ethnic.
Cuisine
Main article: Burmese cuisine
Burmese cuisine is characterised by extensive use of
fish products such as fish sauce, ngapi (fermented
seafood) and dried prawn. Mohinga is the traditional
breakfast dish and is Myanmar's national dish. Seafood
is a common ingredient in coastal cities, while meat and
poultry are more commonly used in landlocked cities like
Mandalay. Freshwater fish and shrimp have been
incorporated into inland cooking as a primary source of
protein and are used in a variety of ways, fresh, salted
whole or filleted, salted and dried, made into a salty
paste, or fermented sour and pressed. Burmese cuisine
also includes a variety of salads (a thoke), centred on
one major ingredient, ranging from starches like rice,
wheat and rice noodles, glass noodles and vermicelli, to
potato, ginger, tomato, kaffir lime, long bean,
and lahpet (pickled tea leaves).
Sport
See also: Traditional games of Myanmar
The Lethwei, Bando, Banshay, and Pongyi thaing martial
arts and chinlone are traditional sports in Myanmar.
[369]
Football is played all over the country, even in
villages, and its national team is ruled by the Myanmar
Football Federation. The 2013 Southeast Asian
Games took place in Naypyidaw, Yangon, Mandalay
and Ngwesaung Beach in December representing the
third occasion that the event has been staged in
Myanmar. Myanmar previously hosted the games
in 1961 and 1969.[370]
Art
Main articles: Art of Myanmar and Myanmar architecture
Burmese traditional art concepts are popular and
respected by the Burmese people and people from
abroad. Burmese contemporary art has developed quite
rapidly on its own terms. Artists born after the 1980s
have had greater chances of art practice outside the
country.
One of the first to study western art was Ba Nyan.
Together with Ngwe Gaing and a handful of other artists,
they were the pioneers of western painting style. Later
on most young children learned the concepts from them.
Some well known contemporary artists are Lun Gywe,
Aung Kyaw Htet, MPP Yei Myint, Myint Swe, Min Wai
Aung, Aung Myint, Kin Maung Yin, Po Po and Zaw Zaw
Aung.
Media and communications
Main article: Media of Myanmar
Because of Myanmar's political climate, there are not
many media companies in relation to the country's
population. Some are privately owned. All programming
must meet with the approval of the censorship board.
The Burmese government announced on 20 August
2012 that it would stop censoring media before
publication. Following the announcement, newspapers
and other outlets no longer required approved by state
censors; however, journalists in the country can still face
consequences for what they write and say.[371] In April
2013, international media reports were published to relay
the enactment of the media liberalisation reforms that we
announced in August 2012. For the first time in
numerous decades, the publication of privately owned
newspapers commenced in the country.[372]
Internet
Main article: Internet in Myanmar
 Kayan women in a village near Inle
Lake, 2010
Internet use is estimated to be relatively low compared to
other countries.[373][374] Myanmar's internet used to be
subject to censorship, and authorities viewed e-mails
and posts on Internet blogs until 2012 when the
government removed media censorship. During the strict
censorship days, activity at internet cafes was regulated,
and one blogger named Zarganar was sentenced to
prison for publishing a video of destruction caused
by Cyclone Nargis in 2008; Zarganar was released in
October 2011.
In regards to communications infrastructure, Myanmar is
the last ranked Asian country in the World Economic
Forum's Networked Readiness Index (NRI) – an
indicator for determining the development level of a
country's information and communication technologies.
With 139 countries reported on, Myanmar ranked
number 133 overall in the 2016 NRI ranking.[375]
Film
Main article: Cinema of Myanmar
Myanmar's first film was a documentary of the funeral of
Tun Shein—a leading politician of the 1910s, who
campaigned for Burmese independence in London. The
first Burmese silent film Myitta Ne Thuya (Love and
Liquor) in 1920 which proved a major success, despite
its poor quality. During the 1920s and 1930s, many
Burmese-owned film companies made and produced
several films. The first Burmese sound film was
produced in 1932 in Bombay, India with the title Ngwe
Pay Lo Ma Ya (Money Can't Buy It). After World War II,
Burmese cinema continued to address political themes.
Many of the films produced in the early Cold War era had
a strong propaganda element.
In the era that followed the political events of 1988, the
film industry has been increasingly controlled by the
government. Film stars who had been involved in the
political activities were banned from appearing in films.
The government issues strict rules on censorship and
largely determines who produces films, as well as who
gets academy awards.[376]
Over the years, the movie industry has also shifted to
producing many lower-budget direct-to-video films. Most
of the movies produced nowadays are comedies.[377] In
2008, only 12 films worthy of being considered for
an Academy Award were made, although at least 800
VCDs were produced.[378] Myanmar is the primary subject
of a 2007 graphic novel titled Chroniques
Birmanes by Québécois author and animator, Guy
Delisle. The graphic novel was translated into English
under the title Burma Chronicles in 2008. In 2009, a
documentary about
Burmese videojournalists called Burma VJ was released.
 This film was nominated for Best Documentary
[379]

Feature at the 2010 Academy Awards.[380] The Lady had

its world premiere on 12 September 2011 at the 36th
Toronto International Film Festival.[381]