Considering all of the differences that exist among religions and between religionists and

nonreligionists, it makes sense that we should strive all the harder to create a wider-
based morality that allows these differences and personal religious relationships to
continue and develop, while at the same time allowing for ethical attitudes and actions
toward all. What we need is humanist (atheist) ethics but rather what strictly Jacques
strictly 1928-2006) called Humanitarian Ethics, which includes these two extremes
and the middle ground as well.

KOHLBERG'S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

In the 1970s, Harvard's Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) advanced, what many con- sider
to be, the most important theory of moral development in the twentieth cen- tury. His
typography, influenced by the work of Swiss child psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980),
sets up three distinct levels of moral thinking: the preconventional,.con- ventional, and
postconventional; autonomous; or principled levels. Each level is ar- ranged in two
stages which are "structured wholes" or organized systems of thought that give rational
consistency to moral judgments. Kohlberg was concerned about the expanding
knowledge of cultural values and the implications of this knowledge in support of the
position of ethical relativity. Although he acknowledged that values and their specific
content vary from culture to culture, nevertheless, he believed that there exists a
universal developmental sequence to structures of moral development that extends
across all cultures.

Definition of Moral Stages

PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL. Here terms like good and bad, right or wrong are
interpreted in terms of either physical or hedonistic consequences of action.

Stage 1: The Punishment and Obedience Orientation

Moral decisions at this stage are made in response to authority. Avoidance of punishment
and deference to an authority, who has the power to deliver physical consequences in
response to an agent's acts, account for stage one of moral decision making.

Stage 2: The Instrumental/Relativist Orientation

Stage two individuals are pragmatic, and moral decision making is conditioned primarily
by self-interest. According to Kohlberg, "Right action consists of that which instrumentally
satisfies one's needs and occasionally the needs of others."15 Human relations are
interpreted in terms of the street or the marketplace where reciprocity is interpreted as
"You scratch my back and I'll scratch yours.

Chapter 1: The Nature of Morality

CONVENTIONAL LEVEL. Level two of Kohlberg’s theory is similar to the customary or

traditional morality as discussed earlier in this chapter. This level of morality is
unreflective and consists in maintaining or conforming to the expectations of others,
family, group, or society. In business situations, Kohlberg’s conventional level would
involve conformity to the corporate culture and compliance with the firm’s ethics policy.

Stage 3: The Interpersonal Concordance or "Good Boy-Nice Girl" Orientation

Stage three individuals are "people pleasers. Being well-intentioned, for example,
"He/she means well," carries weight at this stage. Conformity with the group, living up to
other's expectations, and earning the approval of others by being

Stage 4: The “Law and Order” Orientation

People at stage four are concerned with maintaining the social order for its own sake or
as an end in itself. A stage four individual, for example, obeys the law because it is the
law, Right behavior at this level is characterized by doing one’s duty and showing
respect for authority.
POSTCONVENTIONAL, AUTONOMOUS, OR PRINCIPLED LEVEL. Level three requires
reflective morality and the ability to effectively engage ethical reasoning apart from, or
independently of, group identification and authority.

Stage 5: The Social Contract Orientation Stage five individuals understand that
there are ends beyond the law and that laws are crafted to bring about these ends.
Furthermore, stage five decision makers understand how laws are made and that laws
can be changed for good reasons. That is, the stage five person views laws as a “social
contract” based on valid considerations designed to bring about socially good ends.

Stage 6: The Universal-Ethical-Principle Orientation

For the stage six individual:
Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical
principles appealing to logical comprehensiveness, universality, and consistency. These
principles are abstract and ethical (the Golden Rule, the categorical im- perative); they
are not concrete rules such as the Ten Commandments.

In other words, stage six individuals possess a large stock of ethical concepts and
understand the operative principles behind moral rules, law, and ethical policy.
Furthermore, persons at this stage of moral development can think clearly and well
about moral dilemmas wielding such concepts as justice, reciprocity, equality, and
respect for human dignity and, thus, are able to independently arrive at sound moral
judgments.

Kohlberg attempted to identify innate cognitive structures that are universal all human
beings. Such structures explain both moral development and the to basis for moral
decision making at various stages. His theory helps us understand “why” certain
decisions are made and how previous stages are integrated into higher order of moral
reasoning.

According to Kohlberg’s theory, one tends to move to the next highest level of moral
development in order to resolve conflict that arises within the individual’s own point of
view. His theory provides an additional tool for analyzing the level of moral reasoning in
many of the cases presented in this text.

Morality: A Working Definition

In this chapter a great deal has been said about what morality or ethics is not, but we
have not yet said what it is. Here is a working definition of morality: Morality deals
basically with humans and how they relate to other beings, both human and nonhu-
man. It deals with how humans treat other beings so as to promote mutual welfare,
growth, creativity, and meaning as they strive for what is good over what is bad and
what is right over what is wrong.

Major ethical viewpoints and traditional ethical theories are concerned not with whyy
human beings should be moral, but rather with how morality can be attained. There is no
point in “starting from scratch” in the study of morality when we can ben- efit from our
own ethical traditions, out of which almost all modern ethical theories have, in one way
or another, evolved. A Complete study of ethics considers traditional ethical theories and
moral points of view.

Chapter Summary

I. Philosophy and ethics’ relationship to it

A. Philosophy literally means “the love of wisdom.”
B. It is concerned with five areas of study:

1. Epistemology-the study of knowledge, belief, truth, falsity, certainty, and

perception.
 2. Metaphysics the study of what exists, the nature of what exists, cause and
effect, freedom, and determinism.
3. Ethics-the study of morality and what is good, bad, right, and wrong human
con- duct and behavior in a moral sense.
4. Aesthetics- the study of values in art or beauty and what is good, bad, right,
or wrong in art and what constitutes the beautiful and the nonbeautiful in our
lives.
5. Logic- the study of argument and the principles of correct reasoning.

II. Definition of Key terms

A. Moral and ethical (and immoral and unethical) are interchangeable in
ordinary language.
1. Moral means what is good or right.
2. Immoral means what is bad or wrong.

IX. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development sets up three distinct levels of moral thinking,
and each level is arranged in two stages which are “structured wholes” or organized
systems of thought that give rational consistency to moral judgement.

A. Preconventional level: Here terms like good Bata and bad and right and wrong are
interpreted in terms of either physical or hedonistic consequences of action.
1. The Punishment and obedience Orientation.
2. The Instrumental/Relativist Orientation.
B. Conventional level: This level of morality is generally unreflective and customary. It
consists in maintaining or conforming to the expectations of others or the rules of
society.
1. The Interpersonal Concordance or “Good Boy-Nice Girl” Orientation.
2. The “Law and Order” Orientation.
C. Postconventional, autonomous, or principled level: This level of moral
development moral requires reflective morality and the ability to engage ethical
reasoning apart from, or independently of group identification and authority.
1. The Social Contract Orientation.
2. The Universal-Ethical-Principle Orientation.
National Security Concerns
National Security

A state or condition where our most cherished values and beliefs our democratic way of
life, our institutions of governance and our unity, welfare and well-being as a nation and
people are permanently protected and continuously enhanced.

National Security of the Philippines

According to the national Security policy for 2017-2022 of the National Security Council,
national security defined as ‘a state or conditions wherein the people’s welfare, well
being, ways of life, government and its institutions, territorial integrity, sovereignty, and
core values are enhanced and protected.

Two types of Security

• Traditional Security (military security)

• Human Security (human Security) needs of people to live

Seven Fundamentals Elements of National Security

• Socio-political Stability - We must achieve peace and harmony among all Filipinos,
regardless of creed, ethic origin or social station.

• Territorial Integrity - We must ensure the permanent inviolability of our Nation

territory and it’s effective control by the government.

• Economic Solidarity and Strength - We must vigorously pursue a free-market

economy through through responsible entrepreneurship based on social conscience,
respect for the dignity of labor and concern for the public interest.

• Ecological Balance - National survival rests upon the effective conservation of our
natural environmental in the face of industrial and agricultural expansion and population
growth.

• Cultural Cohesiveness - Our lives as people must be ruled by a common set of

values and believe grounded on high moral and ethical standards, drawn from our
heritage and embodying a Filipino standard identity transcending religious. Ethnic and
linguistic differences.

• Moral-Spiritual Consensus - We must be propelled by a national vision inspired and

manifested in our words and deeds by patriotism national and the advancement of
national goals and objective.

• External Peace - We must pursue constructive and cordial relations with all nations
and peoples, even as our nation itself must chart an independent course, free from
external control, interference or threat or aggression.

Types of Threats

• Rebellion or Insurrection

• Terrorism

• Murder

• Kidnapping and Serious Illegal Detention

• Hijacking/Highway Robbery

• Crimes involving destruction

Internal Threats
• Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) and Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) In
constructive peace negotiation, the armed activities of the group continue to be a source
of serious concern, particularly the build-up of its defensive and offensive capabilities.

• Communist Party of the Phils/ New Peoples Army/ National Democratic Front
(CPP/NPA/NDF) continuous ton pose a serious threat to national security, although
presently weakened in comparison with their peak strength in the period 1985-87.

• Organized Crime Is a national security concern. The challenge of illegal drugs in

particular, has grown into a major threat to the national community.

• Grave Incidence of Poverty Also a serious threat top national security, especially to
the extent that it breeds rebellion, crime and dissidence. Poverty incidence affects one-
third (1/3) of Filipino nationwide.

• Economic Sabotage Under this category are underground activities such as

counterfeiting, money laundering, large-scale smuggling. Inter-oceanic poaching and
commercial dumping.

• Graft and Corruption It is a threat to our natural security by virtue of the huge scale
by which is saps public resources, undermines the morale of the civil service and affects
the delivery of quality basic services.

• Severe Calamities Cause serious shortages, abet hoarding and profiteering tool
stands at more than 13,000 lives lost and 179billion worth of property destroyed.

• Persistent Environment Degradation The attrition of forest and watersheds, air-

land-water pollution and proliferation of toxic substances are a cause of sickness, death
and diminution of national productivity and well-being.

External Threats

• Multilateral Dispute over the Spratly’s Islands The multi lateral dispute over the
Spratly Island, is a source of intermittent tensions, owing to the build up of structures,
believed to be military-oriented, by some claimant countries in the area.

• Smuggling of firearms and contraband, iIllegal migration and the occasional

movement of foreign terrorist through the porous borders of our southwestern
frontier The smuggling firearms and contraband, illegal migration and occasional
movement of foreign terrorists through the porous boarders of our southwestern frontier
have elicited transnational concern.

• Lingering effects of the currency crisis affecting the countries within the
association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) The lingering affects of the
currency crisis affecting the countries within the ASEAN are a cause of regional anxieties
which tend to aggravate the political instabilities and socio-economic dislocations
involving the poorest people.

• Serious economic disparity between rich and poor nations The serious
economic disparity between rich and poor nations keeps the world in a state of instability
and virtually on the brink or war in many places.

•Natural disasters and environmental issues Mankind’s global activities particularly

population growth, resource consumption, pollution, urbanization, industrialization,
desertification and deforestation.

•Cybernetic Crime Many vital decision-making processes of our Government are now
electronically-based and therefore vulnerable to this threat.

Responsibilities of Youth in the National Security

• Know your rights • Learn about local issues

• Speak out • Network

• Spread the word

• Join online campaigns

• Host a youth summit

• Use your creativity

• Join/create a youth organization

• Be an inspiration