International Journal of Injury Control and Safety

Promotion

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/nics20

Motorcycle risky behaviours and road accidents

among adolescents in Jakarta metropolitan area,
Indonesia

Yuyun Umniyatun, Mochamad Iqbal Nurmansyah, Yoli Farradika, Tri Bayu

Purnama & Didin Nuruddin Hidayat

To cite this article: Yuyun Umniyatun, Mochamad Iqbal Nurmansyah, Yoli Farradika, Tri Bayu
Purnama & Didin Nuruddin Hidayat (2021): Motorcycle risky behaviours and road accidents among
adolescents in Jakarta metropolitan area, Indonesia, International Journal of Injury Control and
Safety Promotion, DOI: 10.1080/17457300.2021.1928229

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17457300.2021.1928229

Published online: 01 Jun 2021.

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International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion
https://doi.org/10.1080/17457300.2021.1928229

Research Article

Motorcycle risky behaviours and road accidents among adolescents in

Jakarta metropolitan area, Indonesia
Yuyun Umniyatuna , Mochamad Iqbal Nurmansyahb , Yoli Farradikaa, Tri Bayu Purnamac and
Didin Nuruddin Hidayatd
a
Faculty of Health Sciences, Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof. Dr. Hamka, Jakarta, Indonesia; bFaculty of Health Science, Universitas Islam
Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia; cFaculty of Public Health, Universitas Islam Negeri Sumatera Utara, Medan, Indonesia;
d
Faculty of Education and Teacher Training, Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Introduction: Underage motorcycle riding in Indonesia has long been and continues to be common Received 20 March 2020
among its citizens. This study aimed to analyse motorcycle risky behaviours associated with Revised 28 April 2021
motorcycle accidents among adolescents in Jakarta metropolitan area. This is a cross-sectional Accepted 5 May 2021
study employing a self-report survey of 3880 students from 37 junior and senior high schools in KEYWORDS
the Jakarta metropolitan area, Indonesia, between April and June 2019. About 40% of the Adolescent;
respondents reported that they ever involved in motorcycle accidents in the past 12 months. risky behaviours;
Speeding, using a mobile phone, drowsy driving, and wrong-way riding were significantly associated motorcycles;
with motorcycle accidents. Further, red-light running, applying sudden brake, eating, smoking or traffic accidents;
drinking, listening to music, drunk driving and drowsy driving have an influence on the severity road safety
of motorcycle accidents. 91.3% of motorcycle drivers in our samples did not have a driving license,
and approximately 39% of them had involved in motorcycle accidents. More stringent controls
from parents, schools and the government are needed to inhibit motorcycle use by minors.

Introduction of motorcycles increases around 6.61% annually, from 114

million in 2014 to 146 million in 2018 (BPS-Statistics
Globally, the age-standardized incidence rates of road inju- Indonesia, 2019). About 81.8% of land transportation in
ries in 2017 were 692 per 100,000, where that figure was Indonesia was dominated by motorcycles (BPS-Statistics
11 times higher than those in 1990 (James, 2020). At the Indonesia, 2019). Unfortunately, increasing motorcycles
moment, road injuries were the eight-leading cause of death becomes one of the most challenging tasks in reducing road
for people of all ages and becoming the leading cause of traffic accidents. A research study showed an increase in
death for children and young adults aged 5–29 years world- motorcycle accidents occurred in the same period in which
wide (World Health Organization, 2018). Indonesia becomes there was an increase in motorcycle sales in the country
one of the five countries with the greatest disability-adjusted (Oliveira et al., 2016). Motorcycle accidents in Indonesia
life years (DALYs) of road traffic incidents in the world were dominated by the 15–19 age group with 15.03%, fol-
(Dalal, 2013). The number of traffic incidents in Indonesia lowed by the 20–24 age group with 14.18% (Iman, 2017).
has increased 3.30% annually from 2014 to 2018 Global condition also shows a similar pattern where road
(BPS-Statistics Indonesia, 2019). In 2018, there were 109,215 traffic injuries are currently the leading cause of death for
traffic incidents, with 29,472 deaths and 13,315 serious children and young adults aged 5–29 (World Health
injuries (BPS-Statistics Indonesia, 2019). It was estimated Organization, 2013).
that there were 213,866-million-rupiah loss with those high Youth is the population most at risk for unsafe driving.
incidents due to traffic road incidents (BPS-Statistics They often look for sensations, such as reckless motorcycle
Indonesia, 2019). Traffic accidents were dominated by riding, endangering themselves or other people. Sensation
motorcycles, with more than 70% of the total traffic acci- seeking, amiability and impatience are personality attitudes
dents (Directorate General of Land Transportation of that may lead to risky driving, particularly for young riders
Ministry of Transportation of Republic Indonesia, 2019). (Wong et al., 2010). Moreover, overconfidence is claimed
Motorization in Asian countries has been proliferating, as the primary cause of unsafe driving behaviour for young
and the motorcycle is the dominating transportation mode riders (Clarke, 2007). The incomplete development of one
(Abdul Manan & Várhelyi, 2012). Globally, Indonesia ranks of the brain parts, namely the prefrontal cortex – the part
three with the highest number of motorcycles per 1000 of the brain that has executive functions in the process of
population (World Health Organization, 2013). The number high-order thinking, moral intelligence, judgment, decision

CONTACT Mochamad Iqbal Nurmansyah iqbalnurmansyah@uinjkt.ac.id

© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 Y. UMNIYATUN ET AL.

making and self-control – is responsible for the condition size. With 95% confidence interval (CI), the minimum sam-
of adolescents who tend to take risks and seek novelty ple size was 1668 respondents. Therefore, a total of 4025
(Alaydrus, 2017; Giedd, 2012; Institute of Medicine (US) students were recruited in this study. A total of 37 junior
and National Research Council (US) Committee on the and senior high schools were selected by non-random con-
Science of Adolescence, 2011). venience sampling. From the selected schools, three classes
The human factor dominantly caused motorcycle acci- representing each grade were randomly selected. In the
dents. Indonesian Police Data showed that around 61% of selected classes, all students were recruited. After selected
motorcycle accidents were caused by human factors, such schools have agreed to participate, then the students in each
as careless driving, fatigue driving, and tired and drunk class were approached. The survey was managed by trained
driving (the Indonesian Traffic Police, 2013). World Health research assistants and was carried out in the classroom
Organization stated that motorcycle accidents’ main factors without the presence of the teacher. Informed consents were
include speeding, drunk/drug driving, not wearing a helmet, obtained prior to questionnaire distribution, and respon-
and mobile phone use (World Health Organization, 2004b). dents were given a brief orientation on how to fill out the
A study in Iran identified seven accident-related risk questionnaire. This study was approved by the Committee
behaviours: performing stunts, disobeying traffic rules, driv- on Health Research Ethics of Universitas Muhammadiyah
ing under the influence of drugs or alcohol, riding without Prof. DR. HAMKA Number 03/19.05/030, and institutional
proper skills or qualifications, transporting passengers ille- permissions were obtained from each school prior to study.
gally, transporting cargo illegally and not wearing a helmet The survey instrument consisted of four parts. The first
(Zamani-Alavijeh et al., 2009). Another research study part of the sur vey contained questions about
showed that calling, wrong-way riding, drunk riding and socio-demographic characteristics, including sex, age, school,
sidewalk riding were associated with crash injuries among class grade, address and parents’ income. The second part
motorcyclists (Truong et al., 2019). of the survey included questions on motorcycle usage status.
The data have shown that human factors are the most This section describes whether the students can ride the
dominant factors in causing motorcycle traffic accidents. motorcycles or not. We categorized students as motorcycle
Although several research studies have demonstrated various riders if they reported actively riding motorcycles, not as
motorcycle risky behaviours were associated with motorcycle passengers, within the past 30 d. The students who were
accidents among young adults or university students, there not able to ride a motorcycle were excluded from this study.
is a paucity of research identifying adolescents’ motorcycle As defined by WHO, a motorcycle is a two-wheeled motor
risky behaviours and their association with motorcycle acci- vehicle with one or two riding saddles and sometimes with
dents. However, various factors, such as parents’ permissive a third wheel to support a sidecar, including moped, motor
attitude and peers’ influence, made underage motorists scooter and motorcycle (World Health Organization, 2004a).
increasingly widespread in Indonesia (Nurlia et al., 2017). Other questions in the survey explored motorcycle driving
Moreover, understanding several motorcycle risky behaviours license ownership and motorcycle riding frequency per day.
among adolescents is essential to developing effective inter- The third part of the questionnaire explored risky motor-
ventions to prevent more accidents, specifically among ado- cycle riding behaviour. Risky behaviours have been deter-
lescents (Truong et al., 2018). Therefore, this study aims to mined by exploring three Indonesian government regulations
analyse motorcycle risky behaviours associated with motor- regarding motorcycle riding requirement and guideline,
cycle accidents among adolescents in the Jakarta metropol- namely 1) Indonesian Government Law Number 22 of 2009
itan area. We hypothesize that adolescents’ motorcycle risky on Traffic and Road Transport, 2) Ministry of Transportation
riding behaviours are associated with higher rates of their Republic of Indonesia Regulation Number 12 of 2019 on
motorcycle accidents. Also, we hypothesize that adolescents Community Motorcycle Safety, and 3) Directorate General
riding a motorcycle with risky behaviours are more likely of Land Transportation of Ministry of Transportation of
to have more severe motorcycle accidents. Indonesia on Motorcycle Riding Guidelines in Indonesia
(Directorate General of Land Transportation of Ministry of
Transportation of Republic Indonesia, 2009; Ministry of
Materials and methods
Transportation of Republic of Indonesia, 2019; Republic of
We distributed a cross-sectional, self-report survey to stu- Indonesia, 2009). Questions regarding motorcyclists’ risky
dents in high schools in Jakarta Metropolitan Area, Indonesia, behaviours were also adapted from a previous research study
between April and June 2019. The Jakarta metropolitan area of behaviour of motorcyclists disregarding regulations in
expands outside of Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta [DKI urban areas of Indonesia. Four Likert scale items were used
Jakarta]: Special Capital Region of Jakarta and includes Bogor to identify attitude variables from Very Often to Never
and Bekasi in West Java Province and Tangerang in Banten (Susilo et al., 2015). Based on those works of literature, we
Province (Yamashita, 2017). With the total number of 15.5 identified a great number of risky behaviours, such as
million motorcycles in 2017, the Jakarta metropolitan area red-light running, sidewalk riding, wrong-way riding, not
was chosen as the study location given its highest number turning on turning-lamp (indicator light) when turning, not
of motorcycles compared to other provinces in Indonesia turning on headlights during the day, carrying overweight
(BPS-Statistics Indonesia, 2018). goods, driving with more than one passengers, speeding,
The formula of hypothesis testing for two population applying sudden brakes, eating, smoking or drinking while
proportions was used for determining the minimum sample driving, calling or texting while driving, mobile phone use
 International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion 3

while driving, listening to music while driving, drowsy driv- Multivariate analysis was performed using logistic binary
ing, not wearing a helmet, not wearing safety equipment, regression on the dependent variable on accident, while
such as jackets and gloves and reckless driving. ordinal logistic regression was used on the dependent vari-
The fourth part of the questionnaire provided informa- able accident severity. Multivariable binary logistic regres-
tion on the frequency of motorcycle crashes/falls in the past sion and ordinal logistic regression were performed to
12 months. If so, participants were asked whether they fell identify potential predictors or factors associated with
from their motorcycle without contact with either an obsta- motorcycle accidents and accident severity in each variable,
cle or another road user, whether they fell from their motor- respectively. In the multivariable binary logistic regression
cycle due to hitting an obstacle, whether they crashed into analysis, backward elimination was conducted to find the
another road user, and whether some other road users set of best predictors of motorcycle accident. The strength
crashed into them. Questions regarding crash/fall involve- of the statistical association was measured by adjusted odds
ment were adapted from a previous research study of mobile ratios (AORs) and 95% CIs. In binary logistic regression
phone use while riding a motorcycle among university stu- analysis, the odds ratio is seen from the exponential value
dents (Truong et al., 2019). Later, the question was followed of beta. In the ordinal logistic regression analysis, the AOR
up with a question about the severity of the most recent is obtained by calculating the exponential value of the
crash/fall. Based on the Indonesian road traffic law, traffic estimate. An association with p < .05 was considered
accidents were categorized into three degrees: minor, mod- significant.
erate and major accidents. The minor accident results only
in damage in the vehicle without resulting in a wound or Results
injury. In contrast, a moderate accident is an accident result-
ing in minor injuries and damage to the vehicle. Meanwhile, A total of 3880 (96.39%) respondents completed all ques-
a major accident is an accident resulting in disability or tions on the survey. Respondents who never used motor-
injuries requiring inpatient hospital care (Republic of cycles were excluded from further analyses (1509 respondents,
Indonesia, 2009). 38.89%). Thus, all further analyses were based on a sample
All statistical tests were analysed using statistical soft- of 2371 respondents. The respondents’ characteristics and
ware. Descriptive statistics were computed for categorical frequency of motorcycle crash experience are described in
variables by computing their frequencies and percentages. Table 1. The respondents were 53.7% female and 46.3%
For all respondents, the dependent variable of having had male, with the mean age of respondents was 15.4 years old
an accident was categorized as having had an accident and (SD: 1.45, min: 12 years old, max: 21 years old). The distri-
never having an accident. The dependent variable for bution of motorcyclists was relative from inside and outside
motorcycle severity accidents was categorized as major acci- Jakarta, with 57.1% from Jakarta and 42.9% from outside
dent, moderate accident and minor accident. Chi-Square Jakarta. More than half of our respondents (60.9%) reported
and ordinal regression tests were employed to determine that they were never involved in motorcycle accidents, and
associations between independent and dependent variables. 20.2% experienced minor accidents in the past 12 months.
Bivariate analysis also was used to determine the inclusion In our sample, approximately 91% of motorcycle riders did
of variables in the multivariate analysis where independent not have a motorcycle driving license.
variables with p value < .25 in bivariate tests were included Table 2 reports on the frequency of risky behaviours of
in the multivariate analysis (Hosmer et al., 2013). motorcycle riders. The most frequent motorcycle risky

Table 1. Respondents’ motorcycle accidents by sociodemographic variables.

No accident 1445 (%) Minor accident 479 (%) Moderate accident 414 (%) Major accident 33 (%) Total 2371 (%)
Age
< = 14 380 (65.6) 108 (18.7) 85 (14.7) 6 (1.0) 579 (24.4)
15 231 (58.5) 74 (18.7) 86 (21.8) 4 (1.0) 395 (16.7)
16 500 (59.5) 181 (21.5) 151 (18.0) 9 (1.0) 841 (35.5)
> = 17 334 (60.1) 116 (20.9) 92 (16.5) 14 (2.5) 556 (23.4)
Sex
Male 662 (60.4) 222 (20.2) 190 (17.3) 23 (2.1) 1097 (46.3)
Female 783 (61.4) 257 (20.2) 224 (17.6) 10 (0.8) 1274 (53.7)
School type
Private 954 (59.9) 327 (20.6) 285 (17.9) 26 (1.6) 1592 (67.1)
Public 491 (63.0) 152 (19.5) 129 (16.6) 7 (0.9) 779 (32.9)
Education
Junior high school 450 (64.2) 134 (19.1) 110 (15.7) 7 (1.0) 701 (29.6)
Senior high school 995 (59.6) 345 (20.7) 304 (18.2) 26 (1.5) 1670 (70.4)
Domicile
Jakarta 836 (61.8) 266 (19.7) 226 (16.7) 25 (1.8) 1353 (57.1)
Outside Jakarta 609 (59.8) 213 (20.9) 188 (18.5) 8 (0.8) 1018 (42.9)
Motorcycle driving
license
Having 122 (58.9) 37 (17.9) 36 (17.4) 12 (5.8) 207 (8.7)
Not having 1323 (61.1) 442 (20.4) 378 (17.5) 21 (1.0) 2164 (91.3)
4 Y. UMNIYATUN ET AL.

Table 2. Frequency of risk while riding motorcycle. listening to music while driving, drunk driving and driving
n = 2371 recklessly.
Variables Never Seldom Sometimes Very often Table 3 shows the association between several motorcycle
Red light running 1862 (78.5) 389 (16.5) 60 (2.5) 60 (2.5) risky behaviours and motorcycle crashes. Numerous risky
Sidewalk riding 1946 (82.1) 292 (12.3) 49 (2.1) 84 (3.5) behaviours were significantly associated with motorcycle
Wrong way riding 1178 (49.7) 949 (40.0) 148 (6.3) 96 (4.0) crash accidents. For those who have ever done some risky
Not turning on 1519 (64.1) 347 (14.6) 240 (10.1) 265 (11.2)
indicator lamp behaviours during riding a motorcycle, such as red-light
when turning running, sidewalk riding, wrong-way riding, driving with
Not turning on 966 (40.7) 272 (11.5) 575 (24.3) 558 (23.5) more than one passenger, speeding, applying sudden brakes,
head-lights during
the day eating, smoking or drinking, using a mobile phone, listening
Driving with more 757 (31.9) 1211 (51.1) 279 (11.8) 124 (5.2) to music, drowsy driving, not wearing a helmet and not
than one
passenger
wearing safety equipment, had significantly higher ORs for
Never checking 551 (23.2) 362 (15.3) 1021 (43.1) 437 (18.4) experiencing motorcycle crash accidents. Moreover, not hav-
vehicle routinely ing a driving license, not turning on the indicator lamp
Speeding 627 (26.4) 1156 (48.8) 406 (17.1) 182 (7.7) when turning and headlights during the day, never checking
Applying sudden 709 (29.9) 1401 (59.1) 202 (8.5) 59 (2.5)
brakes vehicle routinely, driving recklessly and drunk driving were
Eating, smoking or 1637 (69.0) 556 (23.5) 99 (4.2) 79 (3.3) not significantly associated with motorcycle crash accidents.
drinking Table 4 shows the multivariate logistic regression. The
Using mobile phone 1620 (68.3) 577 (24.3) 94 (4.0) 80 (3.4)
Listening to music 1346 (56.8) 671 (28.3) 228 (9.6) 126 (5.3) model was statistically significant because the significance
Drowsy driving 1142 (48.2) 962 (40.6) 197 (8.2) 70 (3.0) level of p in the Hosmer–Lemeshow test was found to be
Drunk driving 2201 (92.8) 48 (2.0) 24 (1.0) 98 (4.2) higher than the significance value of .05 (.970). Moreover,
Not wearing a helmet 662 (27.9) 291 (12.3) 900 (38.0) 518 (21.8)
Not wearing safety 286 (12.1) 339 (14.3) 1047 (44.2) 699 (29.4)
the χ2 value was calculated to be 108.607 with a significance
equipment of .000, in comparison with 9.49, which represents an χ2
Reckless driving 1394 (58.8) 437 (18.4) 321 (13.5) 219 (9.3) table value with 4 degree of freedom at alpha significance
level (.05), the model established was confirmed to be
significant in general. However, Nagelkerke R square in
behaviours reported by respondents were not wearing safety this study was only 0.061, which is considerably low. This
equipment, such as jackets and gloves (29.4%), not turning can be because various factors were not examined in this
on headlights during the day (23.5%) and not wearing a study, which could affect motorcycle accidents, such as the
helmet (21.8%). More than 10% of riders occasionally not influence of physical environment and vehicle condition.
turning on the indicator lamp when turning, not turning The results showed that using a mobile phone while riding
on headlights during the day, driving with more than one was associated with a higher chance of experiencing motor-
passenger, never checking the vehicle routinely, speeding, cycle accidents (AOR: 1.60, 95% CI: 1.32–1.93). Moreover,
not wearing a helmet, not wearing safety equipment and motorcycle riders who did speeding compared to those
reckless driving. Approximately, more than half of respon- who did not do speeding had an increased likelihood of
dents stated they had never committed red-light running, experiencing motorcycle crash 1.4 times (AOR: 1.44, 95%
sidewalk riding, not turning on the indicator lamp when CI: 1.18–1.77). Similarly, motorcycle riders who frequently
turning, eating, smoking or drinking, using a mobile phone, committed drowsy driving and wrong-way riding were
times more likely to experience motorcycle crash than those

Table 3. Bivariate analysis for assessing the relationship of motorcyclist risky behaviour with motor-
cycle accidents.
Involving motorcycle accident in the past 12 months
Variables Yes No Odds ratio (95% CI) p Value
Not having driving license 841 (38.9) 1323 (61.1) 0.91 (0.68–1.13) .586
Red light running 241 (47.3) 268 (52.7) 1.55 (1.27–1.88) <.001
Sidewalk riding 209 (49.2) 216 (50.8) 1.66 (1.34–2.05) <.001
Wrong way riding 547 (45.9) 646 (54.1) 1.79 (1.51–2.11) <.001
Not turning on indicator lamp when turning 95 (35.8) 170 (64.2) 1.17 (0.89–1.52) .285
Not turning on head-lights during the day 211 (37.8) 347 (62.2) 1.07 (0.88–1.30) .524
Driving with more one than passengers 668 (41.4) 946 (58.6) 1.37 (1.14–1.64) .001
Never checking vehicle routinely 153 (35.0) 284 (65.0) 1.24 (0.99–1.54) .062
Speeding 743 (42.6) 1001 (57.4) 1.80 (1.48–2.19) <.001
Applying sudden brakes 707 (42.5) 995 (57.5) 1.66 (1.37–2.00) <.001
Eating, smoking or drinking 345 (47.0) 389 (53.0) 1.61 (1.35–1.92) <.001
Using mobile phone 380 (50.6) 371 (49.4) 2.02 (1.69–2.40) <.001
Listening to music 459 (44.8) 566 (55.2) 1.53 (1.29–1.80) <.001
Drowsy driving 552 (44.9) 677 (55.1) 1.67 (1.42–1.98) <.001
Drunk driving 63 (37.1) 107 (62.9) 0.91 (0.66–1.26) .637
Not wearing helmet 178 (34.4) 340 (65.6) 1.29 (1.05–1.58) .015
Not wearing safety equipment 239 (34.2) 460 (65.8) 1.34 (1.17–1.61) .002
Reckless driving 73 (33.3) 146 (66.7) 1.31 (0.97–1.76) .080
 International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion 5

Table 4. Logistic regression results for being involved in a motor- red-light and applying sudden brakes were approximately
cycle accident by risky behaviours (fit model). 1.3 times as likely to be injured (AOR: 1.36 and 1.32,
Adjusted respectively). Drunk riders were approximately 1.7 times as
Standard p odds likely to be injured. Also, riders who reported having expe-
Variables Estimate error Wald Value ratio 95% CI
rienced an accident when they did eating, smoking or drink-
Wrong way riding 0.35 0.09 14.87 .000 1.42 1.18–1.69
Speeding 0.37 0.10 12.53 .000 1.44 1.18–1.77 ing, or listening to music were more likely to be injured
Using mobile 0.47 0.09 23.80 .000 1.60 1.32–1.93 (AOR: 1.42 and 1.32, respectively).
phone
Drowsy driving 0.25 0.09 7.49 .006 1.28 1.07–1.53
Constant −2.63 0.24 126.29 .000 0.07 –
Discussion
This study highlighted that more than half of the partici-
Table 5. Bivariate analysis for assessing the relationship of motor-
pants (n = 2371, 61.1%) had utilized the motorcycle as com-
cyclist risky behaviour with motorcycle severity accident.
mon transportation. These findings are also widely reported
Variables β Odds ratio 95% CI p Value
on several research outcomes in other countries, indicating
Not having driving license 0.60 1.83 1.17–2.84 .008
Red light running 0.37 1.45 1.93–1.08 .012 a motorcycle is already part of the daily life (Abegaz &
Sidewalk riding 0.23 1.25 0.92–1.71 .146 Gebremedhin, 2019; Bodalal et al., 2012; Gathecha et al.,
Wrong way riding −0.03 0.97 0.77–1.29 .979 2018; Guo, 2017; Sadeghi-Bazargani, 2016; Thor & Gabler,
Not turning on indicator −0.20 0.82 0.54–1.24 .341 2010). Moreover, of which 2371 motorcycle riders in this
lamp when turning
Not turning on head-lights 0.05 1.05 0.78–1.42 .753 study, almost 40% of them were under 16 years old.
during the day Unfortunately, a large number of motorcycles used by ado-
Driving with more than −0.12 0.88 0.67–1.17 .395 lescents had a positive correlation with the increasing prev-
one passenger
Never checking vehicle 0.36 1.44 1.01–2.04 .042 alence of crashes among adolescents and also had the
routinely highest mortality rates in road accidents (Sadeghi-Bazargani,
Speeding −0.12 0.89 0.64–1.22 .467 2016). Psychologically, adolescents are more likely to under-
Applying sudden brake −0.23 0.80 0.59–1.07 .137
Eating, smoking or drinking 0.41 1.51 1.97–1.16 .002 estimate or unable to recognize dangerous situations while
Using mobile phone −0.24 0.79 0.61–1.02 .068 driving (Jonah & Dawson, 1987).
Listening to music 0.35 1.41 1.82–1.09 .008 In the Indonesian context, it is illegal to drive a motor-
Drowsy driving −0.22 0.80 0.62–1.04 .093
Drunk driving 0.83 2.28 3.82–1.37 .002
cycle without an appropriate license in which failing the
Not wearing a helmet 0.08 1.08 0.79–1.50 .624 license to authorities will have legal consequences. The
Not wearing safety −0.01 0.99 0.74–1.33 .958 Indonesian government has regulated that 17 years old was
equipment
a minimum age in obtaining all type C driving license,
Reckless driving −0.03 0.97 0.61–1.56 .913
which is used for legally driving motorcycles. Particularly,
there are three types of type C driving license; C1 type
Table 6. Multiple ordinal logistic results for severity motorcycle driving license is used for driving a motorcycle with engine
accident by risky behaviours. under 250 cubical centimetre (cc/cm3); C2 type is used for
Adjusted a motorcycle with engine between 250 and 750 cc, and C3
Variables β odds ratio 95% CI p Value type is used for a with motorcycle engine above 750 cc.
Red light running 0.31 1.36 1.11–1.68 .003 Besides the age requirement, someone who wants to get a
Applying sudden brake 0.28 1.32 1.09–1.62 .004 driving license must also pass an exam consisting of a
Eating, smoking or drinking 0.35 1.42 1.17–1.70 .000
Listening to music 0.28 1.32 1.12–1.57 .001 theory test, a skills test via a simulator, and a practical
Drowsy driving 0.30 1.35 1.14–1.62 .001 exam. A person who wants to get a driving license is also
Drunk driving 0.57 1.77 1.25–2.48 .001 required to take part in an educational session by the Police
related to laws and regulations in the field of road traffic
who did not do drowsy driving (AOR: 1.28, 95% CI: 1.07– and transportation; traffic ethics; security, safety, order and
1.53) and wrong-way riding (AOR: 1.42, 95% CI: 1.18–1.69). smooth traffic; various forms of traffic violations; traffic
Table 5 presents the bivariate analysis of motorcycle acci- accidents and traffic accident rescue procedures (The
dent severity. The motorcycle accident severity was statis- Indonesian National Police, 2012).
tically significant difference for those who did not have a Some reasons underlie why parents in the Jakarta met-
driving license, red-light running, never checking the vehicle ropolitan area allow their children to use motorcycles to
routinely, eating, smoking or drinking, listening to music, school. School bus drivers could not reach some residential
and drunk driving as compared to those who did not do areas, and the students are worried about taking public
those motorcycle risky behaviours. transportation because of the criminal issues, for instance,
Table 6 shows the multivariate linear regression analysis. robberies, kidnappings and sexual harassment (The Jakarta
The results revealed that red-light running, applying sudden Post, 2013). Another reason why the motorcycle has become
brake, eating, smoking or drinking, listening to music, a primary necessity in transportation was geographic loca-
drowsy driving and drunk driving had an influence on the tion and minimum public transport (Scott-Parker, 2013;
severity of motorcycle accidents. Riders who reported having Simons-Morton et al., 2008). It might be caused by the
experienced motorcycle accidents when running in the unintegrated transportation system and residential areas that
6 Y. UMNIYATUN ET AL.

are not accessible via public transport. It drives parents to impatient or angry, and lack of law obedience were reasons
buy motorcycles to reduce the burden of the family’s eco- underlying motorcycle riders ignoring traffic lights at junc-
nomic expenditure (Bodalal et al., 2012). Lifestyle change tions (Susilo et al., 2015).
factors due to social structure transformation might also Mistakes in driving are influenced by police supervision
affect the increasing number of motorcycle users among on highways and adolescents’ ignorance of safety regulations
adolescents (Watson, 2007; Tunnicliff 2012). The high driving down the road (Alonso et al., 2017). Early adults
demand for public dependence on motorcycles dominantly apply driving safety if they feel supervised by the police or
on mobility and economic factors affects sociological life- have gained socialization in driving at school.
style patterns. It affects the ability of the family to purchase Psychological-social factors still dominate compliance and
motor vehicles (Gathecha et al., 2018). Moreover, the awareness in the safety of driving on roadways among early
Indonesian Financial Services Authority (OJK) regulates that adults instead of adherence to applicable laws. There are
multi finance could provide service to the community with many factors affecting adolescents in committing unlawful
a 0% down payment programme on purchasing vehicles. It acts on the highway. In terms of psychological development,
makes the motorcycle more affordable, even for low changes in the endocrine system during the puberty period
socio-economic communities (The Jakarta Post, 2019). could influence drives, motivation, mood and emotions that
This study reported that 48.8% of respondents seldom could have significantly impacted sensation-seeking and
did speeding while driving motorcycles. The youth perceived risk-taking behaviours (National Research Council (US),
that speeding demonstrated a sense of pride and exceptional Institute of Medicine (US), 2007). Previous studies showed
skills, better than those who did not speed (Ferguson, 2013). that higher rates of motorcycle accidents were associated
Speeding has an impact on riders and increases the chance with their difficulties in managing their emotional responses
of severe injury or death among all road users, including (Cerniglia et al., 2015; Cimino et al., 2018). Higher family
pedestrians and passengers (Wang et al., 2010). Speeding is support was expected to contribute to a more adaptive
much more likely to be a factor in a fatal crash when the emotional-behavioural functioning of adolescents. This, in
driver is under 25 years old (Organisation for Economic turn, decreases the likability of risky driving behaviour that
Co-operation & Development, 2006). Another risky might lower the rate of motorcycle accidents (Cerniglia
behaviour significantly associated with the motorcycle acci- et al., 2015).
dent was wrong-way riding. Wrong-way riding for motor- This research study limits accidents reported only in the
cycle riders, specifically in certain areas in the Jakarta past 12 months so that some accidents occurring more than
Metropolitan area, was common despite the police and 12 months were underreported. This self-report study might
government effort to put the traffic sign and traffic lamp be biased due to socially desirable responses associated with
to warn (Ravel, 2018). A common wrong-way riding is due risky behaviours while riding. Crash/fall rates may also be
to shorter-distance travel and time-saving (Sasambe, 2016). underreported given that motorcyclists who have been seri-
Those who were using a mobile phone while driving ously injured or killed while engaging in risky riding
increases 1.60 times to get involved in motorcycle accidents. behaviours would not have been taking part in this study.
Another research study among university students in This research study, which was undertaken in urban areas,
Vietnam also showed similar results that motorcycle riders might not be representative of adolescents in different set-
who do texting and searching for information on their tings, such as in rural areas.
mobile phones while riding were likely to be involved in a Finally, the research showed several risky behaviours
motorcycle crash/fall (Truong et al., 2018). Indeed, dis- among adolescents’ motorcycle driving and its correlation
tracted driving is a growing threat to road safety, such as with motorcycle accidents and motorcycle severe accidents.
the use of mobile phones and other in-vehicle technologies The government needs to tighten the control to prevent
(Organisation for Economic Co-operation & Development minors and adolescents who still do not have a driving
& World Health Organization, 2018). Cognitive distraction license to ride motorcycles. The authorities need to consider
and both manual and visual distractions could be caused strict penalties that can deter students who do not have a
by texting, even talking on mobile phones without holding driver’s license not to ride a motorcycle, especially when
or browsing a phone can reduce driving performance (World going to school. Since it is known that some students ride
Health Organization, 2018). motorcycles to go to school, the schools could conduct
This study found that there is an association between stricter supervision and prohibit students from riding motor-
driving errors among adolescents, such as red-light running, cycles to school. School buses are one of the safest alternative
applying sudden brake, eating, smoking or drinking while transportation methods for students to go to school (Tetali
driving, listening to music, drowsy driving and drunk driv- et al., 2016). Therefore, local governments need to provide
ing become risk factors in accidents severity. Many studies school buses, which can be used by various students, both
have also shown the same results as this study has (Ashraf who attend public and private schools and reach various
et al., 2019; Sadeghi-Bazargani, 2016; Shaaban et al., 2020; areas where students live. Besides, campaigning traffic safety,
Shope, 2006; Teoh & Campbell, 2010). Riders running the such as the millennial road safety campaign performed by
red lights were more likely to experience more severe acci- Indonesian Police, could be actively continued to send a
dents than those who do not. A research study showed that clear message about safety riding. The campaign’s ultimate
younger drivers were more likely to run the red light than goal is expected not only to increase youth knowledge
older drivers (Porter & Berry, 2001). Being in a hurry, regarding safety riding behaviour but also how to change
 International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion 7

the image for the community that driving a motorcycle by BPS-Statistics Indonesia. (2019). Land transportation statistics 2018.
minors is an unacceptable social practice. In addition, par- BPS-Statistics Indonesia.
Cerniglia, L., Cimino, S., Ballarotto, G., Casini, E., Ferrari, A., Carbone,
ents also need to be involved in reducing risky driving P., & Cersosimo, M. (2015). Motor vehicle accidents and adolescents:
behaviours (Simons-Morton et al., 2008). Since previous An empirical study on their emotional and behavioral profiles,
evidence showed that teens’ vehicle ownership was related defense strategies and parental support. Transportation Research
to higher crash rates (Williams et al., 2006), parents are Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 35, 28–36. https://doi. Q3
expected not to facilitate a motorcycle and not give permis- org/10.1016/j.trf.2015.09.002
Cimino, S., Simonelli, A., Parolin, M., Ballarotto, G., Carbone, P., &
sion for adolescents who do not have a driving license to Cerniglia, L. (2018). A theoretical and empirical linkage between
drive a motorcycle. Parents are expected to be good role road accidents and binge eating behaviors in adolescence.
models in exemplifying safe driving behaviour so that chil- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,
dren can imitate this behaviour when they start driving a 15(2), 355. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15020355
motorcycle. Clarke, D. D. (2007). The role of motorcyclist and other driver be-
haviour in two types of serious accident in the UK. Accident
Analysis and Prevention, 39(5), 974–981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
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Acknowledgements Dalal, K. (2013). Economics of global burden of road traffic injuries
and their relationship with health system variables. International
The authors would like to thank all staffs, teachers and students of
Journal of Preventive Medicine, 4(12), 1442–1450. http://ijpm.mui.
the participating high schools. We would like to extend our gratitude
ac.ir/index.php/ijpm/article/view/1203
to the Research Institution of Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof. Dr. Directorate General of Land Transportation of Ministry of
Hamka for the financial support provided for the entire process of Transportation of Republic Indonesia (2009). Petunjuk tata cara
this research. bersepeda motor Indonesia (motorcycle riding guidelines in Indonesia).
Ministry of Transportation of Republic Indonesia. https://dishub.
m a l a n g k o t a . g o. i d / w p - c o nt e nt / u p l o a d s / s i t e s / 1 6 / 2 0 1 6 / 0 5 /
Disclosure statement B U K U - P E T U N J U K - TATA- C A R A- B E R S E P E DA- M O T O R-
DI-INDONESIA.pdf.
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). Directorate General of Land Transportation of Ministry of
Transportation of Republic Indonesia (2019). Land transportation
in number (2018). Directorate General of Land Transportation of
Funding Ministry of Transportation of Republic Indonesia. http://hubdat.
dephub.go.id/data-a-informasi/pdda/2843-tahun-2018.
This work was supported by Research Institution of Universitas Ferguson, S. A. (2013). Speeding-related fatal crashes among teen driv-
Muhammadiyah Prof. Dr. Hamka with grant number 394/F.03.07/2018. ers and opportunities for reducing the risks. Governors Highway
Safety Association. http://www.ghsa.org/html/publications/pdf/
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