Module 14

The Renaissance
Essential Question
Do art and literature reflect culture, or do they shape it?

About the Painting: The Madonna of In this module you will learn how European society was revitalized as
Chancellor Rollin, painted by Jan van Eyck in classical art and ideas were embraced and improved upon.
about 1435, shows the infant Jesus and his
mother Mary in a 15th-century European
setting. It is painted with oil paints, which
What You Will Learn …
were developed during the Renaissance, and Lesson 1: Birth of the Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
The Big Idea The Renaissance was a rebirth of learning and art.
uses the technique of perspective.
Lesson 2: The Italian Renaissance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
The Big Idea The Italian Renaissance was a rediscovery of learning
that produced many great works of art and literature.
Explore ONLINE! Lesson 3: The Northern Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
VIDEOS, including... The Big Idea In the 1400s, the ideas of the Italian Renaissance began
• Da Vinci’s World to spread to northern Europe.
• Leonardo Da Vinci’s The Last Supper Lesson 4: Renaissance Achievements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
The Big Idea The Renaissance was a period of striking achievements
• Da Vinci: Inventive Genius
in many areas.
Document-Based Investigations
Graphic Organizers
Interactive Games
Image Compare: Perspective
Image with Hotspots: Printing Press

536 Module 14
Timeline of Events 1300–1500 Explore ONLINE!

Europe World
1300
1300 In the 1300s the Renaissance begins in Italian
city-states such as Florence, Milan, and Mantua.

1315 Great Famine spreads

across northern Europe.
1324 Mali king Mansa
Musa makes hajj to Mecca.

1325 Aztecs build Tenochtitlán.

1347 Bubonic plague strikes Europe.

1368 Hongwu founds

Ming Dynasty in China.

1400 Paper mills established

in France, Italy, and Germany.

1405 Chinese explorer Zheng He begins

exploration of Asia and Africa.
1419 Portugal’s Prince Henry
founds navigation school.

1434 Medici family takes control of Florence.

1453 End of Hundred Years’ War

between France and England.
1453 Ottoman Turks capture Constantinople.
1455 Gutenberg Bible printed in Mainz.

1464 Sunni Ali begins

Songhai Empire.

1492 Columbus reaches the Americas.

1493 Reconquista of Spain completed by
Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile.
1500

The Renaissance 537

 Lesson 1

Birth of the Renaissance

Setting the Stage

The Big Idea During the late Middle Ages, Europe suffered from
The Renaissance was a rebirth of both war and plague. Those who survived wanted to
learning and art. ­celebrate life and the human spirit. They began to ques-
Why It Matters Now tion institutions of the Middle Ages, which had been
Renaissance art and ideas still
unable to prevent war or to relieve suffering brought by
influence thought today. the plague. Some people questioned the Church, which
taught Christians to endure ­suffering while they awaited
Key Terms and People their rewards in heaven. Some writers and artists began
Renaissance to express this new spirit and to experiment with differ-
humanism
ent styles. These men and women would greatly change
secular
patron how Europeans saw themselves and their world.

A Time of Change
From approximately 1300 to 1600, Europe experienced
an explosion of creativity in art, architecture, writing,
and thought. Historians call this period the Renaissance
(rehn•ih•SAHNS). The term means “rebirth,” and in this context,
it refers to a revival of art and learning. People of the Renais-
sance hoped to bring back the culture of ­classical Greece and
Rome. Yet in striving to revive the past, they created some-
thing new. The contributions made during this period led to
innovative styles of art and literature. They also led to new
values, such as individualism, or a belief in the importance of
the individual.
Although the developments of the Renaissance may seem to
be a complete departure from the medieval era, they grew out
of several important changes in society, politics, ­economics,
and learning. These changes laid the foundation for the
Renaissance.
Shifts in Society As a result of waves of famine and ­
disease, Europe’s population in 1450 was much smaller
than it had been in 1300. With far fewer people to feed, the
general ­standard of living was much higher. People were also

538 Module 14
 g­ enerally better educated. Schools in the growing towns provided at least a
basic education, which was extended by recently ­developed ­universities. As
literacy rates increased, so did the demand for books.
Increased trade led to the development of a new class of people between
the nobility at the top and the peasants at the bottom: the middle class.
The merchants, bankers, and tradespeople in the middle class had more
than enough income to meet their basic needs. They had extra money to
buy luxury goods and fine homes, which helped to expand the economy
still further.
New Sources of Knowledge After the fall of Rome, knowledge of Greek
language and learning all but disappeared in Europe. It was maintained
in the Byzantine Empire, which lay at the crossroads of Europe and Asia.
In 1453, when the Ottomans captured Constantinople, the capital of
the Byzantine Empire, many eminent Byzantine scholars fled to Italy.
With their knowledge of the language and learning of classical Greece,
they ­contributed to the new ways of thinking that helped lead to the
Renaissance.
Many Greek texts, along with the knowledge to read them, were also
preserved in the libraries of the Islamic Empire. The capital of Islamic
Spain, Córdoba, was a center of classical learning. Scholars there wrote
commentaries in Arabic on the works of Greek writers such as Aristotle
and Plato. Jewish scholars in Spain translated these commentaries into
Hebrew. Later, these scholars translated into Latin both the original Greek
texts and the commentaries. As a result, Western scholars visiting the
libraries of Islamic Spain were able to read the works of Greek writers.

Islamic influences in Córdoba include the Moorish-style Alcazar and the cathedral, formerly an Islamic mosque.

The Renaissance 539

This painting by Vicente Lopez y Portana shows King Ferdinand II of Aragon and
Queen Isabella of Castile receiving Boabdil, the last Muslim ruler of Granada, in 1492.

New Technology Western Europeans also learned the technology of

papermaking from Islamic Spain. Paper was first manufactured in China
around 105 AD. In 751, technicians in the Abbasid caliphate learned the
process. Because paper made it easier to create and store books, its use
­contributed to the growth of libraries. Papermaking soon spread through
the Islamic world. By 1400, paper mills were to be found in France, Italy,
and Germany. The availability of paper later helped make possible the
development of printing.
A Changing Political Landscape Along with famine and disease, Europe
had experienced almost constant warfare. Over the course of the 15th
century, peace returned to much of the continent. The Hundred Years’ War
between France and England ended in 1453. The victory against England
confirmed the French king’s authority. A period of civil war followed in
England, but when Henry VII came to power in 1485, England was again
Reading Check ruled by a strong central power. In Spain, the Reconquista, or Reconquest,
Analyze Effects was completed in 1493 by Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile.
How did increasing
global contact This ended Islamic rule and brought to a close 200 years of war on the
affect Europe? peninsula.

The Rise of Italian City-States

The final major factor that contributed to the Renaissance was the rise of
city-states in Italy. At a time when most of Europe was rural, agricultural,
and manorial, Italy was much more urban and commercial. Since cities
are often places where people exchange ideas, they were an ideal breeding
ground for an intellectual revolution.
Economic Factors Overseas trade, spurred by the Crusades, led to the
growth of large city-states in northern Italy. By the year 1000, Italian ­cities
were at the forefront of an impressive economic expansion that would
carry on into the Renaissance some 300 years later. Two decades into the
11th century, this financial success would allow Italian cities to begin to

540 Module 14
 ignore the German emperor who claimed
to control them.
Traditionally, wealth in Europe was
based on land ownership. The growth in
foreign trade created an economy based
on commerce rather than agriculture.
Merchants needed financial services, such
as the ability to transfer money from one
place to another. This led to the rise of
banks, which soon became an important
part of the city-states’ economy. Some
crucial aspects of finance, which helped
develop the modern economy, were
pioneered by the banks of northern Italy.
A wealthy merchant class developed
in the Italian city-states. Unlike nobles,
Venice’s waterways, such as the merchants did not inherit land and social
Grand Canal, are still the main rank. To succeed in business, they used their wits. As a result, many suc-
thoroughfares of the city.
cessful merchants believed they deserved power and wealth because of
their individual merit. This belief in individual achievement became
important during the Renaissance.
In the 1300s, the bubonic plague struck these cities hard, killing up to
60 percent of the population. This brought economic changes. Because
there were fewer laborers, survivors could demand higher wages. With
few opportunities to expand business, merchants began to pursue other
­interests, such as supporting the arts.
Political Factors Political development in Italy was unlike that in other
parts of Europe. Whereas countries like England and France steadily
moved toward the consolidation of power into the hands of dynastic
royal families, Italy remained fragmented. One reason for this was the
­development of a strong urban nobility that intermarried over time with
rising commercial families. These noble families with commercial backing
were then able to establish vital, independent bases in a number of Italian
cities, mostly in northern and central Italy.
Venice Venice is in the north of Italy, on the Adriatic Coast. The city is
built on a lagoon and is made up of over 100 islands where people first
moved to find safety from raids after the fall of Rome. It grew into an
­international powerhouse after shedding the domination of first the Byz-
antines and then the Franks. The Crusades boosted Venice’s standing even
further, as Venetian merchants made fortunes ­supplying and ­transporting
the ­crusaders. At this time, the city established a Mediterranean empire,
­controlling Crete and a number of other Greek islands.
Milan As an inland city, Milan lagged behind coastal trading powers such
as Venice and Genoa in commercial terms. But it quickly arose as a ­center

The Renaissance 541

 of manufacturing. Of Milan’s four principal industries—cloth, arms,
metallurgy, and leather—cloth was the largest. But the trade in arms and
metallurgy (tools, utensils, needles) was more profitable. Milanese body
armor and weapons were prized throughout Europe and beyond. Trade was
boosted in the 13th century by the opening of free passage along roads,
canals, and rivers through much of northern Italy.
In Milan, prosperity spurred civic pride and energy and resulted
in an upswelling of artistic creativity, public building, and further
­entrepreneurial endeavor. Unfortunately, this was also a time of frequent
warfare—against nearby cities such as Pavia and Como and also the forces
of the Holy Roman Empire.
Naples By the late 800s, Naples (in the south of Italy on the west coast)
was relatively free from Lombard attacks and able to ­concentrate on
trade, mostly with the Arab world. Increased wealth led to a ­f lowering
of ­architecture, the arts, and scholarship. At the beginning of the
10th c­ entury, Naples was a flourishing, independent city-state. This
came to an end in the 1130s, when Norman invaders took over southern
Italy. Next came the German emperor, Henry VI, to oust the Normans
in 1194. Finally, the armies of Charles of Anjou ejected the Germans
and ­established the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily in 1266. The Angevin
dynasty ruled from Naples, boosting trade, mostly in arms and luxury
goods, and the city’s population, which grew to as much as 60,000 by the
1300s. Robert the Wise, king from 1309 to 1343, supported both public
building and the arts, but the end of his reign marked the end of
Neapolitan prosperity. Earthquakes in 1343 and 1349 and the Black Death
in 1348 made sure that Naples limped along toward the Renaissance.
Florence Since the late 1200s, the city-state of Florence had a republican
form of government. But during the Renaissance, Florence came under
the rule of one powerful banking family, the Medici (MEHD •ih•chee). The
Medici bank had branch offices throughout Italy and in the major cities
of Europe. Cosimo de Medici was the wealthiest European of his time. In
1434, he won control of Florence’s government. He did not seek political

BIOGRAPHY
Lorenzo de Medici
(1449–1492)
A rival family grew so jealous of the Medici that they
plotted to kill Lorenzo and his brother Giuliano. As the
Medici attended Mass, assassins murdered Giuliano at the
altar. Drawing his sword, Lorenzo escaped to a small room
and held off his attackers until help arrived. Later, he had
the killers publicly executed.
More positively, Lorenzo was a generous patron of the
arts who collected many rare manuscripts. Eventually the
Medici family made their library available to the public.

542 Module 14
 office for himself but influenced
members of the ruling council by
giving them loans. For 30 years, he
was dictator of Florence.
Cosimo de Medici died in 1464,
but his family continued to control
Florence. His grandson, Lorenzo
de Medici, came to power in 1469.
Known as Lorenzo the Magnificent,
he ruled as a dictator yet kept up
the ­appearance of having an elected
government.
Rome By the mid-700s, Rome was This portrait (c 1490) by Leonardo da Vinci
of Cecilia Gallerani is known as “Lady with an
the center of the Papal States—­ Ermine.” It was commissioned by Ludovico
territories controlled by the pope. Sforza, the Duke of Milan and a member
Rome’s wealthy, landholding of the Order of the Ermine. The duke was
a generous patron of the arts and his
families controlled the city and the court became a gathering place for artists,
papacy from about 900 until about architects, poets, and musicians.
1050, when wealthy Romans whose
Reading Check money came from business and banking supported the papacy. In 1143,
Contrast How was
Italy unlike other
a revolt resulted in the Roman commune, in which Rome became a self-
countries in Europe? governing city with a republican constitution.

Classical and Worldly Values

As European scholars studied Greek writers and thinkers, they became
more influenced by classical ideas. These ideas helped them develop a new
outlook on life and art.
Vocabulary Classics Lead to Humanism The study of classical texts led to ­humanism,
humanist/ an intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achieve-
humanities comes
from a Latin term ments. Instead of trying to make classical texts agree with Christian
that means “studies teaching as medieval scholars had, humanists studied them to understand
of human nature”; ancient Greek values. Humanists influenced artists and architects to carry
it refers to the
knowledge of culture
on classical traditions. Also, humanists popularized the study of subjects
that every educated common to classical education, such as history, literature, and philosophy.
person should possess These subjects are called the humanities.
Worldly Pleasures In the Middle Ages, some people had demonstrated
their piety by wearing rough clothing and eating plain foods. However,
humanists suggested that a person might enjoy life without offending
God. In Renaissance Italy, the wealthy enjoyed material luxuries, good
music, and fine foods.
Most people remained devout Catholics. However, the basic spirit of
Renaissance society was secular—worldly rather than spiritual, and
­concerned with the here and now instead of the hereafter. Even church
leaders became more worldly. Some lived in beautiful mansions, threw
­lavish banquets, and wore expensive clothes.

The Renaissance 543

 Document-Based Investigation Historical Sources

The Renaissance Man

“Let the man we are seeking be very bold, stern, and
always among the first, where the enemy are to be seen;
and in every other place, gentle, modest, reserved, above
all things avoiding ostentation [showiness] and that
impudent [bold] self-praise by which men ever excite
hatred and disgust in all who hear them. . . .
I would have him more than passably accomplished
in letters, at least in those studies that are called the
humanities, and conversant not only with the Latin
language but with Greek, for the sake of the many
different things that have been admirably written therein.
In The Courtier, Baldassare Let him be well versed in the poets, and not less in the
Castiglione described the type orators and historians, and also proficient in writing verse
of accomplished person who and prose.”
later came to be called the —Baldassare Castaglione, The Courtier
Renaissance man.

The Renaissance Woman

“To Master Leonardo da Vinci, the painter: Hearing that
you are settled at Florence, we have begun to hope that
our cherished desire to obtain a work by your hand might
be at length realized. When you were in this city and drew
our portrait in carbon, you promised us that you would
some day paint it in colors. But because this would be
almost impossible, since you are unable to come here, we
beg you to keep your promise by converting our portrait
into another figure, which would be still more acceptable
to us; that is to say, a youthful Christ of about twelve
years. . . executed with all that sweetness and charm of
Although Renaissance women were atmosphere which is the peculiar excellence of your art.”
not expected to create art, wealthy Mantua, May 14, 1504
women were often patrons of artists, —Isabella D’Este, Letters
as this letter by Isabella d’Este
demonstrates.

Analyze Historical Sources

Do the qualities called for in the ideal Renaissance man and woman
seem to emphasize the individual or the group?

544 Module 14
 Patrons of the Arts Church leaders during the Renaissance beautified
Rome and other cities by spending huge amounts of money for art. They
became patrons of the arts by financially supporting artists. Renaissance
merchants and wealthy families also became patrons of the arts. By ­having
their portraits painted or by donating art to the city to place in public
squares, the wealthy demonstrated their own importance.
The Renaissance Man During the Renaissance, as the idea of the
­individual became increasingly important, Renaissance writers introduced
the idea of the “ideal” individual. This ideal person was expected to create
art and to try to master almost every area of study. A man who excelled in
many fields was praised as a “universal man.” Later ages called such people
“Renaissance men.”
Baldassare Castiglione (kahs•teel•YOH•nay) wrote a book called The
Courtier (1528) that described how to become such a person. A young man
should be charming, witty, and well educated in the classics. He should
dance, sing, play music, and write poetry. In addition, he should be a
skilled rider, wrestler, and swordsman.
The Renaissance Woman According to The Courtier, upper-class women
should also know the classics and be charming. Yet they were not expected
to seek fame. They were expected to inspire art but rarely to create it.
Upper-class Renaissance women were better educated than medieval
women. However, most Renaissance women had little influence in politics.
A few women, such as Isabella d’Este, did exercise power. Born into the
Reading Check ruling family of the city-state of Ferrara, she married the ruler of another
Compare How city-state, Mantua. She brought many Renaissance artists to her court
were expectations and built a famous art collection. She was also skilled in politics. When
for Renaissance men
and Renaissance her husband was taken captive in war, she defended Mantua and won
women similar? his release.

Lesson 1 Assessment
1. Organize Information Use a diagram like this one to 2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in
show the causes of the rise of Italian city-states. Which the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.
cause do you think was the most important? Write a 3. Synthesize What are some of the ­characteristics of
sentence explaining why. the “Renaissance man” and “Renaissance woman”?
4. Analyze Causes What was the attitude of Church
leaders and the wealthy toward the arts? Why?
5. Draw Conclusions How did study of the classics influ-
Rise of Italian ence branches of learning such as history, literature,
City-States and philosophy?
6. Compare What were the differences between
medieval and ­Renaissance attitudes toward worldly
pleasures?

The Renaissance 545

 Lesson 2

The Italian Renaissance

Setting the Stage

The Big Idea The Renaissance began in northern Italy. Italy’s
The Italian Renaissance was city-states were wealthy, with an advanced urban
a rediscovery of learning that society, and they felt a sense of connection with the
produced many great works of classical past of ancient Rome and Greece. During the
art and literature.
Renaissance, these city-states were home to some of the
Why It Matters Now world’s most extraordinary writers and artists.
Renaissance art and literature
still influence modern thought Artists of the Italian Renaissance
and modern art.
Supported by patrons like Isabella d’Este, dozens of artists
Key Terms and People worked in northern Italy. These artists excelled at imitating
perspective nature, which became an important aspect of Renaissance
Michelangelo painting and sculpture. Medieval artists had used religious
Leonardo da Vinci subjects to convey a spiritual ideal. Renaissance artists often
portrayed religious subjects, but they used a realistic style
copied from classical models. Greek and Roman subjects also
became popular. Renaissance painters used the technique
of perspective, a way of showing three dimensions on a flat
surface. The introduction of oil-based paints, first developed
in Flanders, allowed artists to create more realistic forms and
details. Following the new emphasis on individuals, painters
began to paint prominent citizens. These realistic portraits
revealed what was distinctive about each person.
In Florence, artists such as the sculptor, poet, architect, and
painter Michelangelo (my•kuhl•AN•juh•loh) Buonarroti used
a realistic style when depicting the human body. The sculptor
Donatello (dahn•uh•TEHL•oh) revived a classical form in his
statue of David, a boy who, according to the Bible, became a
great king. Donatello’s statue was created in the late 1460s. It
was the first European sculpture of a large, free-standing nude
since ancient times. David was a favorite subject for sculptors
of the period, including Michelangelo.
Leonardo da Vinci, Renaissance Man Leonardo da Vinci
(lay•uh•NAHR•doh-duh-VIHN•chee) was a painter, sculptor,
inventor, and scientist. A true “Renaissance man,” he was

546 Module 14
 ANALYZE Art

Perspective
Perspective creates the appearance of three dimensions. Classical artists
had used perspective, but medieval artists abandoned the technique. In
the 1400s, Italian artists rediscovered it.
Perspective is based on an optical illusion. As parallel lines stretch away
from a viewer, they seem to draw together, until they meet at a spot on
the horizon called the vanishing point. The use of perspective was a
feature of most Western painting for the next 450 years.

Vanishing Point

Horizon

Marriage of the Virgin (1504), Raphael

Analyze Visuals
What is the major difference between the figures in the background of the painting and the figures in the
foreground? What is the effect of this difference?

The Renaissance 547

 interested in how things worked. He studied how a muscle moves and how
veins are arranged in a leaf. His notebooks contain anatomical, mathemat-
ical, optical, mechanical, geological, and botanical studies. He sketched
designs for machines that resemble modern tanks and helicopters.
Among Leonardo’s masterpieces is one of the best-known portraits in
the world, the Mona Lisa. The woman in the portrait seems so real that
many writers have tried to explain the thoughts behind her smile. Leon-
ardo also produced a famous religious painting, The Last Supper. It shows
the personalities of Jesus’ disciples through facial expressions.
Raphael Advances Realism Raphael (RAHF•ee•uhl) Sanzio learned by
studying the work of Michelangelo and Leonardo. One of Raphael’s favor-
ite subjects was the Madonna and child, whom he portrayed with gentle,
calm expressions. He was famous for his use of perspective.
In his greatest achievement, Raphael filled the walls of Pope Julius II’s
library with paintings. One of these, School of Athens, shows the classical
influence. Raphael painted famous figures such as Michelangelo, Leon-
ardo, and himself as classical philosophers and their students.
Anguissola and Gentileschi Renaissance society generally restricted
women’s roles. However, a few Italian women became notable painters.
Sofonisba Anguissola (ahng• GWEES•soh•lah) was the first woman art-
ist to gain an international reputation. She is known for her portraits of
her sisters and of prominent people such as King Philip II of Spain. Arte-
misia Gentileschi (jayn•tee•LEHS•kee) was another accomplished artist.
She trained with her painter father and helped with his work. In her own
­paintings, Gentileschi painted pictures of strong, heroic women.

Biography

Leonardo Michelangelo
da Vinci Buonarroti
(1452–1519) (1475–1564)
Leonardo da Vinci’s Michelangelo was a true
notebooks—and life— Renaissance man, excelling
are mysterious. Some as a painter, sculptor,
3,500 pages closely architect, and poet.
covered with writings and
He is best known for the
drawings survive. His writing is clear and easy to
way he showed the human body. Influenced by
read, but only if you look at it in a mirror. No one
classical art, he created forceful, heroic figures.
knows why he wrote backwards.
Famous works include his ceiling frescoes in
Leonardo planned scholarly works and great the Sistine Chapel and his sculptures Pietà and
feats of engineering that were never completed. David. His architectural and engineering works
Only 17 of his paintings survive, and yet the work include the dome of St. Peter’s and the Capitoline
that Leonardo did produce is so extraordinary Square. This “square” was in fact a trapezoid of
that it confirms his genius. sloping ground. Michelangelo created an elegant
solution for a difficult site.

548 Module 14
 Italian Renaissance Architecture Even more than painting and ­sculpture,
Renaissance architecture showed its classical roots. Features included
classical Roman forms such as columns and domes. Renaissance archi-
tects focused on proportion in their designs. As a result the spaces they
designed are clear and easy to comprehend.
One of the pioneers of Italian Renaissance architecture was Filippo
Brunelleschi. His designs fused classical elements with the Romanesque
style, a mixture of Roman, Byzantine, and local styles. As well as rediscov-
ering the principles of linear perspective, Brunelleschi devised a way to
build huge domes, using machines of his own invention.
Venetian architect Andrea Palladio studied surviving Roman buildings
Reading Check as well as the works of Roman architects. He wrote a book with rules and
Compare How
were Leonardo and plans for buildings. With its clear, detailed illustrations, his book inspired
Michelangelo alike? architects in many countries to design buildings in the same style.

Writers of the Italian Renaissance

The dominant feature of Italian Renaissance writing was humanism.
Many Italian writers incorporated classical ideals in their work.
Petrarch and Boccaccio Francesco Petrarch (PEE•trahrk) was one of the
earliest and most influential humanists. Some have called him the father
of Renaissance humanism. He was also a great poet. Petrarch wrote both
in Italian and in Latin. In Italian, he wrote sonnets—14-line poems. They
were about a mysterious woman named Laura, who was his ideal woman.
(Little is known of Laura except that she died of the plague in 1348.) In
classical Latin, he wrote letters to many important friends.
The Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio (boh•KAH•chee•oh) is best known
for the Decameron, a series of realistic, sometimes off-color stories. The
stories are supposedly told by a group of worldly young people waiting in a
rural villa to avoid the plague sweeping through Florence:

“In the year of Our Lord 1348 the deadly plague broke out in the
great city of Florence, most beautiful of Italian cities. Whether
through the operation of the heavenly bodies or because of our own
iniquities [sins] which the just wrath of God sought to correct, the
plague had arisen in the East some years before, causing the death
of countless human beings. It spread without stop from one place
to another, until, unfortunately, it swept over the West. Neither
­knowledge nor human foresight availed against it, though the city
was cleansed of much filth by chosen officers in charge and sick
­persons were forbidden to enter it, while advice was broadcast for the
preservation of health.”
—Giovanni Boccaccio, Preface, Decameron

The Decameron presents both tragic and comic views of life. In its sto-
ries, the author uses cutting humor to illustrate the human condition.
Boccaccio presents his characters in all their individuality and folly.

The Renaissance 549

 Machiavelli Advises Rulers The Prince (1513) by Niccolò Machiavelli
(mak•ee•uh•VEHL•ee) also examines the imperfect conduct of human
beings. Machiavelli lived in Florence, which was a center of philosophy
and the arts. However, it was also the subject of a series of conflicts
as ­different individuals and factions struggled for power. Machiavelli
watched as the Medici ruler was driven from Florence by French forces,
only to make a triumphant return to power.
The Prince, which was first published after Machiavelli’s death, ­follows a
long tradition of books offering advice for princes. However, before
Machiavelli, most writers urged princes to model themselves after a good
and able ruler. Machiavelli recommended that princes should think for
themselves. Rather than identifying what “should” be done, rulers should
base their actions on the needs of a given situation. In The Prince,
Machiavelli was not concerned with what was morally right but with what
was politically effective.
In answering the question of how a ruler can gain power and keep it
in spite of enemies, he began with the idea that most people are selfish,
fickle, and corrupt. To succeed in such a wicked world, Machiavelli said,
a prince must be strong as a lion and shrewd as a fox. For the good of the
state, he might have to trick his enemies or even his own people.
He pointed out that most people think it is praiseworthy in a prince to
keep his word and live with integrity. Nevertheless, Machiavelli argued
that in the real world of power and politics a prince must sometimes
mislead the people and lie to his opponents. As a historian and politi-
cal thinker, Machiavelli suggested that in order for a prince to accom-
plish great things, he must be crafty enough to not only ­overcome the
­suspicions but also gain the trust of others:

“From this arises the question whether it is better to be

loved more than feared, or feared more than loved. The
reply is, that one ought to be both feared and loved, but
as it is ­difficult for the two to go together, it is much
safer to be feared than loved, if one of the two has to
be wanting. For it may be said of men in general that
they are ungrateful, voluble [changeable], dissem-
blers [liars], anxious to avoid danger, and covet-
ous of gain; as long as you benefit them, they are
entirely yours; they offer you their blood, their
goods, their life, and their children, as I have
before said, when the necessity is remote; but
when it approaches, they revolt. And the prince
who has relied solely on their words, without
making ­preparations, is ruined.”
—Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince

Niccolò Machiavelli

550 Module 14
 Vittoria Colonna The women writers who gained fame during the Renais-
sance usually wrote about personal subjects, not politics. Yet some of them
had great influence. Vittoria Colonna (1492–1547) was born of a noble
family. In 1509, she married the Marquis of Pescara. He spent most of his
life away from home on military campaigns.
Vittoria Colonna exchanged sonnets with Michelangelo and helped Cas-
tiglione publish The Courtier. Her own poems express personal emotions.
When her husband was away at the Battle of Ravenna in 1512, she wrote
to him:

“But now in this perilous assault, in this horrible, pitiless battle that
has so hardened my mind and heart, your great valor has shown you
an equal to Hector and Achilles. But what good is this to me, sor-
rowful, abandoned? . . . Your uncertain enterprises do not hurt you;
but we who wait, mournfully grieving, are wounded by doubt and
fear. You men, driven by rage, considering nothing but your honor,
commonly go off, shouting, with great fury, to confront danger. We
remain, with fear in our heart and grief on our brow for you; sister
longs for brother, wife for husband, mother for son.”
—Vittoria Colonna, Poems

Reading Check An ardent humanist and intellectual, Colonna was active in literary,
Draw Conclusions political, and religious life. Her poetry, written in the vernacular, was
Does Machiavelli think widely published during her lifetime. Vittoria Colonna was the first secular
that a prince should
prefer to be loved or woman writer to attain high literary status in Italy, and her achievements
feared? Why? made her a role model for later women writers.

Lesson 2 Assessment
1. Organize Information Use a Venn diagram like this 2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in
one to compare medieval and Renaissance art. the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.
medieval Renaissance 3. Make Inferences How is the humanism of the Renais-
sance reflected in its art? Explain with examples.
4. Contrast How is Machiavelli’s political advice different
from the traditional view?
5. Summarize Reread the excerpt from ­Boccaccio’s
Decameron. What possible causes of the plague does
he suggest?
6. Draw Conclusions At a time when few women
became artists, what might have helped Artemisia

How were they similar? Gentileschi in her chosen career?
How were they different?

The Renaissance 551

HISTORY THROUGH ART

Renaissance Ideas Influence Renaissance Art

The Renaissance in Italy produced extraordinary achievements in many different
forms of art, including painting, architecture, sculpture, and drawing. These art forms
were used by talented artists to express important ideas and attitudes of the age.
The value of humanism is shown in Raphael’s School of Athens, a depiction of the
greatest Greek philosophers. The realism of Renaissance art is seen in portraits such
as Leonardo’s Mona Lisa, which is an expression of the subject’s unique features and
personality. And Michelangelo’s David shares stylistic qualities with ancient Greek
and Roman sculpture.

Portraying Individuals

▲
Leonardo Da Vinci The Mona Lisa (c. 1504–1506)
is thought to be a portrait of Lisa Gherardini,
who, at 16, married Francesco del Giocondo, a
wealthy merchant of Florence who commissioned
the portrait. “Mona Lisa” is a shortened form
of Madonna Lisa (Madam, or My Lady, Lisa).
Renaissance artists showed individuals as they
really looked.

Classical and
Renaissance Sculpture
▲

Michelangelo Influenced by classical

statues, Michelangelo sculpted David from
1501 to 1504. Michelangelo portrayed the
biblical hero in the moments just before
battle. David’s posture is graceful, yet his
figure also displays strength. The statue,
which is 18 feet tall, towers over the viewer.

552 Module 14
 HISTORY THROUGH ART

▲ The Importance of Ancient Greece

Raphael The painting School of Athens (1508) was created for the pope’s apartments
in the Vatican. It shows how highly regarded the scholars of ancient Greece were
during the Renaissance. Plato and Aristotle stand under the center arch. To their right,
Socrates argues with several young men. Toward the front, Pythagoras draws a lesson
on a slate and Ptolemy holds a globe.

Renaissance Science and Technology

▲

Leonardo Da Vinci Leonardo filled his notebooks with

observations and sketches of new inventions. This
drawing from his notebooks shows a design for a spiral
screw to achieve vertical flight. Leonardo’s drawing
anticipated the helicopter.

Critical Thinking 2. Synthesize Look through books on ­architecture

1. Draw Conclusions How do the works of Renaissance to find examples of American architects who were
artists and architects reflect Renaissance ideas? influenced by the architects and buildings of the
Explain. Italian Renaissance. Share your findings with the class.

The Renaissance 553

 Lesson 3

The Northern
Renaissance
Setting The Stage
The Big Idea The work of such artists as Leonardo da Vinci,
In the 1400s, the ideas of the Michelangelo, and Raphael showed the Renaissance
Italian Renaissance began to spirit. All three artists demonstrated an interest in
spread to northern Europe. classical culture, a curiosity about the world, and a belief
Why It Matters Now in human potential. Humanist writers expanded ideas
Renaissance ideas such as the about individuality. These ideas impressed scholars, stu-
importance of the individual are dents, and merchants who visited Italy. By the late 1400s,
an important part of modern Renaissance ideas had spread to northern Europe—
thought. especially England, France, Germany, and Flanders (now
Key Terms and People part of France and the Netherlands).
utopia
William Shakespeare The Northern Renaissance Begins
Johann Gutenberg By 1450 the population of northern Europe, which had
declined due to bubonic plague, was beginning to grow again.
When the destructive Hundred Years’ War between France
and England ended in 1453, many cities grew rapidly. Urban
merchants became wealthy enough to sponsor artists. This
happened first in Flanders, which was rich from long-distance
trade and the cloth industry. Then, as wealth increased in other
parts of northern Europe, patronage of artists increased as
well.
Unlike Italy, which was divided into city-states, England and
France were unified under strong monarchs. These rulers often
sponsored the arts by purchasing paintings and by supporting
artists and writers. For example, Francis I of France invited
Leonardo da Vinci to retire in France, and hired Italian art-
ists and architects to rebuild and decorate his castle at Fon-
tainebleau (fahn•tihn•BLOH). The castle became a showcase for
Renaissance art.
Reading Check As Renaissance ideas spread out of Italy, they mingled with
Contrast How northern traditions. As a result, the northern Renaissance
did the Northern developed its own character. For example, the Renaissance ideal
Renaissance differ
from the Italian of human dignity inspired some northern humanists to develop
Renaissance? plans for social reform based on Judeo-Christian values.

554 Module 14
 Artistic Ideas Spread
In 1494, a French king claimed the throne of Naples in southern Italy and
launched an invasion through northern Italy. As the war dragged on, many
Italian artists and writers left for a safer life in northern Europe. They
brought with them the styles and techniques of the Italian Renaissance. In
addition, northern European artists who studied in Italy carried Renais-
sance ideas back to their homelands.
German Painters Perhaps the most famous person to do this was the
German artist Albrecht Dürer (DYUR•uhr). He traveled to Italy to study
in 1494. After returning to Germany, Dürer produced woodcuts and
­engravings. Many of his prints portray religious subjects. Others portray
classical myths or realistic landscapes. The popularity of Dürer’s work
helped to spread Renaissance styles.
Dürer’s emphasis upon realism influenced the work of another
German artist, Hans Holbein (HOHL•byn) the Younger. Holbein specialized
in painting portraits that are almost photographic in detail. He emigrated
to England where he painted portraits of King Henry VIII and other mem-
bers of the English royal family.
Flemish Painters The support of wealthy merchant families in Flanders
helped to make Flanders the artistic center of northern Europe. The first
great Flemish Renaissance painter was Jan van Eyck (yahn•van•YK). Van
Eyck used recently developed oil-based paints to develop techniques that
painters still use. By applying layer upon layer of paint, van Eyck was able
to create a variety of subtle colors in clothing and jewels. Oil painting
became popular and spread to Italy.
In addition to new techniques, van Eyck’s paintings display u ­ nusually
realistic details and reveal the personality of their subjects. His work
­influenced later artists in northern Europe.

DOCUMENT-BASED INVESTIGATION Historical Source

Peasant Wedding
The Flemish painter Pieter Bruegel’s paintings
provide information about peasant life in the 1500s.
Peasant Wedding (1568) portrays a wedding feast.
• The Bride The bride sits under the paper crown
hanging on the green cloth.
• The Servers Men who may be her brothers are passing
out plates.
• The Guests Several children have come to the party.
• The Musicians They are carrying bagpipes. One
glances hungrily at the food.
Analyze Historical Sources
In what ways does this painting present a snapshot of
peasant life?

The Renaissance 555

 Flemish painting reached its peak after 1550 with the work of Pieter
Bruegel (BROY•guhl) the Elder. Bruegel was also interested in realistic
Reading Check details and individual people. He was very skillful in portraying large
Summarize numbers of people. He captured scenes from everyday peasant life such
 hat techniques did
W
Bruegel use to give life as weddings, dances, and harvests. Bruegel’s rich colors, vivid details, and
to his paintings? balanced use of space give a sense of life and feeling.

Northern Writers Try to Reform Society

Italian humanists were very interested in reviving classical languages
and classical texts. When the Italian humanist ideas reached the north,
people used them to examine the traditional teachings of the Church.
The northern humanists were critical of the failure of the Christian
Church to inspire people to live a Christian life. This criticism ­produced
a new ­movement known as Christian humanism. The focus of Chris-
tian ­humanism was the reform of society. Of particular importance to
­humanists was education. The humanists promoted the education of
women and founded schools attended by both boys and girls.
Christian Humanists The best known of the Christian humanists were
Desiderius Erasmus (dehz•ih•DEER•ee•uhs ih•RAZ•muhs) of Holland and
Thomas More of England. The two were close friends.
In 1509, Erasmus wrote his most famous work, The Praise of Folly. This
book poked fun at greedy merchants, heartsick lovers, quarrelsome schol-
ars, and pompous priests. Erasmus believed in a Christianity of the heart,
not one of ceremonies or rules. He thought that in order to improve soci-
ety, all people should study the Bible.
Thomas More tried to show a better model of society. In 1516, he wrote
the book Utopia. In Greek, utopia means “no place.” In English it has come
to mean an ideal place as depicted in More’s book. The book is about an
imaginary land where greed, corruption, and war have been weeded out. In
Utopia, because there was little greed, Utopians had little use for money:

“Gold and silver, of which money is made, are so treated . . . that no

one values them more highly than their true nature deserves. Who
does not see that they are far inferior to iron in usefulness since with-
out iron mortals cannot live any more than without fire and water?”
—Thomas More, Utopia

More wrote in Latin. Eventually, his writing was translated into a variety
of languages including French, German, English, Spanish, and Italian,
making his ideas widely available.
Christian humanist
Thomas More Women’s Reforms During this period the vast majority of Europeans
were unable to read or write. Those families who could afford formal
schooling usually sent only their sons. One woman spoke out against this
practice. Christine de Pizan was highly educated for the time and was one

556 Module 14
 of the first women to earn a living as a writer. Writing in French, she pro-
duced many books, including short stories, biographies, novels, and manu-
als on military techniques. She frequently wrote about the objections men
had to educating women. In one book, The Book of the City of Ladies, she
wrote:

“I am amazed by the opinion of some men who claim that they do not
want their daughters, wives, or kinswomen to be educated because
their mores [morals] would be ruined as a result. . . . Here you can
Christine de Pizan is best clearly see that not all opinions of men are based on reason and that
known for her works these men are wrong.”
defending women.
—Christine de Pizan, The Book of the City of Ladies
Reading Check
Analyze Issues Christine de Pizan was one of the first European writers to question dif-
What kind of reform
does de Pizan ferent treatment of boys and girls. However, her goal of formal education
argue for? for children of both sexes would not be achieved for several centuries.

The Elizabethan Age

The Renaissance spread to England in the mid-1500s. The period was
known as the Elizabethan Age, after Queen Elizabeth I. Elizabeth reigned
from 1558 to 1603. She was well educated and spoke French, Italian, Latin,
and Greek. She also wrote poetry and music. As queen she did much to
support the development of English art and literature.
William Shakespeare The most famous writer of the Elizabethan Age was
William Shakespeare. Many people regard him as the greatest ­playwright
of all time. Shakespeare was born in 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, a small
town about 90 miles northwest of London. By 1592 he was living in Lon-
don and writing poems and plays, and soon he would be performing at the
Globe Theater.
Like many Renaissance writers, Shakespeare revered the classics and
drew on them for inspiration and plots. His works display a masterful
command of the English language and a deep understanding of human
beings. He revealed the souls of men and women through scenes of
dramatic conflict. Many of these plays examine human flaws. However,
Shakespeare also had one of his characters deliver a speech that expresses
the Renaissance’s high view of human nature:

“What a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason, how infinite in

faculties, in form and moving, how express and admirable; in action
how like an angel, in apprehension [understanding] how like a god:
the beauty of the world, the paragon of animals.”
Reading Check —William Shakespeare, Hamlet (Act 2, Scene 2)
Summarize What
are two ways in which Shakespeare’s most famous plays include the tragedies Macbeth, Hamlet,
Shakespeare’s work
showed Renaissance Othello, Romeo and Juliet, and King Lear, and the comedies A Midsummer
influences? Night’s Dream and The Taming of the Shrew.

The Renaissance 557

 Now and Then

Shakespeare’s Popularity
Even though he has been dead for
about 400 years, Shakespeare remains
a favorite with filmmakers. His themes
have been adapted for many films,
including some in foreign languages.
These photos are from movie versions of
some of Shakespeare’s plays including
Othello and Romeo and Juliet (in period
costume); a Japanese film, Ran, an
adaptation of King Lear; and 10 Things
I Hate About You, an adaptation of The
Taming of the Shrew in a modern setting.

Printing Spreads Renaissance Ideas

The Chinese invented block printing in which a printer carved words or
letters on a wooden block, inked the block, and then used it to print on
paper. Around 1045, Bi Sheng invented movable type, which uses a sepa-
rate piece of type for each character in the language. The Chinese writing
system contains thousands of different characters, so most Chinese print-
ers found movable type impractical. However, the method would prove
practical for Europeans because their languages can be written using a
small number of letters.
By the early 1400s in Europe, paper had replaced parchment, a writing
material made from animal hides. Parchment was expensive and could not
be mass-produced. Paper could be produced quickly and inexpensively. Its
availability helped facilitate the printing of whole books.
Gutenberg Improves the Printing Process During the 13th ­century,
block-printed items reached Europe from China. European printers began
to use block printing to create whole pages to bind into books. How-
ever, this process was too slow to satisfy the Renaissance demand for
­knowledge, information, and books.
Around 1440 Johann Gutenberg, a craftsman from Mainz, Germany,
developed a printing press that incorporated a number of technologies
in a new way. The process made it possible to produce books quickly and
cheaply. Using this improved process, Gutenberg printed a complete Bible,
the Gutenberg Bible, in about 1455. It was the first full­-sized book printed
with movable type.
Reading Check
Analyze Effects The printing press enabled a printer to produce hundreds of copies of a
How did the single work. For the first time, books were cheap enough that many people
invention of the could buy them. At first printers produced mainly religious works. Soon
printing press affect
the dissemination of they began to provide books on other subjects such as travel guides and
knowledge and ideas? medical manuals.

558 Module 14
 Global Patterns

The Printing Press

Many inventions are creative combinations of known technologies. In 1452, Johann
Gutenberg combined known technologies from Europe and Asia with his idea for
molding movable type to create a printing press that changed the world.

A copyist took five months to

produce a single book.

Screw-type Press
An adaptation of Asian 5 months
olive-oil presses made a 1 book
workable printing press.
One man and a printing press
could produce 500 books in
the same amount of time.

5 months

500 books
Paper Using paper mass-produced by techniques
developed in China, rather than parchment (calf
Movable Type or lambskin), made printing books possible.
Letters that could be
put together in any
Ink Oil-based inks from 10th-century Europe
fashion and reused was
worked better on type than tempera ink.
a Chinese idea.

Critical Thinking
1. Draw Conclusions About how many books could 2. Make Inferences Which areas of the world
a ­printing press produce in a month? contributed ideas that were used in ­developing
Gutenberg’s printing press?

Lesson 3 Assessment
1. Organize Information Create a timeline showing key 3. Form Generalizations How did Albrecht Dürer’s work
events of the Northern Renaissance. reflect the influence of the Italian Renaissance?
4. Analyze Effects What was one way the Renaissance
changed society?
5. Compare How were the paintings of the northern
1400 1600 painters different from those of Flemish painters? Give
examples.
6. Analyze Motives What reasons did humanists give for
Which of the events listed do you think was most wanting to reform society? Explain.
important? Explain.
2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.

The Renaissance 559

SOCIAL HISTORY

City Life in Renaissance Europe

Throughout the 1500s, the vast majority of Europeans—
more than 75 percent—lived in rural areas. However,
the capital and port cities of most European countries
experienced remarkable growth during this time. The
population of London, for example, stood at about
200,000 in 1600, making it perhaps the largest city
in Europe. In London, and in other large European
cities, a distinctively urban way of life developed in the
Renaissance era.

▲
Joblessness
Many newcomers to London struggled to find jobs
and shelter. Some turned to crime to make a living.
Others became beggars. However, it was illegal for
able-bodied people to beg. To avoid a whipping or
prison time, beggars had to be sick or disabled.

▲ Entertainment
In Renaissance England, performances at playhouses
were often wild affairs. If audiences did not like the play,
they booed loudly, pelted the stage with garbage, and
sometimes attacked the actors.

▲
Sanitation
This small pomander (poh•man•durh), a metal container filled with spices,
was crafted in the shape of orange segments. Well-to-do Londoners held
pomanders to their noses to shield themselves from the stench of the rotting
garbage that littered the streets.

560 Module 14
 SOCIAL HISTORY
▲
FOOD
A typical meal for wealthy Londoners might include fish, several COST OF LIVING IN
kinds of meat, bread, and a variety of vegetables, served on silver or RENAISSANCE LONDON
pewter tableware. The diet of the poor was simpler. They rarely ate
fish, meat, or cheese. Usually, their meals consisted of a pottage—a These tables show what typical
kind of soup—of vegetables. And the poor ate their meals from a Londoners earned and spent in the
trencher, a hollowed-out slab of stale bread or wood. late 1500s. The basic denominations in
English currency at the time were the
pound (£), the shilling, and the penny
(12 pence equaled 1 shilling, and 20
shillings equaled 1 pound). The pound
of the late 1500s is roughly equivalent to
$400 in 2018.

Typical Earnings
Merchant £100 per year

Skilled £13 per year

Worker (about 5 shillings/week)

Unskilled £5 per year

Worker (about 4 pence/day)

Servant £1 to £2 per year

(plus food and lodging)
Critical Thinking
1. Make Inferences Study the images and captions, as well as the Typical Prices
information in the tables. What inferences about the standard
Lodging 4 to 8 pence a week
of living of London’s wealthy citizens can you make from this
information? How did it compare to the standard of living of Beef 3 pence per lb
London’s common people?
Chickens 1 penny each
2. Compare How does diet in the United States today compare
to the diet of Renaissance Europeans? Cite specific examples in Eggs 2 pence per dozen
your answer.
Apples 1 penny per dozen

Onions 1/2 penny a sack

▲
TRANSPORTATION
Various Spices 10 to 11 shillings per lb
Many of London’s streets were so narrow that walking was the only practical
means of transportation. Often, however, the quickest way to get from here to
there in the city was to take the river. Boat traffic was especially heavy when
the playhouses were open. On those days, as many as 4,000 people crossed the
Thames from the city to Southwark, where most of the theaters were located.

The Renaissance 561

 Lesson 4

Renaissance Achievements

Setting the Stage

The Main Idea The ideas and innovations introduced during the
The Renaissance was a period Renaissance had far-reaching effects. The way people
of striking achievements in interacted with their world was profoundly altered.
many areas. Some Renaissance innovations laid the foundation for
Why It Matters Now global changes in the years that followed.
The achievements of
Renaissance artists, writers, Cultural and Social Achievements
scientists, and thinkers continue The European Renaissance was a period of great artistic and
to affect people around the
social change. It marked a break with the medieval ideals that
world today.
were focused around the Church. The Renaissance belief in the
Key Terms and People dignity of the individual played a key role in the gradual rise of
vernacular democratic ideas. Furthermore, the impact of the movable-type
skepticism printing press was tremendous. Some historians have sug-
gested that its effects were even more dramatic than the arrival
of personal computers in the 20th century.
Changes in Art During the Renaissance, artistic styles
changed as artists incorporated humanistic ideas in their
work. Medieval artists had used religious subjects to ­convey
a spiritual ideal, often arranging saints and Biblical ­figures in
stiff groups. Renaissance painters often portrayed religious
subjects, but they used a realistic style copied from ­classical
models. They used light and shadow (called chiaroscuro) to give
scenes added depth and fullness. As well as creating religious
works, painters created secular works. Greek and Roman sub-
jects also became popular.
New techniques and media also changed art. One ­important
change was the introduction of paint that used oils as a binding
agent. Earlier types of paint used binders such as eggs, which
dry quickly. The longer drying time of oil paint meant artists
could continue to add detail to a work for a longer period of
time. A key technique was the use of perspective to show three
dimensions on a flat surface.
Following the new emphasis on the individual, painters
began to paint prominent citizens. These realistic portraits
revealed what was distinctive about each person. In addition,

562 Module 14
La Primavera, by Italian Renaissance painter Sandro Botticelli

artists used a realistic style when depicting the human body. Sculptors
made sculpture more realistic by carving natural postures and expressions
that reveal personality.
Changes in Literature Renaissance writers produced works that reflected
their time, but they also used techniques that writers rely on today. Some
followed the example of the medieval writer Dante. He wrote in the
vernacular, or his native language, instead of Latin. Dante’s native lan-
guage was Italian. Writing in the vernacular meant that books could be
read by anyone, not just people who had been taught Latin.
In addition, Renaissance writers wrote either for self-expression or to
portray the individuality of their subjects. In these ways, writers of the
Renaissance began trends that modern writers still follow.
Changes in Architecture The study of classical texts showed that the
Greeks and Romans used ratios and proportions to give structure to their
art. By focusing on ratios, or the relationships between numbers, Renais-
sance architects created designs that feel balanced and harmonious. Many
cities, especially in Italy, are dominated by the impressive domes of Renais-
sance architecture. The Palladian style, inspired by the work of
Andrea Palladio, influenced architecture throughout Europe and in the
United States.
As the classical style spread to other countries, it was combined with
local traditions. In France, architects combined classical style and French
­traditions to create a more elaborate French Renaissance style. This style

The Renaissance 563

The dome on Florence’s cathedral, built by Filippo Brunelleschi, is a marvel of engineering.

spread from western Europe through northern and central Europe. In

Russia, which was strongly influenced by the Byzantines, the new ruler
hired Italian architects and builders to rebuild Moscow. The resulting style
was a blend of Italian, Byzantine, and Russian traditions. In Spain, during
the centuries of Islamic rule, a style known as Moorish had ­developed. Ele-
ments of Moorish and classical style were combined to create a distinctive
Spanish style, with intricately detailed surface ornamentation.
Changes in Society The development of moveable type had a ­profound
effect on society. Within a few years of the introduction of the printing
press, the cost of books had fallen dramatically. More people had access to
books, which prompted an increase in literacy rates. Also, printing made
it easy for people to share new ideas. This facilitated some important
changes and reforms in the early modern age as people began to challenge
some of the structures of established religion and government.
Reading Check
Analyze Effects Printing also made it easier to share new information and discoveries,
How is the influence which often led to further discoveries as other people built on what they
of Renaissance
architecture
read. The ability to print maps and charts made it possible for others to
seen today? follow in the tracks of explorers.

564 Module 14
 The Legacy of the Renaissance
The artists, writers, and thinkers of the Renaissance produced many
extraordinary works that still command attention today. However, the
Renaissance spirit led to still more advances in the decades that followed.
The Spirit of Inquiry One of the hallmarks of the Renaissance was a ques-
tioning attitude. People were no longer willing to blindly follow tradition
and accept authority. They wanted to form their own opinions and make
up their own minds. As Renaissance humanists rediscovered Greek phi-
losophy, some were drawn by the tradition of skepticism. Where medi-
eval thinkers accepted many ideas without questioning them, skepticism
questioned everything. The practice of examining everything to check
assumptions became part of the scientific method that transformed medi-
cine, physics, and other branches of science. It also led to questions about
religion and faith and prompted an upheaval within Christianity.
There was also an increased curiosity about the world. Over the course
of the Crusades, thousands of Europeans traveled to the eastern Mediter-
ranean. Crusaders who returned with silk and spices created a market for
these items. Merchants addressed this market by extending their trade
Reading Check networks still further. Stories about far-away places made some people
Draw Conclusions
How is the
wonder what else was out there. As navigational tools improved, this curi-
Renaissance emphasis osity led to the Age of Exploration.
on the individual Because of these fundamental changes, Renaissance ideas ­continued
connected to the
renewed interest in to have a profound influence on European thought in the decades
skepticism? that followed.

Lesson 4 Assessment
1. Organize Information Use a cause-and-effect dia- 2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in
gram like this one to identify three effects that devel- the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.
oped from the Renaissance sense of inquiry. 3. Form Generalizations Explain how the increased
availability of books affected the behavior of individu-
result als and groups.
development
4. Analyze Effects What factors combined to make Euro-
result peans curious about other places?
5. Contrast How did Renaissance artists treat religious

Which effect do you consider most ­important? Explain. subjects differently from medieval painters?

The Renaissance 565

Module 14 Assessment
Key Terms and People
For each term or name below, write a sentence explaining its connection to European
history from 1300 to 1500.
1. Renaissance 5. patron
2. vernacular 6. perspective
3. humanism 7. William Shakespeare
4. secular 8. Johann Gutenberg

Main Ideas
Use your notes and the information in the module to answer the following questions.

Birth of the Renaissance Renaissance Achievements

1. What economic factor promoted the 7. How did the intellectual and philosophical
growth of city-states in northern Italy? ideas of the Renaissance affect the way
2. What form of government dominated people viewed themselves and their place
in western Europe during the in the world?
Renaissance era? 8. How was European society as a whole
affected by the development of the
The Italian Renaissance
printing press?
3. How did merchants and nobles in northern
Italy influence the Renaissance?
4. In what ways did literature and the arts
change during the Renaissance?
The Northern Renaissance
5. How did the end of the Hundred Years’ War
and the French invasion of Italy promote
the spread of Renaissance ideas?
6. How were the Christian humanist writers
of the Northern Renaissance different
from the humanist writers of the Italian
Renaissance?

566 Module 14
Module 14 Assessment, continued
Critical Thinking • Do you think his advice would be useful to a
1. Categorize Create a web diagram to ruler like Lorenzo de Medici?
show the major influences on Renaissance • One reason Machiavelli wrote The Prince was
thought. in the hope of receiving a new post. Does this
affect your opinion?
Islamic Discuss these questions with a small group.
Empire

Focus on Writing
Renaissance How did the Renaissance revolutionize Euro-
thought pean art and thought? Support your opinions in
a three-paragraph essay.

Multimedia Activity
Use the Internet to find information on the
 Which one do you think had the greatest number of books published in print and those
influence? Explain. published electronically last year. Create a pie
2. Analyze Effects How did the Renaissance graph showing the results of your research.
expand cultural interaction?
3. Develop Historical Perspective What
conditions needed to exist before the
Renaissance could occur?
4. Synthesize How did views of the role of
women change in the Renaissance period?

Engage With History

Reread the quotation in Lesson 2 from
Machiavelli’s The Prince. Now that you have
read the module, consider the quotation in the
context of 15th-century Florence. Machiavelli
saw a succession of rulers come and go in
Florence. He lost his government position after
the Medicis returned to power.
Think about the following questions:
• What opinion does Machiavelli present about
people in general?
• Are these statements based on observations
of human behavior, or are they assumptions?

The Renaissance 567

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