Intercultural Communication: Unity in Diversity Debra Reece & Rula Quawas, EditorsCopyright © 2013. All rights reserved. No part ofthis book ‘may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, ‘electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, cr by an information storage end retrieval system without permission in writing from the publisher, ‘The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan ‘The Deposit Number at The National Library (2013/6/1809) Sats aiian Spine oe Bgl Adafauoll JolS ball Jane 15,31 ayogSo ager sl of Qubyll AaSall ls Sl, ge Unaall LioForeword “Dialogue is a way of life.” The theme of intercultural communication, within the enclave of the Arab World and beyond, is of regional and even international significance. Living through the ‘tumultuous years of the “Arab Spring,” one cannot have any doubts that religion, confessionalism, and nationalism lie at the very heart of the ongoing social, cultural, economic and political changes which are taking place in the region, Within this framework, Jordanian scholars have come to focus their attention on the interrelationships of societies, ethnic groups, cultures, and communication, all of which are conceptualized in different ways, especially the dynamic concepts of liberalism and nationalism. Isaac Newton once said, “If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of countless ardinary humans, even of pygmies.” In the Arab World, we can see further by standing on piles of accumulated miscalculation and disappointments. We can see that the trick in having a successful society is for minority citizens to be able to feel that they are more than the label they wear; they must feel that they are part of the overall mosaic. It is not that multicultural societies are impossible; it is just that they are often rather delicate. Divisions based on race, language, lass, and religion can be accepted, tolerated and even enjoyed. These add to the complexities and possibilities of life, but they can also make @ society more dividable, especially when the divisions all line up the same way, and one group can be culturally, racially, religiously and economically distinguished from another. Societies with such internal divisions do not seem to stand up well against external shocks. Unless we give people of diverse cultural backgrounds a sense of belonging and a sense that their identity and heritage are valued threads in the tapestry of ‘Arab society, real community becomes impossible.Within this context, I would like to quote the words of Adam Smith, the great Scottish philosopher and economist who said, “The man of system seems to imagine that he can arrange the different members of a great society with as much ease as his hand arranges the different pieces upon a chessboard; he does not consider that the pieces upon the chessboard have no other principle of motion besides that which the hand impresses upon them; but that in the great chessboard of human society, every single piece has a principle of motion ofits own, altogether different from that which the legislature might choose to impress upon it.” Freud went further when he coined the term “narcissism of differences” between individuals and between peoples. He said that no matter how small and little these differences are; we make them part of the core of our identity. Each society has its own way of life. The error is to think that one society can instill its values and principles everywhere. We have learned and are still learning to oppose the notion of diversity which has become a substitute for neighborhood and community. Diversity without a spirit of community Jeads to tribalism. Community without a spirit, of diversity leads to alienation for all minorities, It is difficult te feel the tension if you live in your separate corner behind the walls of your community. Itis-also difficult to feel the tension if the majority so overwhelms the minority that it is smothered into silence. You will only feel the tension when groups are rubbing against each other, trying to express their unique cultural (ethnic, linguistic, or religious) identities, and, at the same time, trying to keep those identities in check to maintain the common bonds of community. That Is the hard work of nation-building in the Arab World; tt is also the hard work of intercultural communication. Truth is not one-sided, To believe that you are right does not mean that the other is necessarily wrong. For plural societies, either the notion of diversity or the goal of integration must give way. After all, safety and prosperity are within the diversity of human societies. The nation state has not led to a homogeneous culture, and it will not, The problem with religious, cultural, or ethnic plurality is not in plurality itself; the problem lies in the culture which does not accept and respect differences. Differences are present and will remain no matter what. The world of absolutes does. not exist. “It is a mirage. Albert Einstein was fiddling with numbers and symbols and through some Kabbalistic magic, he conjured up a universe in which it was impossible to say where you were. You could only describe your position inrelationship to something else, which could only describe its position in relationship to you. In Einstein's cockeyed scheme, you could not even say with authority what time it was. Again, your time was relative to their time and their time was relative to yours. This was from his Special Theory of Relativity. The sequel, General Relativity, was even stranger (Gimbel, 2012), In the Arab World, we, Christians and Muslims, Arabs and Kurds, now have a clear sense of our situation; It seems that we are very much like those portrayed in Géricault’s painting, the Raft of the Medusa. We are all standing on this huge piece of floating wreckage. It is not going to sink, but we have the choice of cooperating with one another and sharing the scarce resources on this floating raft or of eating ‘one another. We can no more follow the unsacred rule of politics, where “one man's hope is another man’s fear”. We have to learn to behave in accordance with a sacred rule, where “one cultural community's dream is not necessarily another community's ‘Rightmare:” 5: ‘The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, one of the great moral statements of the ;,20th century, could not be clearer. It says thet: “Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion” and to “manifest his/her religion in teaching, practice, worship and observance.” The question is: Will the wave of change in the Arab World live up to the standard of these noble principles? Clearly, intercultural communication is not just an Arab issue; it is intemational. The brave academic approach presented in this book, dealing with the hot issue of Intercultural communication, is sincerely needed, now more than any other time in history. It might even help reshape or reconstruct the Arab Spring. Thanks to all the contributors. Mohammad Sammak Secretary-General of Lebanon’s National Committee for Christian-Muslim DialogueNo one can deny the persisting continuities of tong traditions, sustained habitations, national languages, and cultural geographies, but there seems no reason except fearand prejudice to keep insisting on their separation and distinctiveness, as if that was all human life was about, Survival in fact is about the connections between things; in Eliot's phrase, réality cannot be deprived of the “other echoes [that] inhabit the garden.” It is more rewarding - and more difficult - to think concretely and sympathetically, contrapuntally, about others than only about “us.” But this also means not trying to rule others, not trying to classify them or put them in hierarchies, above all, not constantly reiterating how “our” culture or country is number one (or. not number one, for that matter), Edward W. Said, Culture and ImperialismIntroduction Chapter 1: Introduction to Intercultural Communication . What is it and why is it important? Debra Reece Chapter 2: _ Elements of Culture What are the key elements of any culture? Hanan Ibrehim, AF-Ahllyya Amman University Chaptar 3: Understanding Cultural Differences — How do the world’s cultures differ? Debra Reece 4 Chaptet 4: Forms and Styles of Communication What forms and styles of communication do we use? Deema Ammart, University of Jordan Chapter 5: Tele-Communication What role does mediated-communication play? ‘Sane Yagi, University of Jordan Chapter 6: Identity and Culture How does our sense of identity relate to culture? Hala Abu Taleb, University of Jordan Chaptgr 7° ) Achieving Intercultural Competence Cen we communicate well despite cultural differences? Lazaward Sughayer, Universty of Jordan Chaptef 8: -Shallenges to Intercultural Competence Vihat barriers impede our progress? Deema Ammari, University of Jordan Chapter 9: Growing in Intercultural Competence How can we become multicultural people? Rula Quawes, University of JordanIntroduction Intercultural Communication: Unity in Diversity emerged from a seed planted at a meeting in ‘Amman, where a group of thinkers and scholars envisioned a book on intercultural communication which would unpack the intricate complexities of this topic by drawing on various threads to create an integrated pattern for a different world. ‘The writers came together and helped to frame the basic themes elaborated within the pages of this volume. This book casts a vision of a culturally rich, inclusive, and sustainable world in which a future of human solidarity and global equity becomes more plausible. While we cannot know what will be, we can tell a plausible and interesting narrative of what could be. In this book, we provide insight into the scope of the possible. We illuminate the role of culture and communication in shaping the future by giving voice to important aspects such as beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and institutions. While we do offer a certain structure, discipline and rigor, our narrative also offers texture, richness, and insight. As the world divides itself into a kind of global apartheld—with the North in its interconnected, protected enclaves and the South as an impoverished, alienated majority, our book comes to rescind this divide and validate global solidarity, cultural cross-fertilization and economicconnectedness. While the global trajectory may branch out in diverse directions, the point of departure for all possible change is to make good on the commitments to justice and a decent standard of living for all found in the 1948 Dedaration on Human Rights, creating an equitable world, characterized by tolerance and a mosaic~ like diversity. Is such a vision possible? Will it guide our journey? It does not seem promising, judging by the global scene today that is so full of antagonism, inequity, and degradation of the human spirit. Yet, history is sure to bring surprises. Some may not be welcome, An escalating spiral of violence and reaction could amplify cultural and political schisms. People could grow more fearful, intolerant, and xenophobic as democratic institutions, civil liberties, and economic opportunity weaken, © Still favorable possibilities are also ‘plausible, Our desire for a rich quality of life, strong human ties, and a connection to each other is the lure that drives us toward the future. Global communication networks connect the four comers of the world, and translation devices ease language barriers. A global culture of peace, empathy, and mutual respect can and will forge social harmony, a harmony without uniformity. Notwithstanding, global change is accelerating and contradictions are deepening. Even though the ultimate implications are unknown, one possibility is hopeful: our new ways of re/un/thinking, acting, and being could be not only a platform for new multinational engagement on a wide range of cultural, political, social, and environmental challenges, but also a portal of discovery and a journey of recovery, offering a road map for the future. Heightened awareness of global inequities and dangers could support, amidst the turbulences and uncertainties, a push for a more equitable world of peace, freedom, and sustainability. Popular cultural values could eventually shift toward a strong desire for participation, cooperation, inclusiveness and diversity, yielding greater global understanding. Our book is about turning the lens and seeing intercultural communication from a perspective that expresses who we are as intellectuals and thinkers in the Arab World. This book offers our vision of a world that enhances and builds on the creativities of all people. We know full well that there is no one path to the creation of a multicultural world, but we are attempting to create a path by walking it. 10We are so glad you have joined us on this journey as we pursue unity in diversity. By the time you finish reading, discussing, and reflecting on the rich, significant topics ‘of communication, culture, identity, and intercultural communication competence over the next nine chapters, we hope you will agree that intercultural communication is one of the most important and equally fascinating subjects you will ever examine san adult. But why would we seek unity in diversity? The word, unity, elicits images of oneness and harmony, accord and agreement. Unity can also be viewed as undivided completeness with nothing lacking. We definitely want to pursue these outcomes, but we want to do it by maintaining an appreciation for diversity. In order words, we want harmony without uniformity. We want the richness of each culture on the face of the earth to contribute to the undivided completeness of our understanding of intercultural communication. Basically, we want to open our eyes to see the beauty f diversity! We are confident that as we examine cultural differences as well as similarities of people across the globe, you will grow in your appreciation of different cultural worldviews. However, this book is just the beginning of a ifetime process of celebrating the diversity of people and cultures, especially those that differ significantly from your own cultural upbringing. But you may be wondering why this topic is so important in today’s world. Due to the flow of people into and out of various countries for economic, political, religious, and social reasons, each of us will face accelerated exposure to and interaction with different cultures, Therefore, the seven authors involved in writing this book believe that intercultural communication is critical to ensuring peace and prosperity between rations. Likewise, globalization through the internet, movies, television, social media, international travel, and migration has impacted and will most likely continue to shape the future of us all. We applaud the leaders of the Middle East who have called for cultural exchange, increased dialogue, and greater understanding between people from all cultures and religions, In this same spirit, we invite you to come along and learn how to successfully communicate with people from very different cultures, it‘Along the way, we need to understand and celebrate the complexity of human communication as expressed through the use of words, sounds, symbols, facial expressions, touch, gestures, etc. In addition, we will need to gain general and ‘specific knowledge about various cultures as well as develop some new skills such as tolerating ambiguity, practicing empathy, and perception-checking. Likewise, we must acknowledge some persistent roadblocks on our journey, namely ethnocentrism, stereotypes, prejudice, and entrenched racism. So, while we affirm the richness of the world’s cultures, the intricacies of human communication, and the complexity of our cultural identities, we also acknowledge that effective and appropriate communication between people from diverse cultural backgrounds is both challenging and stimulating. But if we want to: ensure unity in diversity, then the challenges to successful intercultural communication must be overcome one step at a time. As you move progressively through the following chapters, we hope you will take time to reflect on your own culture as well as those that appear to be so different from your own. By the time you reach Chapter 9 on Growing in Intercultural Competence, we hope you will ascertain where you ‘are on your personal journey and investigate ways to continue moving towards increased multicultural sensitivity. You may elect to build relationships with expatriates from diverse nations, travel abroad for pleasure or further studies, or read more broadly from the world’s wide range of published authors. In fact, at the close of our book you will ind excerpts, quotes, poems, and short stories from diverse authors from Africa, the Americas, Europe, and the Middle East, Our hope is that these writings will ignite your curiosity. So, again welcome to this journey in pursuit of unity in diversity! Debra Reece and Rula Quawas 12Chapter 1 Introduction to Intercultural Communication “People across the globe are interacting with increasing numbers of people from diverse cultures within their own borders. Some of these interactions are due to international trade; personnel from one nation are relocating to new locations in hopes of improving trade and promoting their company’s products. Another reason for this increased interaction between cultures is the fact that people choose or are compelled to move to a new country in search of safety and security; ample food and clean water; religious or political freedom and free speech; employment, upward mobility and/ or a higher standard of living. ‘So whether it is due to economic, political, social, or religious reasons, more and more people are traveling, immigrating, and/or relocating to cultures other than their own. For example within Jordan, there are a significant number of Jordanians, Palestinians, Iraqis, Egyptians, Syrians, Saudi Arabians, Libyans, Europeans, North Americans, Latin Americans, and Southeast Asians who live, work, and/or study together on a daily basis. These various groups have chosen to live in Jordan for many of the reasons stated above. Although some of these groups share many cultural aspects in common, this cultural diversity makes communication between people more challenging. However, it can also be very stimulating! 13Likewise, the number of highly skilled Jordanians who are seeking jobs abroad is on the rise, According to a report in the Jordan Times (May 31, 2009), the majority of the estimated 600,000 to 670,000 Jordanians who work abroad live in Saudi Arabia, followed by the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, and other Gulf countries, As the cost of living continues to rise in Amman, there are fears that Jordan will see a significant ‘brain drain’ in the coming years in the following sectors of the economy: computer technology, construction, engineering, financial services, high-tech industries, and medicine. This does not even include the large number of Jordanians who travel to, study in, and seek residence in the U.S,, Britain, Canada, and Australia. So as you can see, people all over the world are on the move. We are seeing the flow of people into and out of countries based on economic, political, religious, and social Interests. This flow gives each of us the opportunity to learn about others and ourselves through interaction. Likewise, regional leaders such as King Abdullah IT of Jordan have played a significant role in promoting interfaith dialogue and fostering greater understanding between people of various religions. In a speech at a high level meeting of the United Nations General Assembly on Interfaith Dialogue in November 2008, King Abdullah II of Jordan said, 4Culture is also taught by the ways in which adults explain events around them to their children. For example, after a devastating earthquake, how do the adults in a child's life help the child make sense of what just happened. What explanations do they provide for natural occurrences and other human events such as disease, famine, and war? These various explanations provide each member of a culture with a set of interpretations that they then use to make sense of their world and to filter incoming messages. In addition to this set of shared interpretations that they apply to their experiences, culture provides members with guidelines about what is true or false, what is important or insignificant, and what should and should not be done. Such shared understandings allow members within the culture to predict how others will interact with them. This predictability allows people to conduct themselves naturally in everyday activities without significant thought. - One useful metaphor for culture is water. Imagine a goldfish swimming effortlessly . ina fish tank. It is largely unconscious of how important water isto its survival. Itis surrounded by water, corresponding to haw pervasive or widespread aulture is in our lives. Without water, the fish would die. Like fish, human beings also need culture to help them cope with life's diverse experiences and challenges. Defining Communication To fully understand and successfully participate in intercultural communication, we Need to examine the manner in which people communicate in general. Put simply, communication Is the way we share meaning through symbols within a defined context. By symbols, we mean a word, action, or object that represents a unit of meaning. For example, this heart-shaped image represents love in many cultures of the world, due to the influence of thé mass media. Does this visual image carry any other meanings n your culture? 17Meanings that are communicated through symbols include perceptions, thoughts, and feelings. However, in order for our intemal meanings to be shared with and understood by others, we have to create shared meanings together. If the heart symbol above means something different to a person from another culture than what you imagined, you could not establish mutual understanding with him/her Humans communicate through both verbal and nonverbal means. We may speak or write in one of the over 7,000 known living languages on the planet (Ethnologue website). Or we may make sounds, gestures, or body movements to express our feelings and thoughis. Either way we must share the meaning of the words, sounds, or gestures with others in order to communicate successfully. Another example of symbols are the letters of a language that combine to express meaning such as door (English), la porte (French), and ul (Arabic) for the same common object in our everyday lives. Such combinations of letters are commonly agreed upon by a group of language users and their meanings are entirely arbitrary and considered fixed. In general, nonverbal communication (s less arbitrary than verbal communication. ‘This means that the range of expected meanings that the gesture, visual image, or body movement refers to is larger and less certain. 18“Throughout the world, understanding and trust ‘among peoples of different faiths and cultures have been eroded. This is especially apparent among adherents of the three monotheistic faiths — more than half of the global population.... To reverse the tide of resentment and fear, ‘communication is vital. There must be a new and global dialogue among people of different faiths and civilizations. Such a dialogue is essential, to reveal the commonalities that unite humanity. But it does more. It teaches people to respect their differences. It opens eyes and hearts to the beauty of diversi -s-Qther leaders in the Middle East have joined King Abdullah II in calling for cuttural exchange, Increased dialogue, and greater understanding between people from all cultures and religions. In November 2008, King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia co-hosted a “Culture of Peace” conference at the United Nations headquarters in New York. During this same trip, he also met privately with a small group of American religious leaders, ranging from Baptist preachers, Jewish rabbis, Muslim imams, heads of Sikh Indian communities, Greek Orthodox clerics to Catholic priests. “Emotions filled the room as King Abdullah told ‘the attendees: “We are all brothers and sisters in humanity. Let us join hands to fight the ‘deviants’ who cause violence and sow hatred in the name of our peaceful religions.” In light of the flow of people into and out of their own cultures all over the globe as well as the role that Middle Eastern leaders have played in fostering cultural understanding among people of diverse faiths and civilizations, we would like to look at how individuals from diverse cultures can effectively communicate with each other despite significant cultural and religious differences. We want to move the discussion from the United Nations to the universities across the Middle East. We want to foster greater cultural understanding as well as an appreciation for cultural differences, Our challenge is to learn how to successfully communicate with people from very different cultures. But first we need to lay some foundations on which to build our understanding of intercultural communication. 15Defining Culture Culture Is a complex term that has been defined differently by various disciplines over many years. Within the realm of cultural anthropology, culture is defined as the total way of life of a group of people that is learned through interaction, adapted to their environment, and whose aspects are interconnected. However, for our purposes of understanding the concept of culture in order to communicate ively with py 1m various cultural backgrounds, we will define culture as ned(set o} i ton sags soe group te, 2003). ‘As newborn babies, we-are not born with the genetic imprint of a particular culture; it is learned through interaction with significant people in our lives over time. For example, our parents, other relatives, neighbors, friends, and even strangers teach us how to behave as a member of their culture. Although there are variations in how families train their children from infancy to adolescence across a culture, there are similarities across most or all families in that culture on which behaviors are praised and encouraged versus those that are looked down on and discouraged. 16We will be examining how people from different cultures, who might hold different meanings for the seme word, sound, or gesture, can lear to communicate in a satisfactory way. For now, let’s celebrate the complexity of human communication as expressed through the use of words, sounds, symbols, facial expressions, touch, and gestures. ‘Throughout the book, we will be connecting with people from other cultures through the use of computer-mediated communication and social media. Whenever you see this icon, we will be asking you to engage with others from diverse cultures via email, Facebook, Twitter, etc. on specific topics related to intercultural communication, journaling about these interactions, and sharing your new insights with others. Defining Intercultural Communication As a subset of the study of human communication, intercultural communication is the act of creating shared meanings among people of dissimilar cultures. The underlying assumption is that individuals who belong to the same culture share, in general, greater similarities with those from their own culture than with those from diverse cultural backgrounds. So when you encounter large and important cultural differences between you and another person when expressing your thoughts or feelings, you are engaging in intercultural communication, ‘You may be asking yourself what differences among groups of people are classified as cultural differences (as opposed to national, racial, or gender differences). This question will be addressed in subsequent chapters, especially Chapter 3. Another question one could ask is how significant are these differences? One of the skills of an effective intercultural communicator is to be able to identify the degree ‘to which intercultural differences are impacting the current interaction. 19For example, let's say that you are a Jordanian, born and.raised in Kerak and the person you are talking to is a Jordanian, born and raised in Irbid. How different are you two in terms of cultural differences? Where would you put yourselves on the following continuum? Very similar —________ very different Now, imagine that you are a Syrian man from Damascus communicating with an Algerian man from a southern desert oasis. Where would the degree of intercultural difference between you two be? Very similar - Very different Finally, what if you are a Lebanese woman from Beirut, trying to interact with a Korean woman who is studying Arabic in Lebanon? How different are the two of you in terms of cultural differences? Very simifar, —____________ Very different Once we have ascertained how similar or how different the person we are talking to is from us, we can also consider other factors that might impact the communication such as fluency in the chosen language, cultural expectations for specific people within a culture (such as women, men, children, the elderly), and different ways of communicating nonverbal. So you see, intercultural communication is very complex! But after reading the rest of this book, we hope that you find it stimulating and rewarding. In order for this to become a reality, we need to develop certain attitudes and skills along the way. The best avenue to learn about these differences is to actually interact with people from other cultures in specific contexts such as class discussions, chat rooms, family Visits, and social engagements. The key is for us to learn to observe how people act in various situations, Then we can learn to adapt our behavior appropriately when interacting with people who perceive the world differently from us. These observations and how we interpret them are critical to developing intercultural communication competence. 20Personal Reflection At this point in our journey, what would you like to learn about other cultures? 1 2aElements of Culture Now that we have a glimpse of what intercultural communication entails, we need to understand the concept of culture much more deeply. As a reminder, our definition of culture in Chapter 1 focused on a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, norms and social practices which affect the behaviors of a large group of people, For hundreds of years people have debated about what aspects or elements are fundamental to a distinct culture. When talking about the elements of culture, itis important to remember that these elements are themselves shaped by the culture itself. However, a majority of scholars agree that the following elements play a significant role in shaping and preserving cultures across the globe: Food + Dress and Attire Art and Dance Language and Discourse + Social institutions > History > Religious institutions 23Our task is to understand how each of these elements shape and preserve the shared beliefs, values, norms, and social practices of-a specific culture, Beliefs, values, and norms are very interrelated ideas. Together they affect our social practices. What we should first acknowledge is that they are dynamic and continuously changing. As people raised in a specific culture are exposed to other ways of thought and experiences, they adapt their beliefs, values, and norms overtime to accommodate the new input. Globalization through the internet, movies, television, social media, international travel, and migration has impacted us all. It has caused each culture to rethink what they believe in, judge by or act upon in their everyday lives. ‘The following ‘Cultural Onion’ diagram, developed by Dr. Eugene Bunkowske (1997) shows just how complex our.cultures really are. If you want to understand a culture deeply, you need’ to study it from the outside layers towards the center of the onion, The two. outer layers are the things you can see—artifacts and behaviors. Essentially, they are things collected in the culture and things that are done. The inner layers of beliefs, values, and feelings explain why people do those things. At the core is the culture's worldview and ultimate allegiance. 24Simply put, one’s worldview is an organized perspective or mental map guiding thoughts and behaviors at the center of that culture. The ultimate allegiance is at the heart; itis the starting point that gives direction, cohesion, and structure to the culture. For our purposes, we want to notice where beliefs, values, and norms fall within the onion and what questions they answer. * Belicfs—What is true? What is false about the world? Values-—What is good? What is honorable? What is important? What is not? Norms—What is expected of a man/woman/ child in this situation? Although norms are not pictured on the onion specifically, they can be placed between values and behaviors. They are rules for appropriate behavior that people expect of each other in various contexts in life. For example, people expect you to behave differently in your own home versus a public bus, in the classroom versus the library, or with friends versus complete strangers. Beliefs Beliefs are substantial elements of any culture. In short, a belief is an impression, an idea, a feeling, a notion, or an opinion in which you place some confidence. Beliefs vary from one culture to another and even from one person within the same culture to another. Ideally, differences in beliefs should be tolerated, even respected, 25In general, one's beliefs include things from one's religious faith or creed. However, itis important to point out that there are things you believe about the world that may also come from science, political theory, philosophy, and personal experience. Beliefs can be held by one individual and/or collectively held by a group of people. Overall, our beliefs are based on testimonies, knowledge, assumptions, and/or affirmations that are transferred from one generation to the next. Beliefs may be consciously or unconsciously embraced. In fact, some beliefs are often conditioned by a deeply held set of beliefs. Overall, our beliefs reflect a certain perception of the world around us. However, one’s beliefs are not a completely personal affalr, Most of our most deeply held beliefs are passed on to us by significant people in our lives. For example, a person's religious beliefs have a substantial effect on him or het, motivating and shaping their thoughts and practices. How religious beliefs are perceived and interpreted can be a critical issue, especially when the individual is convinced that his/her perception Is the only correct one. 28Values Velues are cherished ideas that a culture regards as important. Certain values, such as hospitality, are celebrated, honored, and esteemed in various ways within a culture—through song, literature, practice, etc, In fact, values are deep-seated and often hard to change. They are acquired during childhood through formal and informal education as well as through one’s observations of other people, including parents, family members, teachers, religious leaders, and popular figures. Each member of a culture leams to evaluate, judge and esteem their behavior as well as others’ behaviors in the light of these commonly held core values. By adolescence, each member of the culture instinctively knows what is good and acceptable in their culture as well as what is considered bad and ‘inappropriate. Some values are universal and shared by all cultures, while others are peculiar to a certain group of people or even individuals. In 2002, Dr. James Zogby surveyed individuals in eight nations across the Arab world, asking them to rank in order of importance the values they felt should be taught to children. They ranked the following 12 values in order of importance from one to five (one meaning ‘not important’; five meaning ‘extremely important’): Serious work habits Responsibility Religious faith Obedience Respect for elders Respect for authority Achieving a better ife Self-reliance Creativity/Imagination Self-respect Tolerance for the views of others Good health and hygiene ‘Take a moment and rank these values for yourself. Are there other values you would add to the list? Write them in the blanks provided. 7Dr. Zogby’s research found that overall, the values of self-respect, good health and hygiene, and responsibilty were the three values ranked as most important to teach to children, The Arab respondents also gave high priority to respect for elders and working to achieve a better life. ‘While there was some variation in the list of highest rated values, most respondents included among their lowest ranked values to be taught to children: creativity/using Your imagination, tolerance for the views of others, and respect for authority. Norms are the unwritten rules that govern appropriate behavior within a specific context within a culture, They are shaped by the beliefs and values of each culture. ‘As conventions, customs, and long-adopted practices, they essentially tell us what is, expected and acceptable in a given situation, What we consider ‘good manners’ in various contexts are essentially cultural norms. Norms exist for a wide variety of behaviors in our everyday life. For example, cultural norms might tell a young person that they are expected to stand up and offer their seat to an elderly family member who has just walked into a room. They also might tell us that when visiting a religious site or performing a religious duty, modesty in dress is expected. These norms, like beliefs and values, are taught to children through interaction over time. Firmly established norms become social facts and a part of people's lifestyle that is hard to change. Nevertheless, they can be significantly modified or even discontinued over time. 28Norms, according to some sociologists, are needed to create social order and organize roles within communities. Just like beliefs and values, norms vary significantly across cultures, and what is considered normal in one culture might be considered depraved in another. Norins govern how people talk, eat, dress, and interact with others in private and public spaces. Some norms are even enforced by the power of the law such as driving in a safe, controlled manner for the safety of others on the road: In fact, conformity to norms Is one of the pillars by which sound citizenship is defined. When an individual violates the culture's norms, social sanctions are typically imposed. For example, if you drive in an unsafe manner, you risk having to pay a fine at the police station. Consistent violators of cultural norms are considered social outcasts and can be subjected to rehabilitation programs, imprisonment and even death, Likewise, minorities who have norms that are incompatible with the more widespread and, overarching norms of the majority culture may be considered as ‘subgroups within’a culture. ‘While visiting oF living in a new culture, individuals can experience culture shock, bewilderment, and allenation due to differences in cultural norms. Therefore, acquiring knowledge about the different cultural norms of a group of people is crucial before interacting with them. Such knowledge can facilitate human communication and reduce culture shock. In today’s world where encounters with diverse cultures are accelerating, this knowledge is particularly essential. Likewise, this accelerated exposure to and interaction with different cultures makes the changing of cultural norms a distinct possibility, As more and more individuals in a society encounter different perspectives through education, cultural exchange, and the mass media, they can encourage their communities to embrace useful, constructive social norms and to let go of those norms that harm their societies. As they weigh the pros and cons of certain norms, they can help change their culture in positive ways overtime, 29Social Practices Social practices are the commonplace, predictable behaviors of individuals who live within a specific culture. Essentially, they are approved modes of behavior or normalized actions in diverse cultural contexts. These practices are shaped by the culture's beliefs, values, and norms. They can be informal (governing everyday life activities such as eating, sleeping, dressing, working, and playing together) or formal (governing specific public rituals and ceremonies). Lets take a moment to explore an important element of culture, food, as well as the social practices related to it. ‘When discussing food as an element of culture, itis important to understand what the word means. Although the ingredients of each cuisine are an important reflection of its culture, food does not simply mean what we eat. It also includes when and how we eat. So we are interested in looking at the ingredients in a specific dish within a culture, the time of day it is eaten, the people it is eaten with, and the tools used to eat it. These aspects together are important in shaping our cultural identities, However, people do not usually think this deeply about what they eat and how it affects their identities, especially when they are hungry. The simple fact is that ike all other aspects of culture, we learn how to eat, what to eat and when to eat it while growing up until we no longer think about it. It Is just like what we say when you greet someone; we do not think deeply about it; we just greet them. Eating is the same thing. A simple test would be to travel to a different country and try to follow everything the people do while eating the same dishes. It is then that we realize that what, when and how we eat are specific elements of our culture. Cultures also use food as a way to celebrate social relationships. We grow up knowing that certain dishes are served on particular occasions, In Jordan, a wedding is never properly celebrated without a feast to which everyone is invited to eat ‘mansaf.. Even when a family member passes away, people are invited to lunch and mansaf is served. Sweets like knafeh are served when celebrating a wedding, a graduation, or any happy occasion; however, itis the tradition in certain countries to serve sweets to people attending a funeral. When a child is born, the people coming to congratulate the new mother are served a special drink made of boiled caraway, sugar, cinnamon, and rice starch, covered with generous amounts of pistachios, pine seeds, and almonds, This social practice is common in Jordan, Syria, Palestine, and Lebanon; however, these countries differ in whether itis served cold or hot. 30In adcition to being related to social occasions, food is also strongly related to the set of beliefs that exist in any culture. These beliefs can play a role in what members ofa particular culture eat. Sometimes these beliefs prevent the eating of particular types of food or encourage the eating of others. The relationship bebween beliefs and food can be traced back to ancient times. Additionally, cultural beliefs play a role in the way people eat. Some cultures have a clear idea about the way people should be seated when they eat, the order of the dishes should be served, the utensils used when eating, whether any conversation takes place while eating and even the topics discussed. All these points are part of what characterize cultures and meke them different. ‘Another important element of culture is dress and attire. As the standard clothing worn by people within a specific culture, itis an Important visible element of culture. While it is very visible to the members of the culture, it may also be easily recognized by outsiders as well. People often recognize a specific dress or attire and make basic assumptions about that culture. Often, each dress has its own unique, special meaning with a culture. Likewise, every culture has its own view of dress, whether traditional, modem, or a mix of thetwo. However, dress is not only born out of an overriding preoccupation with fashion as such, but it also comes from a desire to promote particular cultural, national, religious or political points of view. Contrary to what might be assumed, dress and attire are products of inherited religious beliefs or cultural traditions as well as the interplay between local circumstances and global forces. 31Dress for Arab men and women ranges from the traditional flowing robes (or thous) to blue jeans and T-shirts. However, the majority of women across the Arab World dress conservatively, In some countries like Saudi Arabia, you never find women in the streets without the abayeh, In other countries such as Jordan, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Egypt, you find a mixture of women wearing the Ajab, the abayeh, or casual jeans with shirts and jackets, In predominantly Muslim countries, women tend to wear the hijab, a headscarf that covers their hair and neck. It serves as a visual manifestation of their religious identity as Muslims; itis also a product of cultural conservatism, The hijab comes in countless types and is worn for many reasons (religious, social or personal); it can also be worn to make a statement, display modesty and/or express one’s own style. It should be noted, however, that the hijab has been highly politicized ever since colonialism took root in the MENA (Middle East and North Africa) region. A woman who wears the hijab is.seen by the West as someone who is not only physically and socially constricted, but also as someone who has no freedom of choice in the matter. We need to help people see that men and women within many cultures and religions all over the world choose to veil their heads. ‘Arab men usually wear a shemagto protect themselves against the wind, the intense ‘sun, and the rain. This is worn over the head and is held in place by an agal. At times, it is thrown over the shoulders like a cape. The shemag has also become a symbol of Arab nationalism. As a result, it has become the subject of criticism and alarm to some in the West. What other words are used in place of shemag? Do a Google search using the word "shemag” and share what you found with your friends ‘on Facebook. What does this piece of clothing represent to them? 32What kind of thoughts and feelings does this Image evoke in you? Perhaps this discussion has raised your curiosity about how people across the globe Use theit dress ahd attire to express personal, religious, and cultural identities. We ‘Would like to propose several ways you can extend your knowledge: > Go to the library and find some information on traditional dress within one country or people group in the Middle East. For example, you might research how the Kurdish women of Iraq dress in their homes, for going out, for celebrating important events, etc. Try to find some nice pictures to share with others. » Create a PowerPoint presentation to share with others via the internet. For example, you might want to show an array of costumes that symbolize various cultures, It might be useful to show clothing from each continent (Asia, the Americas, Africa, Antarctica, Europe, and the Middle East), Investigate if there are instructions on appropriate dress in various religious traditions. Do a Google search using the words “religion and modest dress” to discern if there are common principles being taught across religions. The last cultural element we want to take a look at is an important formal social practice found across the globe, marriage ceremonies and rituals, These important social occasions are essentially a visible manifestation of a culture's beliefs, values, and norms relative to family and children. In fact, they celebrate culture as much as they celebrate the couple and their new life together. 33Despite sharing a language and many cultural values, Arab cultures celebrate these happy occasions differently. The variations are not major, but they do distinguish one culture from one another. Traditionally, finding a future spouse is not the job of the groom-to-be or the bride-to-be; itis the responsibilty of family members, particularly elderly women. Once a young man reaches the appropriate age, his mother begins her search for a suitable wife. If an appropriate cousin is not available, the mother vill ask around and/or look closely for eligible young ladies at different social events. In Yemen, for example, finding a suitable wife is a very serious issue that requires not only an extensive search, but also a lot of investigation once a young lady meets the initial expectations of the mother of the groom-to- be. The investigation is done without the knowledge of the gid or her family, inciuding:a thorough background check: The women of the groom's femily pay the young woman's family a'surprise visit in-order to know how. they. recelve guests, and to see whether the young lady behaves appropriately... Once the young lady passes all these steps, the family: schedules another: official visit and it is then that the mother of the groom asks for the young woman's hand in martiage.. Her family asks for some time to think and does thelr own background check on the groom and his family to know whether they are suitable. If yes, the family gives their positive answer and then an official visit is scheduled for the men in the groom's family to go and ask for the young woman's hand in marriage officially. The approval begins a series of celebrations that continue even after the wedding. ‘The first of these celebrations is the engagement party where family and friends gather to celebrate the promise of a union between the young couple. The groom’s family prepares a gift for the girl, In Yemen the engagement package contains an engagement dress, 2 gold ring and other jewelry, a pair of shoes, two pieces of expensive fabric to make dresses for the girl's mother and grandmother, two perfume bottles, a wristwatch, an amount of money to hold the engagement party (usually not exceeding YR 30,000 or $150) and high quality chocolates. ‘The second celebration is the signing of the marriage contract. Both bride and groom go to the courthouse where they are married by an official in the presence of their fathers and other members of the family. Some families invite the official to come to the house of the bride for the signing of the marriage contract. A huge party is held that night and a huge dinner is served to the guests In celebration. 34In Tunisie, preparations for the big dey diff days before the wedding, the bride goes to the Aammam with her female friends and female family members. As she walks to the bathhouse, she is surrounded by her guests who make music and sing songs on the way. The bride is covered in a safsarj, a traditional dress to protect her from the evil eye, Once they artive, a small party begins and different types of incense are burned, That same evening, the family hosts a Aenna party where the bride wears a traditional red dress and a special woman decorates the hands and feet of the bride with henna designs. This henna night is not particular of Tunisia; itis found in various Arab cultures. These temporary tattoos are used to protect the bride from the evil eye, and in other cultures the henna Is used to mark the period of time the bride will be relieved from taking part in household chores. Traditionally, the bride and groom lived with the groom's parents, and the bride was not expected to take part in any chores as long as she still had:henna designs on her hands; once they are gone, she wes no longer a guest, but had become a member of the family and she began her life as @ wife and a daughter-in-law and was expected to take her responsibilities seriously. in the following ways. A couple of In each of these cultures, the wedding day is the most important day and thus has the biggest party associated with it, The families prepare a big feast on the day of the wedding and both the bride and groom prepare themselves for the special night, Traditionally, brides wore the traditional costumes of their culture, but in modern times all brides choose to wear the white dress. In Morocco, the bride wears a white kaffan, and she enters the wedding hall seated in a large chair called the amariya, Sometimes she is accompanied by the groom. Then, strong:men (four or more) cary the chair around the hall so that all the invited people could see the bride and groom and wish them well. After that, the couple moves to special seats that are positioned so all the guests can see the couple, and people come to take pictures with the lucky couple. During a wedding in Morocco, the bride changes outfits more than once, and she is helped by special wedding planners who make certain the wedding proceeds smcothly since they know the traditions that should take place and in what order, The habit of changing outfits is not exclusive to Morocco; this is also practiced elsewhere, In Hebron, the bride is expected to change at least four outfits on the wedding night, beginning with the traditional dress, moving through different dresses, and ending with a white wedding dress, 35Likewise, the guests in Hebron are served dinner on the night of the wedding. As the end of the party draws near, each guest is given a small souvenir by which to remember the couple. Very often each guest is given five sugar-coated almond pieces; each stands as a symbol for one of the five sacred wedding wishes: health, happiness, wealth, fertility, and longevity. Did you know that these tasty candies are called Jordan almonds? 36Chapter 3 Understanding Cultural Differences Thus far, we have learned how important it is to . «understand a culture's beliefs, values, norms, and social practices. From the onion diagram, we can “also deduce that these key aspects of a culture are deeply held within the heart of each person on the planet. ‘Together these key elements shape our cultural patterns. Essentially, these patterns are roughly similar behaviours across similar situations that are practiced by a large number of people. They are like shared mental programs that guide and direct our behavioural choices. This Is not to say that people are all the same. Even within the same culture, we will see individual differences. However, the core assumptions about the world and our place in it are taught to us very early in our lives and are continuously reinforced by social institutions and our interpersonal networks, ‘These institutions include government, education, religion, professional organizations, and social orgenizations. Cur interpersonal networks are made up of our extended family, peers, neighbours, employers, employees, authority figures, and other sociel contacts.Many researchers have studied how cultures differ, but one of the most prominent people to influence how we describe these differences Is Dr. Geert Hofstede. He is a Dutch cultural anthropologist who originally conducted in-depth interviews with hundreds of IBM employees in 53 countries. According to Hofstede, culture is the essential patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting that are well-established by late childhood, His data, collected from 1972 ‘to 1983, was statistically analysed; it identified specific patterns of similarities and ifferences among the respondents. He deduced that the world’s cultures vary along consistent, fundamental dimensions, From his research data, he created indices for these four dimensions with values ranging from 0 to 100: + Power Distance + Uncertainty Avoidance + Collectivism—Individuatism + Femininity—Masculinity Let's take a closer look at these four fundamental dimensions that describe the dominant patterns in the world's diverse cultures. 38Power Distance Power distance, as our first cultural dimension, looks at how different cultures deal ‘with distinctions between people based on status and their access to power. It reflects the degree to which people in a culture believe that power should be stratified, unequally shared, and concentrated at the higher levels of a company, organization, or government. Essentially, it indicates the degree of equality or inequality between people within a society. In addition, it asks how much a culture values hierarchical relationships and respects authority. While some cultures may value equality more than hierarchy, other cultures may value hierarchy over equality. If you have been taught to believe that people should interact with each other on a level playing field, then you probably come from a tow °s. power distance culture. if you have been taught to accept status differences and » to treat people according to their social standing, then you probably come from a high power distance culture. Let's take a look at some specific data from Hofstede’s research. He reported the following scores for power distance in the Arab world (drawn from Egypt, Ira, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, and Saudi Arabia), Britain, South Korea and Austria. 300 > Based on these diverse scores, what would you say about the way people in these various cultures view hierarchy in organizations, businesses, and government? If the Arab World has a score of 80 and Austria has 2 score of 11, would you expect any difficulties in conducting business or negotiations between individuals from these different cultures because of how they perceive status and power? 39 a rsNow that we have compared four very different cultures using actual power distance scores, let's put into words how the two extremes see the world through the lens of, power: High power distance cultures (Malaysia, Venezuela, Philippines, and Arab World) have the following characteristics: «+ Those in authority openly demonstrate their rank « Subordinates are not given important work and expect direction from above « Subordinates are expected to take the blame for things that go wrong ‘The relationship between boss and subordinate Is rarely close/personal Politics are typically totalitarian Class divisions within society are accepted Low power distance cultures (Austria, Israel, New Zealand, and Ireland).have the following characteristics: « Superiors treat subordinates with respect and do not pull rank » Subordinates are entrusted with important assignments «Blame is elther shared or accepted by superiors Managers may often socialize with subordinates Liberal democracies are the norm Societies are egalitarian in nature Check out a short video on YouTube that summarizes the concept of power distance and how it affects interaction between’ people of different cultures. Google “Cultural dimerision and power distance and video.” Se prepared to share what you learned with others via your Facebook page. 40Uncertainty Avoidance Uncertainty avoidance, our second cultural dimension, looks at how different cultures strive to avoid uncertainty by relying on social norms, rules, rituals, and bureaucratic practices to alleviate the unpredictability of future events, It reflects the degree to which people live structured lives with few unexpected events. High uncertainty avoidance cultures tend to see uncertainty about the future and people's freedom to make choices about their future as threatening and stressful. These cultures seek ways to reduce such threats. They place high value ‘on maintaining stability and preserving their traditions, Change is seen as disrupting the rhythm, pace, and meaning of life. People are not comfortable taking risks, preferring to do things the way they have been done in the past. These cultures are ;, often rule-oriented; they follow well-defined laws or social norms that govern legat, religious, or social requirements. Each aspect of life is well-planned out, eliminating uncertainty about people's choices. Low uncertainty avoidance cultures view change and risk taking differently. People in these cultures learn early on to expect change and embrace it as a fact of life. They even | look forward to change as a source of positive things in their future. In fast, changeis seen.as eet to making progress. Lack of change may be seen as stigction whet ae fneans that these cultures encourage people to take risks and try new things Likewise, these cultures have less rules and structure that govern each aspect of life. Overall, these cultures are more flexible and tolerant of differing behaviors and opinions. The following continuums show the two values that represent the ends of this cultural dimension: Change ______________ stability Progress_________________ Tradition Where do you see your own culture? Which of these two extremes resonates most with your cultural upbringing? How comfortable are you with taking risks? 41Let's take a look at some more data from Hofstede’s research. He reported the following scores for uncertainty avoidance in the Arab world (drawn from Egypt, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, and Saudi Arabia), Denmark, Japan and the United ‘States. es eesususes Arab World Desa Jepan us. Based on these scores (Arab World 68, Denmark 23, Japan 92 and the United States 46), which culture is more rule-based? Which culture values stability and tradition over progress and change the most? Which culture views change as positive and welcome? Finally, the score for the Arab world is drawn from various Arab cultures. Do you think the countries in the Arab World would differ on this dimension? if so, how? 42‘Check out @ short video on YouTube that summarizes the concept of collectivism and how it affects interaction between people of different cultures. Google “Cultural dimension and me or we and video”, Be prepared to share what you learned with others via Facebook or Twitter. Let's take a look at some more data from Hofstede's research. He reported the following scores for individualism in the Arab world (drawn from Egypt, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, and Saudi Arabia), Ecuador, Australia, and India, This chart displays the following scores: the Arab World 38, Ecuador 8, Australia 90 and India 48. What do these scores tell us about these four diverse cultures? Based on these scores, which culture values individualism, self-reliance, and independence the most? Australia ‘What other nations in the world would you guess would have similar scores based on what you know about their cultures? «United States, Canada, Britain, Netherlands Which culture values group cohesiveness, harmony, and solidarity the most? Ecuador ‘What other nations in the world would you guess would have similar scores besed ‘on what you know about their cultures? 44which people within different cultures express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their families, tribes, and societies. It also reflects the degree of interdependence that 2 culture maintains among its members. Basically, it looks at how important the sense of belonging to specific groups is within a person's life and how this value affects their decisions. ig yok - carnasy For example, cultures AMMAN yIduatisth and high in group collectivism place a great deal of importance on the needs and well-being of the entire group. People within these cultures make major life decisions in consultation with their families, ...friends, and co-workers. As children, they are taught to depend and rely upon others, who in turn can rely upon them. By looking out for others, you also protect “" yourself. One’s sense of identity is a function of one’s membership or role in these Important groups. If you do something wrong, you feel ashamed and are concerned about how this reflects on your entire group. However, cultures M@iw4h individualism and low in group collectivism see the world quite differently. While people may seek input from significant others in their lives, they ultimately feel responsible for thelr own decisions in life. They are much freer to choose where to live, what major to pursue at university, and which person to marry. The value of self-reliance is esteemed higher than group harmony and cohesiveness, Each individual takes pride In being responsible for themselves and their immediate family. Independence and freedom are valued over group solidarity, If you do something wrong, you fee! guilty and are concerned about how this reflects on you and your character. Some of the ramifications of this cultural dimension can be seen in the greater society. For example, cultures high in group collectivism tend to believe that @ person's family background, age, gender, or ethnicity are very Important in determining a person's status or standing in the community. You are rewarded with position and/or prornotion at work based on your membership in a family, tribe, group, or ethnicity. However, cultures that value individualism tend to reward individual achievement and promote people based on thelr merit. If you work hard, regardless of yout background, you can improve your place in society. 43Guatemala, Panama, Venezuela, Pakistan, Columbia ‘What can you deduce about how the Arab world differs from Latin America on this cultural dimension? Masculinity vs. Femininity Masculinity and femininity, our fourth cultural dimension, refers to how different cultures view gender roles. Specifically, it looks at how rigidly traditional roles for men and women are maintained. However, it does not have anything to do with outward physical characteristics between men and women, Overall, masculine cultures tend to value assertiveness, competition, and toughness, ‘Their objectives in the workplace are earning money, receiving recognition, advancing in their career, and challenging others. Typically, these cultures prefer to have specific roles for men and women in their families and in society, Society as a whole has distinct expectations of men and women. For example, the husband is expected ‘to go out and earn a living for his wife and children. The wife is expected to care for her husband, children and home. In fact, each gender is treated very differently. Within these cultures, a specific gender often serves as doctors, lawyers, nurses, ‘engineers, accountants, etc, Conversely, feminine cultures tend to collapse these distinctions between men and ‘women. Both men and women can care for the home, the children, and other people like one’s parents. Feminine cultures value modesty, tendemess, good relations at 45home and work, and security; these values are balanced with the need to earn a living. For example, the amount of money you could earn at another company may not outweigh the great work environment that you currently enjoy with your colleagues. Lets take @ look at some more data from Hofstede'’s research, He reported the following scores for masculinity in the Arab world (drawn from Egypt, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, and Saudi Arabia), Austria, Britain, Sweden, and Japan. ‘Arab Word "usta tan ‘Sweden Japan Based on these scores (Arab World 53, Austria 79, Britain 66, Sweden 8, and Japan 95), which culture is more masculine, competitive, focused on material success? In which culture are the gender roles collapsed, encouraging both men and women to show tenderness, modesty, and the need for security? 46Gender Roles ~~ For decades, in public discourse as well as in academic disciplines, there has been an extensive debate about the extent of human variations by sex, There has also been much discussion about the cultural meaning and signification attached to maleness and femaleness. The terms sex and gender are often used to refer to these variations and significations. What is sex? What is gender? What is the association between sex and gender? What determines sex? What determines gender? These are big questions with a variety of answers. Let us take a closer look at these two concepts. Sex is often defined as an absolute biological classification as male or female, while gender is a social and cultural construction. To clarify this further, sex is often used to refer to the biological distinctions between males and females. For instance, biological features of sex include, among other things, genetic factors of male and female chromosomes, hormones, as well as intemal and external sexual and reproductive organs. Gender, on the other hand, refers to the social and cultural meanings attached to notions of maleness and femaleness, Culture provides individuals with knowledge that shapes their social interactions, beliefs, and behaviors, In other words, itis all about nature versus nurture, biology versus social determinism. Think of it this way: male and female are sexes, but masculine and feminine are genders. Conceptualizations of sex and gender as well as the importance of sex and gender vary from culture to culture. As you know, gender does not exist in a vacuum and gender roles are cultural and also personal. Gender roles determine how males and females think, speak, dress, and interact within a certain society. Like our cultural identities, our gender roles are continually changing over time, Various socializing agents, such as parents, teachers, friends, movies, television, social media, music, books, and religion, teach and endorse gender roles throughout one’s lifespan. Let us try to address the following questions. What is expected of a woman in the world? What is expected of a man? For example, in the Middle East and North Africa, men and women follow culturally accepted and conventional gender roles. 47Women are raised to be mothers and housewives while men are expected to be the breadwinners of the family. Women are responsible for cooking, raising children, and taking care of the housework. Men are responsible for protecting their family and for providing for them financially. Any attempt to adapt these gender roles or to transform societal expectations of men and women faces serious challenges. Throughout history, men have been expected to provide for their family. In the earliest days that meant hunting and bringing food to the table, while in recent times it means making money and earning a paycheck, Women, on the other hand, took care of children and housekeeping. Men worked outside the home in the public sphere; women were expected to stay at home or within the private sphere. However, thanks to cultural movements such as second-wave feminism, it is now considered more acceptable for women to have a career. To a lesser extent, some men have admitted that they do not want a career and would rather stay home with their children, ‘There are now more “Mr. Moms" than there ever used to be. Such positive changes in gender roles have allowed for greater equality within marriage. Aithough gender roles are changing, men and women still do not have identical positions in society, Women often earn less than men for the same amount of work. Studies have shown that women earn less than men right out of college, and that the gap widens as their careers progress. Meanwhile, men who wield more power and make more money also continue to hold the most, visible leadership roles in society. Potential problems arise when gender roles performed in one culture differ significantly from your own culture. For example, what would you think of a British man who cleared the dishes from the table after a Friday meal in your home and offered to do the dishes? Would the men in your family tell him to sit down and not do women’s work? None of this implies that any specific gender roles are good or bad. Gender roles are realities in everyone's life, but realities can be contested and challenged over time. 48Case Study Now that we have looked at four cultural dimensions on which the cultures of the world differ, let's put the four concepts together and compare two diverse cultures, The flag on the left represents Turkey and the one on the right represents France, Power Distance “Unéertainty Avoidance 85 86 Individualism 37 7” Masculinity 45 4B By examining the differences in the values of Hofstede’s cultural indices for these ‘two countries, we can answer the following questions: 1. Where do the two countries differ the most? ——————____ What does this mean if two students at university are interacting after class? ‘What does this mean for a company wanting to invest in the other country? 2. On which dimensions are they most similar? By their scores, Turkey and France appear to be quite similar culturally, despite their historical, political, and religious differences. Does this surprise you? 49Verbal and Nonverbal Communication ‘As we interact with people, we are sending and receiving messages constantly. Verbal and nonverbal communication can be summed up with “what we say, how we say it, what we do, and how we do it.” If one of these forms of communication is missing, the process of communication is incomplete. ‘These two forms of communication are thus the tools used for the purpose of interaction. They help us communicate competently with those culturally close to us and those who are culturally different from us. Of course, what we say, how we say it, what we don't say, as well as what we mean by what we say are all influenced by our cultural upbringing. We constantly use both forms of communication either intentionally or unintentionally. But before we discuss the relationship between the two forms, it is crucial that we start with a dear