Words, meaning and vocabulary

1\1

Examine the following definitions of ‘lexicology’. What do they agree on as

the scope of lexicology? And where do they disagree?

1. An area of language study concerned with the nature, meaning, history

and use of words and word elements and often also with the critical
description of lexicography. (McArthur (ed.) 1992)

2. The study of the overall structure and history of the vocabulary of a

language. (Collins English Dictionary 1998)

3. A branch of linguistics concerned with the meaning and use of words.

(Longman Dictionary of the English Language 1991)

4. The study of the form, meaning, and behaviour of words. (New Oxford
Dictionary of English 1998)

Agreement on the Scope of Lexicology:

- All definitions agree that lexicology is concerned with the study of words.

- They also concur that lexicology involves the investigation of word meaning
and use.

Disagreement on the Scope of Lexicology:

1. Nature and History of Words:

- Definition 1 (McArthur): Includes the nature, meaning, history, and use of
words, as well as the critical description of lexicography. This definition
implies a broader scope that encompasses not only the structure and usage
of words but also the history of their development and the principles
underlying dictionary-making.

- Definition 2 (Collins): Focuses on the overall structure and history of the

vocabulary of a language. While this definition acknowledges the historical
aspect, it emphasizes the structural organization of the vocabulary rather
than delving into the critical description of lexicography.
 - Definition 4 (New Oxford Dictionary of English): Mentions the form,
meaning, and behavior of words, suggesting an emphasis on the structural,
semantic, and functional aspects of words. It does not explicitly mention the
historical dimension.

2. Focus of Study:

- Definition 1 (McArthur): Includes not only the nature, meaning, and use of
words but also the critical description of lexicography. This suggests a
broader focus that extends beyond the analysis of words themselves to
encompass the study of dictionaries and their compilation.

- Definition 2 (Collins): Emphasizes the study of the overall structure and

history of the vocabulary of a language. This definition focuses more
narrowly on the organization and historical development of the lexicon.

- Definition 3 (Longman): Concentrates on the meaning and use of words,

implying a narrower focus primarily on semantic and pragmatic aspects of
lexicology.

- Definition 4 (New Oxford Dictionary of English): Highlights the study of

the form, meaning, and behavior of words, indicating a focus on linguistic
structure and function.

In summary, while these definitions agree on the fundamental scope of

lexicology as the study of words, they differ in their emphasis on aspects
such as the nature, history, structure, and focus of study within lexicology.

EXERCISE 1/2

Etymology can be a fascinating area of study. Look up the etymology of

bridegroom in your dictionary. Does it mention the folk etymology, i.e. the
change from ‘gome’ to ‘groom’?

Now look up the etymology of adder. Is there any folk etymology at work
here?

1. Bridegroom:

- The word "bridegroom" originates from Middle English "bridgome," which

combines "bride" and "gome" (meaning "man" or "male"). The
transformation from "gome" to "groom" occurred over time due to phonetic
changes.

2. Adder:
- The word "adder" comes from Old English "nædre," which means "serpent"
or "snake." There is no significant folk etymology associated with this word.

3. Snake:

- The word "snake" originates from Old English "snaca," which ultimately
comes from Proto-Germanic "*snak-" meaning "to crawl." It is related to
similar words in other Germanic languages, such as German "Schlange" and
Dutch "snaak."

EXERCISE 1/3

Consider the following ‘deviant’ sentences. In which of them would an

alternative selection of words (lexis) make an improvement, and in which
does the arrangement of the words (syntax) need to be adjusted?

1. Visitors are aggressively requested to remove their shoes before leaving

the temple.

2. You put can table the the on bread you bought have.

3. All mimsy were the borogroves and the mome raths outgrabe.

4. Anyone lived in a pretty how town, with up so many bells floating down.

5. Off you go, up the apples and pears and into uncle ned.

1. Visitors are aggressively requested to remove their shoes before leaving

the temple.

- Lexis: The choice of words seems appropriate, but the tone might be
improved by using a less forceful adverb than "aggressively."

- Syntax: The arrangement of words is clear and grammatically correct.

2. You put can table the the on bread you bought have.
 - Lexis: The selection of words is incorrect and confusing. Reordering the
words or choosing different words would improve clarity.

- Syntax: The arrangement of words is incorrect and nonsensical. Adjusting

the syntax to follow standard word order rules is necessary for
comprehension.

3. All mimsy were the borogroves and the mome raths outgrabe.

- Lexis: The selection of words is taken from Lewis Carroll's poem

"Jabberwocky," where nonsensical words are intentionally used. In this
context, alternative lexicon wouldn't necessarily improve the sentence, as
the goal is to evoke a whimsical, nonsensical atmosphere.

- Syntax: The arrangement of words follows the structure of the original

poem and is not meant to adhere to standard syntax. In this context, the
syntax is appropriate for the purpose of creating a unique literary style.

4. Anyone lived in a pretty how town, with up so many bells floating down.

- Lexis: The selection of words is poetic and evocative. An alternative

lexicon may not necessarily improve the sentence, as the choice of words
contributes to the poetic imagery.

- Syntax: The arrangement of words is poetic and follows a unique

structure, which is characteristic of the poetic style used in the original poem
by E. E. Cummings. Alternative syntax may not be necessary if the goal is to
maintain the poetic form.

5. Off you go, up the apples and pears and into uncle ned.

- Lexis: The selection of words seems appropriate for informal speech or

dialectical use. An alternative lexicon may not be necessary if the goal is to
maintain the colloquial tone.

- Syntax: The arrangement of words follows a colloquial or dialectical

structure, which may be appropriate for the intended style or tone. However,
depending on context, clarity could be improved by rephrasing or adding
punctuation.
EXERCISE 1/4

For each of the following sets of words, say what the principle is that groups
them into a set. Is the principle one of a common meaning, related forms of
a lexeme, or something else (please specify)?

1. dawdle, saunter, meander, wander, swan, tootle

2. speak, speaks, spoke, speaking, spoken

3. telephone, dial, number, answer, ring, engaged

4. rich, wealthy, well-off, loaded, affluent, well-heeled, oofy

1. dawdle, saunter, meander, wander, swan, tootle:

- Principle: Common meaning

- Explanation: These words are all verbs that describe different ways of
moving leisurely or casually. While they may have subtle differences in
connotation or manner, they share a common semantic field related to
leisurely movement or strolling.

2. speak, speaks, spoke, speaking, spoken:

- Principle: Related forms of a lexeme

- Explanation: These words are all forms of the verb "speak," each
representing a different tense (present, past, past participle) or aspect
(progressive). They are different inflections of the same lexical item,
representing variations in tense, aspect, and person.

3. telephone, dial, number, answer, ring, engaged:

- Principle: Common function or use

- Explanation: These words are all related to the process of making or

receiving phone calls. They represent various actions or components
involved in telephonic communication, such as using a telephone, dialing a
number, answering a call, hearing the phone ring, or encountering a busy
signal (engaged).
4. rich, wealthy, well-off, loaded, affluent, well-heeled, oofy:

- Principle: Common meaning

- Explanation: These words are all adjectives that describe having a lot of
money or possessions. They share a common semantic field related to
wealth or financial prosperity, although they may differ slightly in
connotation or usage.

EXERCISE 1/5

(a) Closed word classes have a restricted membership: list all the personal
pronouns in modern English.

In modern English, the personal pronouns typically include:

1. First person singular: I

2. Second person singular: you

3. Third person singular: he/she/it

4. First person plural: we

5. Second person plural: you (can be used for both singular and plural)

6. Third person plural: they

Additionally, there are possessive forms of these pronouns:

1. First person singular possessive: my/mine

2. Second person singular possessive: your/yours

3. Third person singular possessive: his/her/hers/its

4. First person plural possessive: our/ours

5. Second person plural possessive: your/yours

6. Third person plural possessive: their/theirs

There are also reflexive pronouns, which are used when the subject and the
object of the verb are the same:

1. First person singular reflexive: myself

2. Second person singular reflexive: yourself

3. Third person singular reflexive: himself/herself/itself

4. First person plural reflexive: ourselves

5. Second person plural reflexive: yourselves

6. Third person plural reflexive: themselves

(b) Attempt a definition of ‘adjective’. Think of the kinds of general meaning

adjectives have, their possible forms (inflections), and where they typically
occur in sentence structure.

An adjective is a word that modifies or describes a noun or pronoun by

providing additional information about its qualities, characteristics, or
attributes. Adjectives serve to enhance the meaning of the noun or pronoun
they accompany by specifying or qualifying its properties.

Adjectives can convey various kinds of general meanings, including:

1. Descriptive Attributes: Adjectives can describe the physical appearance,

qualities, or features of nouns, such as size (e.g., big, small), color (e.g., red,
blue), shape (e.g., round, square), age (e.g., young, old), or texture (e.g.,
rough, smooth).

2. Evaluative Qualities: Adjectives can express judgments or evaluations

about nouns, indicating positive (e.g., beautiful, delicious), negative (e.g.,
ugly, disgusting), or neutral (e.g., ordinary, average) assessments.

3. Relative Relationships: Adjectives can establish relationships between

nouns or compare them to others, indicating superiority (e.g., better,
superior), equality (e.g., equal, identical), or inferiority (e.g., worse, inferior).

Adjectives can take various forms, including inflections for degree, number,
and gender. Some common forms of adjectives include:
1. Comparative and Superlative Degrees: Adjectives can be inflected to
compare the qualities of nouns, indicating degrees of comparison such as
comparative (e.g., bigger, more beautiful) and superlative (e.g., biggest,
most beautiful).

2. Number: Adjectives can be inflected to agree with the number of the noun
they modify, taking singular (e.g., tall, happy) or plural (e.g., tall, happy)
forms.

3. Gender: In languages with grammatical gender, adjectives may be

inflected to agree with the gender of the noun they modify, taking masculine
(e.g., tall, happy), feminine (e.g., tall, happy), or neuter (e.g., tall, happy)
forms.

Adjectives typically occur before the noun they modify in sentence structure,
functioning as attributive adjectives (e.g., "the blue sky") or after linking
verbs such as "be," functioning as predicative adjectives (e.g., "The sky is
blue"). However, adjectives can also occur in other positions within a
sentence, depending on the language and context.

EXERCISE 2/1

Write a definition of the word ‘English’. Then compare your version with that
given in the Key to Exercises at the end of the book.

My definition:

English is a West Germanic language primarily spoken in countries

such as the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New
Zealand. It is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world and
serves as a lingua franca in many international contexts. English belongs to
the Indo-European language family and is characterized by its rich
vocabulary, diverse dialects, and grammatical structure consisting of parts of
speech such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions,
and interjections.

The key definition:

The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) has the following entry

for ‘English’:
English > adjective of or relating to England or its people or

language.

> noun 1 [mass noun] the language of England, now widely used

in many varieties throughout the world. 2 [as plural noun the

English] the people of England.

English is the principal language of Great Britain, the USA, Ireland,

Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and many other countries. There are

some 400 million native speakers, and it is the medium of communication

for many millions more; it is the most widely used second

language in the world. It belongs to the West Germanic group of Indo-

European languages, though its vocabulary has been much influenced

by Norman French and Latin.

— DERIVATIVES Englishness noun

— ORIGIN Old English Englisc (see ANGLE, -ISH). The word

originally denoted the early Germanic settlers of Britain

(Angles, Saxons, and Jutes), or their language (now called

OLD ENGLISH).

The comparision:

The English language, as described by The New Oxford Dictionary of

English (1998), is intricately woven into the fabric of England's history and
culture. It defines English not only as a linguistic entity but as a reflection of
England's people and their journey through time. Tracing its origins to the
early Germanic settlers of Britain, the dictionary highlights the evolution of
English from Old English to its contemporary form, shaped by influences
from Norman French and Latin. In contrast, a more general overview
portrays English as a global phenomenon, transcending national boundaries
to become a ubiquitous medium of communication. This portrayal
emphasizes English's role as a lingua franca, spoken by millions worldwide
and serving as a bridge across diverse cultures and contexts. Together,
these perspectives offer complementary insights into the multifaceted
nature of English, showcasing its rich heritage, global significance, and
enduring legacy in the tapestry of human communication.

EXERCISE 2/2

Examine the following lines from the Old English poem Beowulf. How many
words can you recognize as still part of modern English vocabulary?

Panon untydras ealle onwocon,

Eotenas ond ylfe ond orcneas,

Swylce gigantas, þa wið Gode wunnon

Lange þrage; he him ðæs lean forgeald.

From the Old English poem Beowufl I recognize words like: onyx, all, modern,
orc, God, languish, for, lean and geld.

EXERCISE 2/3

Make a modern English ‘translation’ of the following lines from

William Langland’s Piers Plowman (late fourteenth century):

Nau awaked Wrathe, wiþ two white eyes

And wiþ a nevelyng nose, and nypped his lippys.

‘I am Wraþ,’ quod þat weye, ‘wolde gladely smyte,

Boþ wiþ stone and wiþ staf, and stel apon my enemy

To sle hym sleyliest slezthes Y þynke.’

"Now awakened Wrath, with two white eyes

And with a snub nose, and pinched his lips.

'I am Wrath,' said that man, 'would gladly strike,

Both with stone and with staff, and steal upon my enemy
To slay him with the deadliest cunning I think."

EXERCISE 2/4

Examine the following extract from George Fox’s Journal (midseventeenth

century). How does it differ in vocabulary from modern English?

& before I was brought in before him ye garde saide It was well

if ye Justice was not drunke before wee came to him for hee

used to bee drunke very early: & when I was brought before

him because I did not putt off my hatt & saide thou to him hee

askt ye man whether I was not Mased or fonde: & I saide noe: Itt

was my principle . . .

Firstly, the spelling and orthography in the extract follow the

conventions of Early Modern English. Words like 'ye' instead of 'the,' 'saide'
instead of 'said,' 'putt' instead of 'put,' and 'hee' instead of 'he' are examples
of this.

Secondly, there's a plethora of archaic terminology. Terms like 'garde'

for 'guard,' 'drunke' for 'drunk,' 'hatt' for 'hat,' 'thou' for 'you,' 'Mased' for
'confused,' 'fonde' for 'foolish,' and 'Itt' for 'it' may sound unfamiliar to our
modern ears.

Additionally, the pronouns and verb forms used in the extract differ
from modern English. 'Hee' instead of 'he,' 'putt' instead of 'put,' and 'saide'
instead of 'said' are examples of this difference. Lastly, some words may
have evolved in meaning or fallen out of common usage since the
seventeenth century. For instance, the word 'principle' likely refers to
religious or moral beliefs in the extract, whereas today, we primarily use it to
denote fundamental truths.

EXERCISE 2/5

Look up the history of the following words, preferably in the (Shorter) Oxford
English Dictionary, otherwise in a dictionary with good coverage of
etymology (e.g. Collins English Dictionary, Oxford Dictionary of English). How
has their meaning changed since their first entry into the language?

cousin, hose, knight, nice, span, spell, starve, train

Cousin:

- Etymology: From Old French "cousin," ultimately from Latin

"consobrinus," meaning "child of one's mother's sister" or "mother's
brother."

- Changes in meaning: Originally, "cousin" referred specifically to the child

of one's aunt or uncle. Over time, its meaning expanded to include broader
familial relationships, encompassing relatives from various branches of the
family tree.

Hose:

- Etymology: From Old English "hosa," meaning "covering for the leg."

- Changes in meaning: In Old English, "hose" referred to a garment

covering the leg, typically made of cloth or leather. In modern usage, "hose"
commonly refers to flexible tubing for conveying fluids or a garment worn on
the legs for warmth or protection, such as tights or stockings.

Knight:

- Etymology: From Old English "cniht," meaning "boy" or "servant,"

ultimately derived from Proto-Germanic "knechtaz."

- Changes in meaning: Originally, a "knight" referred to a young man

serving as an attendant or a warrior in medieval Europe, often granted the
title through a ceremony known as knighthood. Over time, the term evolved
to denote a member of a noble class trained for mounted combat and
chivalry.

Nice:

- Etymology: From Old French "nice," meaning "silly" or "simple,"

ultimately from Latin "nescius," meaning "ignorant."
 - Changes in meaning: In its earliest usage, "nice" carried negative
connotations, implying foolishness or simplicity. Over time, its meaning
shifted to denote qualities such as pleasantness, agreeableness, or precision.
Today, "nice" typically signifies kindness, amiability, or attractiveness.

Span:

- Etymology: From Old English "spann," meaning "distance between the

tips of the thumb and little finger of an extended hand."

- Changes in meaning: Originally, "span" referred specifically to a unit of

measurement equivalent to the distance between the tips of the thumb and
little finger when the hand is fully extended. Over time, its meaning
expanded to include various measurements of distance, time, or extent.

Spell:

- Etymology: From Old English "spell," meaning "story," "tale," or

"discourse."

- Changes in meaning: In Old English, "spell" referred to a spoken narrative

or discourse. Over time, its meaning broadened to include various forms of
magical incantations, written or spoken words believed to have mystical or
supernatural powers. In modern usage, "spell" can also refer to a period of
work or activity, especially when demanding or difficult.

Starve:

- Etymology: From Old English "steorfan," meaning "to die" or "to perish."

- Changes in meaning: Originally, "starve" referred specifically to death

from lack of food or starvation. Over time, its meaning expanded to include
extreme hunger or deprivation, as well as the inability to obtain essential
resources or sustenance.

Train:

- Etymology: From Old French "trahiner," meaning "to drag" or "to pull."
 - Changes in meaning: In its earliest usage, "train" referred to the act of
pulling or dragging, often used in the context of vehicles or animals. Over
time, its meaning broadened to include guiding, teaching, or instructing
someone in a particular skill or behavior. Today, "train" can also refer to a
sequence or procession of vehicles, people, or events.

EXERCISE 2/6

(a) Take two pages from your dictionary, one from the letter ‘h’ and one from
the letter ‘t’, and count how many words have, according to the etymology,
their immediate origin in Anglo-Saxon (A-S) or Old English (OE). What is the
proportion of OE words on these two pages?

(b) Now take the first 100 words of a news article in a newspaper, and, by
looking up the etymology of each word in your dictionary, calculate the
proportion of OE words in the extract. If a word occurs more than once,
include each occurrence in your count.

How do the two proportions differ?

NOT DONE

EXERCISE 2-7

The previous sections have illustrated just how many words in

the modern English vocabulary are borrowed from other languages.

Without going back over these sections, peruse the

etymologies in your dictionary and list five words that have been

borrowed into English at some time or other from each of the

following languages:

French, Italian, Spanish, Latin, Greek.

French: restaurant, ballet, champagne, Déjà vu, cuisine

Italian: Pizza, espresso, pasta, piano, mafia
Spanish: fiesta, guitar, plaza, siesta

Latin: maximum, temporal, eminent, ad hoc, status

Greek: democracy, philosophy, theatre, biology, gymnasium

EXERCISE 2/8

Here are some English words that still betray which language they have been
borrowed from. Without looking them up, make an intelligent guess at their
language of origin. Then look in the Key to Exercises.

addendum (plural, addenda), baguette, cannelloni, con brio, criterion (plural,

criteria), id est (i.e.), in loco parentis, man¯ ana, sang-froid, vis-a`-vis,
zucchini

addendum (plural, addenda): Latin (Latin)

baguette: French (French)

cannelloni: Italian (Italian)

con brio: Italian (Italian)

criterion (plural, criteria): Italian (Greek)

id est (i.e.): Latin (Latin)

in loco parentis: Latin (Latin)

man˜ ana: Spanish *Spanish)

sang-froid: French (French)

vis-a`-vis: French (French)

zucchini: Italian (Italian)

EXERCISE 3/1
Count the number of words in the following sentence. You should ask: ‘Which
type of word am I to count?’ Make a separate count of: (a) orthographic
words; (b) grammatical word forms; (c) lexical words (lexemes).

In their conceptual world, words are at once containers, tools and weapons,
just as in the physical world a bag is a container, a screw-driver is a tool, and
a gun is a weapon. (Adapted from McArthur 1998: 38)

(a) There are 34 orthographic words, i.e. sequences of letters bounded by

spaces.

(b) There are 23 grammatical words (or 24 if you count ‘at’ and ‘once’
separately). ‘A’ occurs 6 times, ‘is’, 3 times, ‘and’, twice, ‘in’, twice, and
‘world’, twice.

(c) There are 19 lexemes: ‘is’ and ‘are’ are separate grammatical words but
belong to the same lexeme; and the following have both a singular and a
plural form: ‘container’, ‘tool’, ‘weapon’.

EXERCISE 3/2

What does the word ‘bull’ mean in each of the following sentences?

1. Beware of the bull!

2. I think the elephant is a bull.

3. Stop acting like a bull in a china shop!

4. There was a bull market on the stock exchange today.

5. Well done! You’ve hit the bull’s eye.

6. Don’t give me all that bull.

7. I’m afraid that you’ll just have to take the bull by the horns

1. The ‘bull’ is literal, a male bovine animal.

2. ‘Bull’ means simply ‘male’ in relation to elephants, whales, etc.

3. The use of ‘bull’ in the fixed phrase “bull in a china shop”, usually as a
simile, compares a person who is being clumsy or lacking sensitivity.

4. A “bull market” is one where prices rise fast because there is a lot of
buying of shares in anticipation of profits.

5. In the game of darts, the centre circle is called the “bull’s eye”.

6. Here “bull” is a more polite version of “bullshit”, and means “nonsense” or

‘lame excuses”

7. “Take the bull by the horns’ is an idiom, meaning “(have the courage to)
deal with someone or something directly”.

EXERCISE 3/3

What are the connotations of the italicized words in the following sentences?

1. We are away to sunnier climes. - poetic

2. I had to fork out a lot for that present. - slang

3. Give mummy the doggie then. - baby talk

4. If we do that, they’ll call down fire and brimstone on us. - biblical

5. Let’s get rid of this little beastie. - colloquial

6. I suppose muggins will have to do it. - humorous

7. Let me get you the aforementioned. - legal

8. We’ll meet upon the greensward. - literary

EXERCISE 3/4

List all the meanings that you can think of for the lexemes lemon (noun) and
review (verb). Then compare your list with that in the Key to Exercises.

My definition:

Lemon (noun):

1. A citrus fruit with yellow skin and acidic juice.

2. A bright yellow color resembling that of a lemon.

Review (verb):

1. To assess or evaluate something critically or systematically.

2. To go over or examine something again, often in preparation for an

examination or presentation.

3. To write or give an appraisal of a book, film, performance, etc.

Key exercise:

The following meanings (senses) are given for lemon in Collins Electronic

Dictionary (1992):

(1) the tree,

(2) the fruit,

(3) the colour,

(4) the flavour,

(5) the ‘useless’ person.

And the following are given for review:

(1) look at again,

(2) look back on,

(3) formally inspect, e.g. troops,

(4) look over for correction,

(5) re-examine judicially,

(6) write a critical assessment (of a book, play, film, etc.).

Comparision:

My definitions closely align with the primary meanings provided in the

key exercise, emphasizing critical evaluation, examination, and appraisal.
However, they don't encompass the full breadth of senses included in the
key exercise, such as formal inspection (e.g., troops) or judicial re-
examination. The key exercise offers a more comprehensive view, including
less common usages and specialized contexts for "review."

In summary, while my definitions capture essential aspects of "lemon"

and "review," the key exercise provides a broader array of meanings,
encompassing both literal and figurative senses of the terms and offering a
more comprehensive understanding of their usage.

EXERCISE 3/5

As a test of Lehrer’s thesis, which of the following pairs do you think are
homonyms, and which are cases of polysemy? It is perhaps not always as
easy as we think.

barge – noun (boat), verb (intervene); court – noun (entourage), verb (woo);
dart – noun (missile), verb (move quickly); fleet – noun (ships), adjective
(fast); jam – noun (preserve), verb (block); pad – noun (thick material), verb
(walk softly); steep – adjective (of gradient), verb (immerse); stem – noun (of
plant), verb (stop); stuff – verb (fill), noun (material); watch – verb (observe),
noun (timepiece)

barge: polysemy

court: polysemy

dart: polysemy

fleet: homonymy

jam: homonymy

pad: homonymy

steep: homonymy

stem: homonymy

stuff: polysemy

watch: polysemy

EXERCISE 3/6

Examine the following definition of ‘word’ from Collins English Dictionary

(1992):

one of the units of speech or writing that native speakers of a language

usually regard as the smallest isolable meaningful element of the language,
although linguists would analyse these further into morphemes.
In the light of the discussion in this chapter, what considerations have been
ignored by this definition?

The definition of "word" in Collins English Dictionary (1992) highlights

its status as a fundamental unit of speech or writing, imbued with meaning
by native speakers. However, this definition overlooks several crucial
considerations. Words exhibit flexibility, varying in form and meaning across
contexts and dialects. They evolve over time, influenced by historical and
sociolinguistic factors, and interact with grammar and syntax within larger
linguistic structures. Moreover, words serve pragmatic functions, shaping
discourse and reflecting cultural norms. A holistic understanding of words
requires examining their etymology, grammatical relations, pragmatic uses,
and sociocultural significance. By acknowledging these dimensions, we gain
deeper insights into the complexity and richness of language, transcending
the simplistic view of words as isolated units of meaning.

EXERCISE 4/1

Analyse the following words into their constituent morphemes.

Remember, only analyse if all the parts of the word can be accounted for.

beadiness, coagulative, deactivators, forbearingly, halfdeafened, left-

handedness, noncombatant, readability, temporarily, weedkiller

Here's the analysis of the given words into their constituent morphemes:

1. Beadiness:

- Morphemes: bead + -i + -ness

- Explanation: "bead" (a small piece of material) + -i (adjective-forming

suffix) + -ness (noun-forming suffix indicating quality or state)

2. Coagulative:

- Morphemes: co- + agul + -at(e) + -ive

- Explanation: "co-" (together, with) + "agul" (related to clotting) + "-at(e)"

(verb-forming suffix) + "-ive" (adjective-forming suffix)
3. Deactivators:

- Morphemes: de- + active + -ate + -or + -s

- Explanation: "de-" (to reverse or remove) + "active" (involved in activity)

+ "-ate" (verb-forming suffix) + "-or" (agent noun-forming suffix) + "-s"
(plural suffix)

4. Forbearingly:

- Morphemes: for + bear + -ing + -ly

- Explanation: "for" (indicating restraint or patience) + "bear" (to tolerate

or endure) + "-ing" (verb-forming suffix) + "-ly" (adverb-forming suffix)

5. Halfdeafened:

- Morphemes: half- + deaf + -en + -ed

- Explanation: "half-" (indicating partiality) + "deaf" (having impaired

hearing) + "-en" (verb-forming suffix) + "-ed" (past tense and past participle
suffix)

6. Left-handedness:

- Morphemes: left + hand + -ed + -ness

- Explanation: "left" (opposite of right) + "hand" (part of the body) + "-ed"

(past participle suffix) + "-ness" (noun-forming suffix indicating quality or
state)

7. Noncombatant:

- Morphemes: non- + combat + -ant

- Explanation: "non-" (not) + "combat" (fighting) + "-ant" (adjective-

forming suffix)

8. Readability:
 - Morphemes: read + -able + -ity

- Explanation: "read" (to interpret written or printed material) + "-able"

(adjective-forming suffix indicating capability) + "-ity" (noun-forming suffix
indicating quality or state)

9. Temporarily:

- Morphemes: tempor + -ary + -ly

- Explanation: "tempor" (related to time) + "-ary" (adjective-forming suffix)

+ "-ly" (adverb-forming suffix)

10. Weedkiller:

- Morphemes: weed + kill + -er

- Explanation: "weed" (unwanted plant) + "kill" (to cause the death of) + "-
er" (agent noun-forming suffix)

EXERCISE 4/2

Give all the possible inflections for the following words:

bring, cow, forget, guest, have, high, stop, tall, tooth, weary

1. Bring:

- Inflections: bring, brings, brought, bringing

2. Cow:

- Inflections: cow, cows

3. Forget:

- Inflections: forget, forgets, forgot, forgetting, forgotten

4. Guest:
 - Inflections: guest, guests

5. Have:

- Inflections: have, has, had, having

6. High:

- Inflections: high, higher, highest

7. Stop:

- Inflections: stop, stops, stopped, stopping

8. Tall:

- Inflections: tall, taller, tallest

9. Tooth:

- Inflections: tooth, teeth

10. Weary:

- Inflections: weary, wearies, wearied, wearying

EXERCISE 4/3

Identify the derivational affixes used in the following words. Give a

meaning/function for each one, e.g. -ment: has the function of deriving a
noun from a verb; re- means ‘again’.

covariance, enactable, ungracious, preconnection, depressive, incriminatory,

proconsulship, officialdom, declassify, troublesome.

1. Covariance:

- Derivational affix: -ance

 - Meaning/function: This suffix typically forms nouns from verbs or
adjectives. In this case, "covariance" is derived from "co" (together) and
"vary" (to change), indicating a state of changing together or a statistical
relationship between variables.

2. Enactable:

- Derivational affix: -able

- Meaning/function: This suffix usually forms adjectives indicating capability

or suitability. "Enactable" is derived from "enact," suggesting that something
is capable of being enacted or put into action.

3. Ungracious:

- Derivational affix: un-

- Meaning/function: The prefix "un-" typically indicates negation or

reversal. In this case, "ungracious" is formed by adding "un-" to "gracious,"
implying the absence of grace or politeness.

4. Preconnection:

- Derivational affix: pre-

- Meaning/function: The prefix "pre-" indicates something that comes

before or precedes. In "preconnection," it suggests a connection that occurs
beforehand or prior to something else.

5. Depressive:

- Derivational affix: -ive

- Meaning/function: The suffix "-ive" often forms adjectives that denote a

quality or tendency. In "depressive," it indicates something characterized by
or related to depression or sadness.

6. Incriminatory:
 - Derivational affix: -ory

- Meaning/function: The suffix "-ory" typically forms adjectives indicating

relation to or characterized by something. In "incriminatory," it suggests
something that incriminates or implies guilt.

7. Proconsulship:

- Derivational affix: -ship

- Meaning/function: The suffix "-ship" forms nouns indicating a position,

status, or office. In "proconsulship," it denotes the status or office of a
proconsul, a governor in ancient Rome.

8. Officialdom:

- Derivational affix: -dom

- Meaning/function: The suffix "-dom" forms nouns indicating a state,

condition, or domain. In "officialdom," it suggests the realm or domain of
officials or authority figures.

9. Declassify:

- Derivational affix: de-

- Meaning/function: The prefix "de-" often indicates reversal or removal. In

"declassify," it suggests the action of removing or reversing classification,
making something no longer classified or secret.

10. Troublesome:

- Derivational affix: -some

- Meaning/function: The suffix "-some" forms adjectives indicating

tendency or disposition. In "troublesome," it suggests something that causes
trouble or difficulty.

EXERCISE 4/4
Return to the list of compound-initial elements in 4.5.3 and choose two
elements from each of the noun, verb, adjective and adverb lists. Create as
many compounds as you can think of, and then check your lists against a
dictionary.

Noun: bird

- Birdhouse, Birdcage, Birdwatcher, Birdsong, Birdcall, Birdfeeder,

Birdwatching, Bird's-eye view, Bird of prey, Bird migration, Bird
sanctuary, Bird bath, Bird seed, Bird nest, Bird wing, Bird migration,
Bird species, Bird flu, Bird feeder, Bird perching

Noun: star

- Starlight, Starstruck, Starry-eyed, Starship, Star-shaped, Star power,

Star-crossed, Starburst, Starry, Starry night, Starfish, Starlet, Starling,
Starfruit, Stardom, Starry sky, Star cluster, Starlit, Star show, Star-
spangled

Verb: kick

- Kickstart, Kickback, Kick off, Kick around, Kick out, Kick in, Kick up, Kick
back, Kick up a fuss, Kick off (start of an event or game), Kick around
(discuss or consider something), Kick out (expel or eject someone),
Kick in (contribute or start to take effect), Kick up (cause a commotion
or uproar), Kick back (relax or lounge), Kick up a fuss (make a protest
or complaint)

Verb: swim

- Swimwear, Swimcap, Swimlane, Swim lesson, Swim team, Swim coach,

Swim meet, Swim practice, Swim goggles, Swim trunks, Swim class,
Swim stroke, Swim pool, Swim technique, Swim school, Swim session,
Swim race, Swim training

Adjective: blue

- Bluebird, Blueberry, Bluebell, Bluejay, Bluefish, Bluegrass, Blue-collar,

Blue cheese, Blue-eyed, Blue moon, Blue whale, Blue sky, Blue-green,
Bluebird, Blueberry, Bluegrass, Bluefish, Blue cheese, Blue-eyed

Adjective: hot

- Hotdog, Hotcake, Hotspot, Hotline, Hotplate, Hotbed, Hotshot, Hot

seat, Hot sauce, Hot tub, Hot air, Hot water, Hot coffee, Hot pepper,
Hot cocoa, Hot yoga, Hot climate, Hot drink, Hot potato, Hot soup
Adverb: down

- Downcast, Downstairs, Downhill, Downsize, Downfall, Downgrade,

Downplay, Downright, Downstream, Downward, Downfall, Downgrade,
Downgrade, Downhill, Downpour, Downright, Downsize, Downstream,
Downward, Downward

Adverb: out

- Outward, Outright, Outdoors, Outspoken, Outlast, Outgrow, Outsource,

Outrun, Outdo, Outsmart, Outlive, Outmaneuver, Outpace, Outweigh,
Outnumber, Outperform, Outbid, Outmaneuver

EXERCISE 4/5

During one day keep a notebook to hand and write down from your
newspaper reading and listening to the broadcast media all the word
formations that strike you as new or unusual. Attempt to make an analysis of
them in terms of derivation, compounding and other processes.

1. Breakthrough in Renewable Energy: Scientists at the GreenTech Institute

announce a major breakthrough in solar panel efficiency, paving the way for
more sustainable energy solutions.

2. Economic Recovery Slow, but Steady: Despite ongoing challenges,

economists remain cautiously optimistic about the gradual recovery of the
global economy.

- In an article discussing the latest developments in renewable energy

technology, the term "solar-powered" caught my attention. This compound
word combines "solar" (relating to the sun) and "powered" (driven or
energized by), describing something that operates using solar energy. This is
an example of compounding.

- In another piece about the impact of the pandemic on mental health, I

encountered the word "unprecedented." This adjective describes the
unprecedented nature of the mental health challenges brought on by the
pandemic. It's formed by adding the prefix "un-" (indicating negation) to the
base word "precedented," emphasizing the exceptional and unparalleled
nature of the situation. This is an example of derivation.
EXERCISE 5/1

Write a synonym essay in the style of the LDEL for the following set of
synonyms:

plentiful, plenteous, ample, abundant, copious.

They all suggest ‘more than enough but not too much’.

Synonyms play a crucial role in linguistic expression, offering nuanced

shades of meaning and contributing to the richness and precision of
language. In the context of abundance, a set of synonyms including
"plentiful," "plenteous," "ample," "abundant," and "copious" emerges, each
carrying distinct connotations while collectively conveying the notion of
having more than enough without excess. This essay aims to conduct a
lexical analysis of these synonyms, exploring their semantic nuances and
syntactic usage within the domain of abundance.

The synonym set under examination shares a common semantic field

centered around the concept of abundance or plentifulness. However, subtle
differences exist in their semantic nuances. "Plentiful" and "plenteous" both
connote a generous sufficiency, suggesting an abundance that exceeds mere
adequacy. "Ample," on the other hand, introduces the notion of
spaciousness, implying a sufficiency that allows for comfort and ease.
"Abundant" carries a sense of lavishness and richness, indicating a profusion
of resources that surpass ordinary needs. Finally, "copious" intensifies the
idea of abundance, suggesting an overflowing richness that may border on
excessiveness.

These synonyms exhibit variations in their syntactic usage,

contributing to their distinctiveness in expression. "Plentiful" and "plenteous"
are commonly used attributively, modifying nouns to describe the
abundance or plentifulness of a particular entity (e.g., "plentiful harvest,"
"plenteous provisions"). "Ample" is often employed in a similar manner but
also finds usage predicatively to describe the sufficiency of something (e.g.,
"ample space," "the resources are ample"). "Abundant" is versatile in its
syntactic roles, functioning both attributively and predicatively (e.g.,
"abundant wildlife," "the region is abundant in natural resources").
"Copious," with its connotation of excessiveness, tends to be used more
emphatically and is often found in descriptive or evaluative contexts (e.g.,
"copious rainfall," "copious notes").
 In conclusion, the synonyms "plentiful," "plenteous," "ample,"
"abundant," and "copious" collectively contribute to the lexical richness of
the English language, offering nuanced expressions of abundance. Through a
semantic analysis, we have elucidated their subtle differences in meaning,
while a syntactic examination has revealed their varied usage patterns.
Understanding these distinctions enhances one's linguistic competence and
facilitates precise and effective communication within the domain of
abundance.

EXERCISE 5/2

What distinguishes each of the following pairs of synonyms –dialect,

formality, or connotation?

1. astonished – flabbergasted -- formality

2. chat – gossip -- connotation

3. earwig – clipshears – dialect (Scots)

4. give – donate -- formality

5. hate – loathe – connotation

6. ice lolly – icey pole – dialect (Australian)

7. insect – creepy-crawlie -- formality

8. much – mickle – dialect (Scotish)

9. slippery – slippy – dialect and formality

10. throw – hurl - connotation

EXERCISE 5/3

For each of the following words: (a) say whether it has an antonym and give
it if it does;
(b) say what kind of antonymy is involved (gradable, complementary,
converse).

emigrate, equine, freedom, frothy, new, proud, simple, speak, straight,

triangular

emigrate: immigrate (converse)

equine (no antonym)

freedom: captivity (complementary)

frothy (probably no antonym)

new: old (gradable)

proud: humble (gradable)

simple: complex (gradable)

speak: listen to (converse) or: be silent (complementary)

straight: crooked (complementary)

triangular (no antonym)

EXERCISE 5/4

Propose a hyponymy tree with crockery as the most superordinate term. Can
you identify any lexical gaps or where you need to use the same term on
more than one level?

Crockery

/ \

Tableware Utensils

/ \

Dinnerware Cutlery

/ \ / \

Plates Bowls Forks Knives Spoons

In this hyponymy tree:

- "Crockery" serves as the most superordinate term, encompassing various

categories of tableware and utensils.

- "Tableware" and "Utensils" are the immediate hyponyms of "Crockery,"

representing broad categories of items used for dining.
- "Dinnerware" and "Cutlery" are further subdivisions of "Tableware" and
"Utensils," respectively.

- "Plates" and "Bowls" are specific types of dinnerware.

- "Forks," "Knives," and "Spoons" are specific types of cutlery.

Regarding lexical gaps or areas where the same term is used on more than
one level:

- One potential lexical gap may be the lack of specific terms for certain types
of crockery or utensils. For example, while "plates" and "bowls" are listed as
specific types of dinnerware, other items such as mugs, saucers, or teapots
are not explicitly included.

- Additionally, the term "cutlery" is used to encompass both forks, knives,

and spoons. While this is a common categorization, it might be more precise
to separate them into individual branches of the tree if further detail is
desired.

EXERCISE 5/5

Propose a meronymy tree for bicycle. Can you account for all the parts?

Bicycle

/ | \

Frame Wheels Handlebars

/ \ / \

Fork Seat Front Wheel Rear Wheel

/ \ | \

Tire Handlebars Spokes, Hub Spokes, Hub

| | |

Rim Inner Tube Inner Tube

In this meronymy tree:

- "Bicycle" serves as the whole or holonym, representing the entire object.

- "Frame," "Wheels," and "Handlebars" are immediate parts of the bicycle.

- The "Frame" further consists of the "Fork" and "Seat."

- Each "Wheel" is divided into "Front Wheel" and "Rear Wheel," each with
"Spokes" and "Hub."

- The "Front Wheel" and "Rear Wheel" each consist of "Rim" and "Inner
Tube."

- Additionally, the "Handlebars" are included as part of the bicycle.

EXERCISE 5/6

Construct a matrix with binary components only for the cooking verbs above,
and then adapt it to one that may use multivalued components. Is one more
revealing than the other?

| Water | Fat/Oil |

Cook | 1 | 1 |

Boil | 1 | 0 |

Bake | 0 | 1 |

Fry | 0 | 1 |

Braise | 1 | 1 |

Stew | 1 | 1 |

Grill | 0 | 0 |

Poach | 1 | 0 |

```

Now, let's adapt it to a matrix that may use multivalued components:

| Water | Fat/Oil | No Liquid |

---------------------------------------------
Cook | 1 | 1 | 0 |

Boil | 1 | 0 | 0 |

Bake | 0 | 1 | 1 |

Fry | 0 | 1 | 1 |

Braise | 1 | 1 | 0 |

Stew | 1 | 1 | 0 |

Grill | 0 | 0 | 1 |

Poach | 1 | 0 | 0 |

In the multivalued components matrix, "No Liquid" is introduced to represent

cooking methods where neither water nor fat/oil is used.

Comparing the two matrices:

- The binary matrix provides a clear and straightforward view of whether

each cooking method uses water or fat/oil.

- The multivalued components matrix adds an additional dimension by

considering the absence of liquid, allowing for a more comprehensive
analysis of cooking methods.

In terms of revealing insights, the multivalued components matrix is more

revealing as it captures the complexity of cooking methods by considering
the presence or absence of liquid. It provides a more nuanced understanding
of the relationship between cooking verbs and the use of water or fat/oil.

EXERCISE 5/7

Suggest the words that might be included in a semantic field of ‘drinking

vessels’. Can they be organized within the field in some way? Are any of the
sense relations relevant?

In a semantic field of "drinking vessels," the following words might be

included:
Cup, mug, glass, goblet, stein, flask, thermos, bottle, jug, canteen, pitcher,
tea cup, coffee mug, wine glass, shot glass, sipper
These words can be organized within the semantic field based on various
criteria, including size, material, and function. For example:

- Size: Vessels can be categorized based on their size, ranging from small
vessels like shot glasses and espresso cups to larger vessels like pitchers
and steins.

- Material: They can be grouped by the material they are made from, such as
glass, ceramic, metal, or plastic.

- Function: Vessels can also be organized based on their intended use, such
as vessels specifically designed for hot beverages (e.g., mugs, teacups) or
cold beverages (e.g., glasses, tumblers).

Relevant sense relations that can be applied within this semantic field
include:

1. Hyponymy: Some vessels may be considered hyponyms of others based

on their specific characteristics. For example, a wine glass can be considered
a hyponym of a glass.

2. Meronymy: Parts of some vessels may be considered meronyms of the

vessels themselves. For instance, the handle of a mug or the lid of a
thermos.

3. Synonymy: Some words within the semantic field may be considered

synonyms, such as cup and mug or glass and tumbler.

4. Antonymy: Antonyms may also be relevant, such as full and empty, when
describing the state of the vessel.

EXERCISE 5/8

Give what you think are the typical collocations for the words in the following
structures. For example, ‘false (Adj) + N’ asks for the typical nouns that are
modified by the adjective false: teeth, eye, passport, number plates, ceiling,
etc.

Fundamental (Adj) + N

spend (V) + Object N

Adj + trauma (N)

N + unite (V) + Prep

behave (V) + Adv

boost (V) + N

fundamental: change, problem, issue, question, right, principle

spend: (expressions of) time, money

trauma: childhood, emotional, physical, psychological, major,

severe

unite: party, people, world, country, nation, community: behind, against,

around

behave: well, badly, differently, better, like

boost: confidence, morale, economy, market, sales, profits, prices.

EXERCISE 6/1

Can you think of a local (dialect) word in the area where you live, or where
you come from, for any of the following? They all have variants in British
English dialects.

gym shoe, bread roll, sandwich, attic, broom, beautiful, lefthanded,

excellent, tired out, lavatory, nothing.

1. Gym shoe: "Adidași" - While "adidași" is not necessarily a dialect word, it is

a commonly used term in Romanian for sports or gym shoes.

2. Bread roll: "Pâine rotundă" or "covrig" - In Moldova, "covrig" can refer to a

small round bread roll, often twisted into a knot shape.

3. Sandwich: "Sendviș" - While "sendviș" is not exclusive to the Moldovan

dialect, it is commonly used in Romanian to refer to a sandwich.

4. Attic: "Pod" - In Romanian, "pod" can refer to an attic or loft space.

5. Broom: "Mătură" - This word is commonly used in Romanian to refer to a
broom.

6. Beautiful: "Frumos" - While "frumos" is not specific to Moldovan dialect, it

is a commonly used term in Romanian to describe something beautiful.

7. Left-handed: "Stângaci" - This word is used in Romanian to describe

someone who is left-handed.

8. Excellent: "Excelent" - While "excelent" is not dialect-specific, it is a

commonly used term in Romanian to describe something excellent or
outstanding.

9. Tired out: "Obosit" - This word is used in Romanian to describe someone

who is tired or exhausted.

10. Lavatory: "Toaletă" - While "toaletă" is not dialect-specific, it is the

commonly used term in Romanian for a lavatory or toilet.

11. Nothing: "Nimic" - This word is used in Romanian to refer to nothing or

none.

Write down twenty or so of the main items of specialist vocabulary

from one of your leisure pursuits. Where does the vocabulary come from?
What word-formation and semantic processes have been used to derive the
terms?

Try the words out on someone who doesn’t share your pursuit, to see if the
words make any sense to them.

My pursuit: teacher

- Pedagogy, Curriculum, Syllabus, Assessment, Rubric, Lesson plan,

Differentiation, Bloom's taxonomy, Formative assessment, Summative
assessment, Constructivism, Direct instruction, Scaffolding, Classroom
management, Educational psychology, Inclusion, Professional
development, Active learning, Cooperative learning, Student-centered
learning

Another pursuit: policeman

 - Law enforcement, Patrol, Investigation, Arrest, Interrogation, Evidence,
Crime scene, Suspect, Witness, Statement, Search warrant, Miranda
rights, Forensics, Surveillance, Undercover, Crime prevention,
Community policing, Traffic stop, SWAT, Crime analysis

The vocabulary related to policing comes from various sources, including

legal terminology, technical procedures, and law enforcement practices.

1. Derivation: Many terms are derived from existing words by adding prefixes
or suffixes to modify their meaning. For example:

- "Investigation" is derived from the verb "investigate" by adding the suffix

"-tion" to form a noun.

- "Interrogation" is derived from the verb "interrogate" by adding the suffix

"-tion" to form a noun.

2. Compounding: Some terms are formed by combining two or more words to

create a new term with a specific meaning. For example:

- "Law enforcement" is a compound noun formed by combining the words

"law" and "enforcement" to refer to the activity of enforcing laws.

- "Crime scene" is another compound noun formed by combining the words

"crime" and "scene" to refer to the location where a crime has occurred.

3. Borrowing: Law enforcement vocabulary also includes borrowed terms

from other languages, particularly Latin and French, due to the historical
influence of legal systems. For example:

- "Miranda rights" are named after the legal case Miranda v. Arizona, which
established the requirement for law enforcement to inform suspects of their
rights before interrogation.

- "SWAT" stands for "Special Weapons and Tactics," borrowing the acronym
to describe specialized police units.

4. Specialization: Many terms in law enforcement vocabulary are specialized

to the context of policing, adapting general language to fit specific roles and
procedures. For example:

- "Patrol" refers specifically to the act of monitoring and patrolling

designated areas to maintain public safety.
 - "Traffic stop" refers to the procedure of stopping and investigating
vehicles for traffic violations.

5. Metaphor: Some terms in law enforcement vocabulary use metaphorical

language to describe actions or concepts. For example:

- "Crime prevention" metaphorically implies taking actions to "prevent" or

"stop" crime before it occurs, using the concept of physical prevention as a
metaphor for intervention and deterrence.

EXERCISE 6/3

What do you think are the equivalents of the following rhyming slang terms?
In some cases, they have been reduced to the first part of the expression, so
the second, rhyming part is put in brackets.

Apples and pears, bird (lime), china (plate), half-inch, jam jar, pig’s ear,
porky (pie), raspberry (tart), Rosie Lee, tea leaf, tit for (tat), trouble and
strife, Uncle Ned, whistle (and flute)

apples and pears - stairs

bird (lime) - time (in prison)

china (plate) - mate

half-inch - pinch (i.e. steal)

jam jar - car

pig’s ear - beer

porky (pie) - lie

raspberry (tart) - fart

Rosie Lee - tea

tea leaf - thief

tit for (tat) - hat

trouble and strife - wife

Uncle Ned - bed

whistle (and flute) - suit

EXERCISE 6/4

Give a ‘neutral’ term for the following ‘formal’ words. If you cannot even
guess at the meaning, look the word up in a dictionary. They are all marked
as ‘formal’ in Collins Electronic Dictionary (1992).

hitherto, incumbent (adjective), inveracity, laudation, lavation, lubricious,

manifold, mariner, natation, yesteryear

hitherto - until now

Incumbent - necessary

Inveracity - lie, untruth

laudation - praise

Lavation - washing

Lubricious - lewd

manifold - different kinds of

mariner - sailor

natation - swimming

yesteryear - last year, the past

EXERCISE 6/5

Give a ‘neutral’ term for the following words, which are marked as either
‘colloq’ or ‘slang’ in The Concise Oxford Dictionary Ninth Edition. You might
also like to see which label a dictionary other than The Concise Oxford
Dictionary uses for these items.

cold feet, floozie, footling, gamp, (play) hookey, lughole, miffed, piddle,
slaphead, stroppy, twerp, unfazed, veggie, wag (verb), zilch, zit

cold feet - loss of nerve/confidence

floozie - girl/woman (possibly disreputable)

footling - trivial

gamp - umbrella

(play) hookey - truant

lughole - ear

miffed - offended

piddle - urin(at)e

slaphead - person with little or no hair

stroppy bad-tempered, awkward

twerp - a stupid person

Unfazed - untroubled

veggie - vegetarian

wag (play) - truant

Zilch - nothing

zit – pimple

EXERCISE 6/6

Look at the following text, taken from an advertisement for a personal

computer (PC), and try to work out exactly what the potential buyer is being
offered by the specification:

Intel Pentium 4 Processor 630 with HT Technology (3.00 GHz, 2MB L2 cache,
800MHz FSB). 1024MB Dual Channel DDR2 RAM. 320GB (SATA) Stripe Raid 0
Hard Drive. 17’’ Analogue Flat Panel Monitor (17.0’’ v.i.s). 128MB PCI-Express
ATI Radeon X300SE. 16x DVD+/-RW Drive.

Based on the specification provided in the advertisement for a personal

computer (PC), here's what the potential buyer is being offered:

Intel Pentium 4 Processor 630 with HT Technology (3.00 GHz, 2MB L2 cache,
800MHz FSB): This indicates that the PC is equipped with an Intel Pentium 4
processor running at a speed of 3.00 GHz. It has a 2MB L2 cache and an
800MHz Front Side Bus (FSB). The HT (Hyper-Threading) Technology allows
for improved multitasking performance.

1024MB Dual Channel DDR2 RAM: The PC has 1024MB (1GB) of DDR2 RAM
memory, configured in a dual-channel setup for enhanced memory
performance.
320GB (SATA) Stripe Raid 0 Hard Drive: The PC features a 320GB SATA hard
drive configured in a Stripe RAID 0 setup. RAID 0 combines multiple hard
drives for increased performance and capacity, but without data redundancy.

17’’ Analogue Flat Panel Monitor (17.0’’ v.i.s): The PC comes with a 17-inch
flat panel monitor, which has a viewable image size (v.i.s) of 17.0 inches.

128MB PCI-Express ATI Radeon X300SE: The PC is equipped with a 128MB

PCI-Express graphics card manufactured by ATI, specifically the Radeon
X300SE model. This graphics card supports PCI-Express interface for high-
speed data transfer and is suitable for basic graphical tasks.

16x DVD+/-RW Drive: The PC includes a DVD writer with both DVD+/-RW
capabilities, allowing the user to read, write, and rewrite DVDs at up to 16x
speed.

Overall, the PC being offered boasts a powerful processor, ample RAM,

a spacious hard drive with RAID configuration, a decent graphics card, and
optical drive for DVD read/write capabilities. It is suitable for general
computing tasks, multimedia consumption, and basic gaming.

EXERCISE 7/1

Find out as much as you can, from whatever sources you have available,
about one or more of the following words:
Aga-saga, mickle, presenteeism, stakeholder, waif.

Aga-saga:

- This term refers to a genre of novels that typically revolves around

domestic dramas and is set in upper-class English households. The name
"Aga-saga" comes from the Aga cooker, a traditional and iconic feature of
such households, and "saga," which implies a long and intricate story. These
novels often focus on themes such as family relationships, romance, and
social dynamics within affluent circles.

Mickle:

- "Mickle" is an archaic term that means "much" or "great." It originates

from Middle English and is often used in poetry or literature to convey a
sense of largeness or magnitude. While not commonly used in contemporary
English, it occasionally appears in literary works to evoke a sense of old-
fashioned charm or to fit a specific stylistic context.
Presenteeism:

- Presenteeism refers to the practice of employees being present at work

but not fully functioning or productive due to illness, stress, or other personal
issues. Unlike absenteeism, where employees are absent from work,
presenteeism involves physically being present but not performing at one's
best. It can have negative impacts on productivity, workplace morale, and
employee health. Employers may strive to address presenteeism by
promoting a healthy work-life balance and providing support for employees'
well-being.

Stakeholder:

- In business and organizational contexts, a stakeholder is any individual,

group, or entity that has an interest or stake in the activities, decisions, or
outcomes of a company or project. Stakeholders can include shareholders,
employees, customers, suppliers, communities, government agencies, and
other parties affected by or influencing the organization's operations.
Effective stakeholder management involves identifying key stakeholders,
understanding their interests and concerns, and engaging with them to
ensure their needs are considered in decision-making processes.

Waif:

- A waif is a person, typically a child, who is homeless, neglected, or

abandoned, often living on the streets or in impoverished conditions. The
term can also refer to a stray animal or any person or thing that appears
small, frail, or vulnerable. In literary contexts, "waif" may evoke themes of
loneliness, innocence, and resilience, and it has been used in various works
of literature to depict characters in challenging or disadvantaged
circumstances.

EXERCISE 7/2

(a) Without consulting any sources, write down what you know about the
usage of the following words: dependent, dependant.
(b) Ask three or four colleagues or friends to explain the difference in usage
between these words to you, and note their replies.

(c) Now consult one or more dictionaries and, if you have access to one, a
computer corpus, and check your information from (a) and (b).

Other pairs of words you could try this with are: complement/ compliment,
militate/mitigate, principal/principle, stationary/ stationery, statue/statute.

(a) Without consulting any sources:

- "Dependent" typically functions as an adjective, describing something that

relies on something else for support, sustenance, or existence. For example,
a child may be dependent on their parents for care and support.

- "Dependant," on the other hand, is less commonly used and often serves as
a noun, referring to a person who relies on another, typically for financial
support. It is also sometimes used as an alternative spelling of "dependent."

(b) Responses from colleagues or friends:

1. Colleague 1: "Dependent and dependant are just alternative spellings of

the same word. I don't think there's any difference in meaning."

2. Friend 1: "I think 'dependent' is used more in a general sense, like

'children are dependent on their parents,' whereas 'dependant' might be
more legalistic or formal, like 'he's listed as a dependant on his father's
insurance policy.'"

3. Friend 2: "I always thought 'dependent' was the adjective and 'dependant'
was the noun. Like, 'he's a dependent on his parents' insurance.'"

(c) Consultation with dictionaries and corpus:

- According to most dictionaries, "dependent" is primarily used as an

adjective, while "dependant" is listed as a less common alternative spelling,
especially in British English, for both the adjective and the noun forms. The
meanings are essentially the same, with "dependent" being more widely
recognized and used.
- A search in a corpus such as the Oxford English Corpus confirms that
"dependent" is far more common in usage compared to "dependant," which
is consistent with the responses from colleagues and friends.

Overall, the information from the dictionaries and corpus supports the
understanding that "dependent" is the more commonly used form, serving
primarily as an adjective, while "dependant" is a less common alternative
spelling that can function as both an adjective and a noun.

EXERCISE 7/3

If you have an electronic dictionary on your computer, what information can

you search for, apart from the headword? If it allows you to search
definitions or labels, find all the words belonging to a specialist vocabulary,
such as ‘music’ or ‘genetics’. Or search for a definition term such as
‘instrument’ or ‘musical instrument’.

Definitions: You can search for definitions of specific words to understand

their meanings, usage, and context better.

Synonyms and Antonyms: Electronic dictionaries often provide synonyms

(words with similar meanings) and antonyms (words with opposite meanings)
for the searched term.

Etymology: Some dictionaries include information about the origin and

history of words, known as etymology. This can provide insights into how
words have evolved over time.

Examples and Usage: You can search for example sentences or phrases
containing the word you're looking up to see how it's used in context.

Pronunciation: Many electronic dictionaries offer audio pronunciation guides

or phonetic transcriptions to help users correctly pronounce words.

Specialist Vocabulary: You can search for words belonging to specific

domains or fields, such as music, genetics, law, medicine, etc., to access
specialized terminology and definitions.

Word Families: Some dictionaries provide information about related words,

including derivatives, compounds, and phrases stemming from the searched
term.
 Labels and Part of Speech: You can search for words based on their
grammatical category or label, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc., to
understand their functions within sentences.

Music: a pattern of sounds made by musical instruments, voices, or

computers, or a combination of these, intended to give pleasure to
people listening to it:
classical/pop/dance/rock music
Instrument: an object, such as a piano, guitar, or drum, that is played
to produce musical sounds

Genetics: the study of how, in all living things, the characteristics

and qualities of parents are given to their children by their genes

EXERCISE 7/4

(a) Examine the following concordance list for the adverb highly, taken from
Jane Austen’s Persuasion. What can you conclude about Jane Austen’s usage
of highly from this data?

she was a most dear and [[highly]] valued god-daughter, favourite, and

She rated Lady Russell’s influence [[highly]]; and as to the severe

general air of oblivion among them was [[highly]] important from

what

This meeting of the two parties proved [[highly]] satisfactory, and

thought such a style of intercourse [[highly]] imprudent; but she had

at Uppercross, it was [[highly]] incumbent on her to clothe her

and it would be [[highly]] absurd in him, who could be of no use . . .

an officer, whom he had always valued [[highly]], which must have

friend of his, a Colonel Wallis, a [[highly]] respectable man,

perfectly could not know herself to be so [[highly]] rated by a

able man, and in many respects I think [[highly]] of him,’’ said Anne;

and only superior to her in being more [[highly]] valued! My dearest

of Lady Russell, and insinuations [[highly]] rational against Mrs

Clay.

half her accomplishments, and too [[highly]] accomplished for

modesty to

The language, I know, is [[highly]] disrespectful. Though

(b) Do similarly for the verb expect from the following collocation table,
derived from the LOB Corpus:

2nd left 1st left 1st right 2nd right

13 might 48 be 79 to 34 to

9 one 18 is 17 the 14 be

9 I 14 I 15 a 12 the

8 can 13 to 12 that 9 find

8 to 11 had 11 from 5 a

7 have 11 would 8 him

7 what 9 you 8 and

7 than 9 was 7 of

6 we 9 been 7 in

5 he 8 are 6 it

5 could 7 the 5 her

5 you 7 not 5 me

5 would 6 have

6 might

6 we

5 never

5 don’t

A) Certainly! Here's a slightly modified version:

"Highly" serves two primary functions in this dataset. Firstly, it acts as an
“intensifying” adverb akin to "very" or "extremely," enhancing the impact of
various adjectives. It spans a wide spectrum of adjectives, from
commonplace descriptors like 'important' and "satisfactory” to less
frequently intensified terms like 'incumbent, “rational”, and “disrespectful”.
Secondly, it functions as a “degree” adverb when paired with verbs such as
“rate”, ''think”, and “value”. In this capacity, it signifies the extent or degree
to which someone or something is esteemed or valued.

B) Expect in this data is frequently preceded by a personal pronoun (I,

you, we, he, one) or an auxiliary verb, mostly a form of “be” or “have”,
or a modal (can, could, might, would). More interestingly, expect is
frequently followed by an infinitive verb (with “to”), of which the two
most frequent are ‘to find’ and ‘to be’. It is also followed by “that”,
presumably introducing a that-clause, and by the prepositions “from”
and “of”. Otherwise, the next item after the verb is a noun (introduced
by “the” or “a”) or a pronoun (“him”, “her”, “me”).

EXERCISE 8/1

Using a desk or concise size general-purpose dictionary, read carefully the

entries for the following words: face, narrowminded,

soap, walleye. Note for each item:

(a) how many entries (headwords) your dictionary has;

(b) whether your dictionary uses nesting (run-ons), and for which kinds of
item;

(c) how your dictionary treats compound words.

NOT DONE

EXERCISE 8/2

Examine the following entry for discriminate, taken from CED (1998):

discriminate vb (dI’skrImI,neIt). 1 (intr, usu. foll. by in favour of or against) to

single out a particular person, group, etc., for special favour or, esp.,
disfavour, often because of a characteristic such as race, colour, sex,
intelligence, etc. 2 (when intr, foll. by between or among) to recognize or
understand the difference (between); distinguish: to discriminate right and
wrong; to discriminate between right and wrong. 3 (intr) to constitute or
mark a difference. 4 (intr) to be discerning in matters of taste. ^ adj
(dI’skrImInIt). 5 showing or marked by discrimination. [C17: from Latin
discriminare to divide, from discrimen a separation, from discernere to
DISCERN]) dis’criminately adv ) dis’crimi,nator n

What information does it give about: pronunciation, morphology, syntax?

Pronunciation:
The pronunciation of the verb "discriminate" is given in the International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) transcription as /dɪ'skrɪmɪˌneɪt/. The adjective form
"discriminate" is also provided as /dɪ'skrɪmɪnɪt/.

Morphology:

- The verb form "discriminate" is labeled as "vb" and is followed by its IPA
pronunciation in parentheses.

- The entry indicates that the verb can be used both intransitively and
transitively.

- The adjective form "discriminate" is labeled as "adj" and is followed by its

IPA pronunciation in parentheses.

- Additionally, the adverb "discriminatorily" and the noun "discriminator"

are derived forms of the word, indicated by "adv" and "n" respectively.
Syntax

- The entry provides multiple senses of the verb "discriminate" along with
examples of its syntactic usage. For instance, it can be followed by
prepositions like "in favor of" or "against," or by conjunctions like "between"
or "among."

- The entry also indicates that the verb "discriminate" can be used
intransitively or transitively, with examples illustrating its syntactic patterns
in sentences.
 - The adjective form "discriminate" is shown to be used attributively,
describing nouns such as "showing" or "marked by discrimination."

EXERCISE 8/3

Examine the entries for the following words in two or three dictionaries of a
similar size: height, nucleus, subjective.

How many numbered meanings does each dictionary identify, and do they
identify the same range of meanings?

Here are the figures for three dictionaries. The figures in brackets include a
count of sub-divisions (e.g. 1a, 1b, etc).

CED LDEL COD8

height 10 4 (6) 7 (9)
nucleus 11 3(6) 6 (7)
Subjective (adj) 6 3(8) 3
(noun) 1 (2) 1 1

EXERCISE 8/4

(a) Look up the words given in 8.2.5 under ‘formal’ in a dictionary other than
the COD. Does the dictionary use the same

or alternative labels for these words? In particular, is the ‘taboo’ label used?

(b) Discuss with your fellow students whether you think that etymological
information should be included in a dictionary aiming to describe the
contemporary language. How might its inclusion be justified? After all,
Hudson includes it in his list of ‘lexical facts’ and we have included a chapter
(Chapter 2) in this book on the origins of English vocabulary.

(a) The words are marked as follows in Collins Electronic Dictionary

(1992):

Postprandial: unmarked; listed without definition at the bottom

of the page; Potation: unmarked; Prevenient: unmarked;

Psittacism: not entered; Repast: unmarked.

Parky: informal; Prezzie: informal; Pronto: informal; Pudgy: unmarked; Pushy:

informal.

Party-pooper: informal; Perisher: not entered; Pie-eyed: slang;

Pillock: slang; Poppycock: informal.

Fart: taboo; Piss-up: slang; Plonker: slang; Shitbag: not entered; Tosser:
slang.

B) Including etymological information in contemporary dictionaries enhances

linguistic understanding by tracing word origins and evolution. It provides
insights into meanings, usage nuances, and cultural contexts, aiding
accurate interpretation. Etymology fosters curiosity and appreciation for
language diversity, promoting a deeper understanding of linguistic heritage.
However, the balance between etymology and contemporary usage is
crucial. Dictionaries should prioritize describing current language while
supplementing with relevant etymological details to enrich users'
understanding without overwhelming them with historical information.

EXERCISE 8/5

(a) Would you expect the following words to be entered more than once in a
dictionary (as homographs), or to be treated in a single entry (as a case of
polysemy)? First make a guess, then consult a dictionary.

coach (bus, give training); cobble (stone for paving, mend shoes); fence
(round a field, sport using a sword); mount (ascend, mountain); rook (bird,
chess piece); stable (firmly fixed, place for horses); table (piece of furniture,
of figures); whim (fancy, machine used in mining).

(b) Find the following idioms in your dictionary. Which word are they under?
Are they cross-referenced from the entries for any of the other words in the
idiom? fly in the ointment; fly off the handle; turn in one’s grave; turn over a
new leaf; spill the beans; full of beans
(a) In COD8 (1990), cobble, mount, rook, stable have two entries, and so are
treated as homographs, with different etymologies.

The other words (coach, fence, table, whim) have a single entry, and so are
treated as cases of polysemy with a single etymology. You have probably
found that etymology does not always coincide with your intuitions about
whether the meanings of a word form are related or not.

(b) In COD9 (1996):

fly in the ointment: is under fly (n), and not under ointment

fly off the handle: is under fly (v), and not under handle

turn in one’s grave: is under grave, and cross-referenced from turn

turn over a new leaf: is under turn, but not under leaf

spill the beans: is under spill, but not under bean

full of beans: is under bean, but not under full

EXERCISE 8/6

Examine the entries in your dictionary for the following words. What style of
definition (analytical, synonym) is used? If the definition is analytical, what is
the ‘genus’ term (hypernym)?

contusion, galloglass, lading, muesli, pendent, stencil

contusion: both analytical (hypernym ‘injury’) and synonym (‘bruise’)

galloglass: analytical (hypernym ‘soldier’), together with some encyclopedic

information

lading: synonym (‘load’, ‘cargo’, ‘freight’)

muesli: analytical (rather general hypernym ‘mixture’)

pendent: synonym (‘dangling’, ‘jutting’, etc.)

stencil: analytical (general hypernym ‘device’)

EXERCISE 8/7

Using the knowledge that you have gained from studying lexicology and
bearing in mind the issues raised in this chapter, write a brief critique of the
dictionary that you regularly use. How adequate is it as a description of the
words, meaning and vocabulary of English?

The dictionary is a fundamental tool for anyone seeking to explore and

understand the English language. As a regular user of dictionaries, I have
come to appreciate their significance in providing insights into word
meanings, usage, and vocabulary. However, like any resource, the adequacy
of a dictionary can vary depending on its comprehensiveness, accuracy,
organization, and accessibility.

One aspect to consider is the breadth of coverage. A comprehensive

dictionary should encompass a wide range of words from diverse domains
and registers, including both common and specialized vocabulary. It should
also stay abreast of linguistic developments, incorporating new words and
usages reflective of contemporary language trends.

Accuracy and clarity are paramount in dictionary entries. Definitions

should be precise and unambiguous, offering clear explanations of word
meanings and usage nuances. Additionally, the dictionary should provide
relevant contextual information, usage examples, and notes to aid in
understanding and usage.

The organization of the dictionary plays a crucial role in its usability. A

well-structured dictionary should facilitate easy navigation, allowing users to
quickly locate words and find the information they seek. Helpful features
such as cross-references, pronunciation guides, etymological notes, and
usage tips further enhance the dictionary's utility.

Furthermore, the inclusion of etymological information adds depth to

the dictionary, offering insights into the historical origins and evolution of
words. Pronunciation guides assist users in correctly articulating words,
contributing to effective communication.

In conclusion, while dictionaries serve as invaluable resources for

exploring and describing the English language, their adequacy hinges on
various factors such as comprehensiveness, accuracy, organization, and
accessibility. A truly effective dictionary should strive to meet the diverse
needs of its users by providing comprehensive, accurate, and accessible
information about the words, meanings, and vocabulary of English.