World History - Class -1

ADVENT OF THE MODERN WORLD

A. INTRODUCTION
• The "advent of the modern world" refers to the historical period when significant cultural,
political, and social changes occurred, leading to the emergence of what we now consider
the modern era.
• This transformative time occurred between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries in
Europe and witnessed the rise of the Renaissance, emphasizing humanism, reason, and
individualism.
• It also saw the Reformation, which brought about new religious ideologies and the growth
of Protestantism, challenging the authority of the Catholic Church.
• It also saw the Age of Discoveries involved exploring and finding the new world, leading to
the global exchange of goods and ideas.
• These pivotal events laid the foundation for the modern world we know today.

B. RENAISSANCE
Renaissance often refers to the cultural rebirth that spanned from 14th to 17th century in
Europe. The renaissance was a period of great cultural growth and development in European
history.

Origin of renaissance
The Renaissance originated in Italy around A.D. 1300 to A.D. 1550 and subsequently expanded
to Northern Europe during the first half of the 16th century.

Italy: Cradle of renaissance

The factors that led to the origin of the renaissance in Italy:
● Cultural legacy: Italy had a strong connection to its classical past, with Roman monuments
scattered throughout the peninsula and Latin literature referencing familiar Italian cities
and sites.
● Geographical advantage: Italy's geographical advantage as a gateway between East and
West facilitated continuous trade with Asian countries, fostering a vibrant urban society.
● Rise of city-states: Mercantile cities like Venice, Genoa, Milan, Pisa, and Florence
expanded, forming powerful city-states and wealthy merchant families like the Medici in
Florence.
● Demand for education: Increased education demand among successful merchants and
prominent families led to a rise in educators and significant works in politics and
literature.

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● Empowerment to writers: Support for writers and artists led to the construction of public
monuments and the rise of Rome as the artistic capital of the Western world.

Intellectuals and philosophers during renaissance

● Dante Alighieri (1265-1321): Dante's "Divine Comedy" provided insights into the
Christian scheme of existence, including knowledge of astronomy, geography, and
geology.
● Giotto di Bondone (1266-1336): Giotto revolutionized art during the renaissance by
establishing painting as an independent form, breaking away from its subordinate roles
in architecture and sculpture.
● Francesco Petrarch (1304- 1374): He dedicated his life to scholarship and promoting
classical studies, significantly contributing to the emergence of humanism during the
Renaissance.
● Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457): His philological skills revealed the Donation of Constantine as
a forgery, challenging Papal claims to temporal supremacy and impacting the religious
authority.
● Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527): A leading figure in political philosophy, rejecting
tradition in his seminal work "The Prince," which explored modern governance policies
and practices.
● Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519): He was one of history's greatest painters, engineer, and
biologist at the same time.
○ As an engineer: He envisioned machines like airplanes, submarines, and cars.
○ As a biologist: Leonardo was also a self-taught biologist, who performed scientific
experimentation and dissecting corpses to understand anatomy.
○ As a painter: His painting style focused on precise imitation of nature, some of his
iconic works include Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.
● Raphael (1483-1520): His merit lies in his wonderful craftsmanship and skillful
incorporation of Florentine traditions. He gained fame for tenderly depicting the
Madonna and creating the fresco "The School of Athens."
● Michelangelo (1475-1564): He was at the same time a painter, sculptor, architect and
poet. As a sculptor, he used the representation of the human body as a means of
expressing universal ideas and emotions. Sculptures of David and Moses are among his
masterpieces. As a painter, he reached the apex of his skill in the works of decorating the
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. This is one of the largest frescos in the world.
● Titian (1490-1576): Titian was the most creative and representative figure of the Venetian
school. Unlike the Florentine school, Venetian painters focused more on appealing to the
senses rather than exploring philosophical and psychological themes.

Significance of renaissance
● Cultural flourishing: The Renaissance brought a renewed interest in classical art,
literature, philosophy, and science, fostering creativity and artistic expression. The period
saw the emergence of numerous artists, writers, scientists, and scholars.

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● Political transformations: The Renaissance witnessed significant political changes, with

monarchies gaining power and wealth.
● Social transformations: The Church's absolute authority over European society began to
diminish during this time.
● Intellectual transformation: It marked a shift towards intellectual curiosity, artistic
expression, and a new perspective on human potential. Renowned artists and writers like
Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Dante, Petrarch, and Erasmus emerged.
● Humanism and individualism: The period emphasized human potential and dignity, the
renaissance promoted individualism, empowering people to pursue their interests and
talents.
● Scientific progress: The Renaissance laid the groundwork for the Scientific Revolution,
challenging traditional views on astronomy and transforming scientific thinking.
● Printing revolution: Johannes Gutenberg's printing press revolutionized knowledge
dissemination, facilitating the exchange of ideas across Europe.
● Expansion of trade and exploration: The Age of Discoveries connected Europe with the
world, stimulating economic growth and cultural exchange.
● Impact on education: Humanism led to the establishment of secular schools and
universities, nurturing well-rounded individuals.

Spread of renaissance in Northern Europe

By the 15th century, the Italian Renaissance had reached other European countries.
Contributors for the spread of renaissance
● Desiderius Erasmus: a prominent scholar-publicist, played a central role in the Northern
Renaissance. Known as the prince among humanists, Erasmus combined literary and
scholarly interests with strong religious devotion. His famous work, "The Praise of Folly,"
satirized societal corruption and immorality, emphasizing the importance of Gospel
teachings.
● Sir Thomas More: A distinguished humanist in the Northern Renaissance. He authored
"Utopia," depicting an ideal community on an imaginary island, highlighting prevailing
abuses of his time.
● Gothic architecture: The Gothic style, characterized by pointed arches, external
buttresses, and large windows, dominated architecture in Northern Europe. examples
include the Reims Cathedral and the Louvre Museum in France.
● Music: Musicians developed "polyphony," harmonizing multiple melodies for rich
musical compositions. New instruments like the violin, double brass, lute, and
harpsichord were introduced or imported. Paid musicians and singers played significant
roles in churches and court life. Folk songs and music became integral to mainstream
culture in European countries.

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C. THE PERIOD OF ENLIGHTENMENT

The Enlightenment, emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries, emphasized reason, individualism,
and the idea that humans could improve society through rational thought and scientific inquiry.
People in those times began to believe more in human reason and wanted to question old beliefs
and authority.

Significance of enlightenment:
• The period emphasized the importance of reason, rationality, and empirical evidence.
• Thinkers stressed the value and dignity of the individual.
• Thinkers advocated for human rights, including the right to life, liberty, and property.
• These thoughts influenced the development of modern democracies and ideas of
individual freedoms.
• The period challenged the dominance of religious institutions in politics.
• It called for the separation of church and state.
• It fostered scientific revolution, empirical observation and experimentation.
• Enlightenment thinkers criticized absolute monarchies and advocated for limited
government with checks and balances.
• Enlightenment thinkers called for religious tolerance and coexistence among different
faiths.

Impact of enlightenment
• Challenged traditional authority.
• Led to the development of modern political and economic systems.
• Influenced the American and French Revolutions, setting the stage for new forms of
government.
• Laid the foundation for modern democratic governance.
• Deeply influenced culture and the arts.
• Thinkers encouraged artists and writers to create works based on reason and addressing
social and political issues.

Events/Personalities during the Age of Enlightenment

Year Thinkers Events

1596- René Descartes René Descartes was a French philosopher, mathematician,

1650 and scientist. He is often referred to as the "Father of Modern
Philosophy". Descartes is famous for "Cogito, ergo sum" (I
think, therefore I am). He used it to affirm his existence as a
thinking being, even amid doubt.

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1689- Montesquieu He is best known for his influential work "The Spirit of the
1755 Laws," in which he explored the principles of political theory
and advocated for the separation of powers in government.

1632- John Locke John Locke was an English philosopher whose beliefs
1704 centered around the idea that all people are naturally free
and equal. He thought that governments should only have
authority if the people agreed to be governed by them.

1687 Issac Newton Sir Isaac Newton wrote a book called "Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica" where he explained his ideas about
light and colors, the three laws of motion, and how gravity
works.

1694- Voltaire Voltaire was a famous French writer, philosopher, and

1778 historian. He was known for his wit, criticism of social and
religious institutions, and advocacy for freedom of speech
and religious tolerance.

1712- Jean-Jacques Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a prominent philosopher, writer,

1778 Rousseau and composer. He is best known for his influential works on
political philosophy, education, and the concept of the social
contract. Rousseau's ideas greatly influenced the French
Revolution.

1724- Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher who dedicated his
1804 life to figuring out the rules that guide how people should live.

1734 Benjamin Benjamin Franklin starts a group called the American

Franklin Philosophical Society in Philadelphia. The members of this
group are curious about both science and philosophy.

1734- Antoine Antoine Lavoisier, a French chemist, discovered that when

1794 Lavoisier something burns, it involves chemical reactions. He was the
first person to figure this out.

1751 Encyclopedie The first part of the Encyclopédie is published.

1751 Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus published Philosophia Botanica.

1755 Samuel Johnson Samuel Johnson's Complete Dictionary of the English

Language is released, and it includes a whopping 43,000
words.

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1768 Encyclopedia The Encyclopedia Britannica is printed and made available for
Britannica the first time.

1788 The Times The Times newspaper is first published in London.

Newspaper

1791 Thomas Paine Thomas Paine's book, The Rights of Man, is published. It
strongly impacts America during its struggle for
independence from Britain.

1792 Mary Mary Wollstonecraft's book, A Vindication of the Rights of

Wollstonecraft Women, is published. It argues that everyone should have
equal opportunities for education.

D. SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION

Printing revolution
● The printing technique was developed by the Chinese in the 11th century. The invention
of movable printing technique was in the 12th century by Arabs, which was further
improved by John Gutenberg in Germany in the 14th century.
● There was wide popularity of printed books due to affordability, accuracy, and ease of
mass production.

Progress in medicine
● Wide publication of anatomical books with clear illustrations and partial lifting of a 13th-
century ban on human corpse dissection helped the medicine sector to flourish.
● Medical colleges at universities like Padua and Ferrara gained prominence.
● Andreas Vesalius and Gabriel Fallopius made significant contributions to medical
knowledge through dissection and clinical studies.
● Ambroise Pare, the French surgeon, laid the foundation of modern surgery by
developing new techniques i.e. sewing up blood vessels with stitches rather than
cauterising them with hot iron.
● Grabriello Fallopio made some of the earliest significant studies of the human fetus based
on clinical dissections.

Advancements in astronomy
● Copernicus introduced the heliocentric theory, challenging the geocentric view of the
universe.
● Tycho Brahe's precise observations and Johannes Kepler's proposal of elliptical orbits
further advanced astronomical understanding.
● Galileo Galilei's telescope observations revealed previously unknown celestial
phenomena, leading to conflicts with the Church.

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Contributions of Isaac Newton

● Isaac Newton, born in 1642, combined mathematics and physics to study astronomy. He
solved major problems on planetary motions and established the basis for modern
physics.
● Newton proposed the Law of Gravitation, explaining planetary and universal motion
through mutual attraction.

Calendar reform
● Pope Gregory XIII reformed the Julian Calendar in 1582 to align with the exact solar year.
● The Gregorian Calendar omitted leap years in certain centenary years, leading to its
adoption by the modern world.

E. THE REFORMATION
The Reformation was a religious movement in 16th-century Europe that divided the Christian
Church and gave rise to Protestantism. It sought to reform the corrupt Catholic Church and follow
biblical teachings. Led by Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, it challenged the
Pope's authority and created new Protestant groups. It also influenced politics, economics, and
culture.

Emergence of the protestant movements

The term 'Protestant' originally referred to those who followed Martin Luther and protested
against a law restricting new religious ideas in 1529. Over time, it encompassed all Christians
rejecting Papal supremacy.
The branches of Protestantism were:
● Lutheranism
● Calvinism
● Anglicanism.

Lutheranism: Martin Luther believed that true salvation came from genuine repentance and
strong faith in God, not from a piece of paper.
● Martin Luther expressed these views in his "ninety-five theses," which he distributed to
the Wittenberg church and other cities on October 31, 1517.
● Surprisingly, Luther's theses gained support from common people, wealthy merchants,
and influential princes.
● The Elector of Saxony provided protection to Luther, shielding him from charges of
heresy.
● In addition to challenging indulgences, Luther criticized other questionable practices
within the Roman Church.
● He appealed to German national sentiment and questioned the Pope's authority,
advocating for civil government superiority in political matters.
● Luther believed that every Christian had the ability to act as their own priest, making the
traditional priesthood unnecessary.
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● After breaking away from the Catholic Church, Luther formed a new Church, laying the
groundwork for Protestantism.

This shift from Roman Catholicism was not an isolated event, similar protestant movements
emerged in different places during the same period.

Calvinism: Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin led the Protestant movement in Switzerland. Calvin’s
teachings and writings solidified Protestant doctrines.
● Calvin’s leadership made Swiss cities a safe haven for persecuted Protestants from other
Western European countries.
● He founded an academy to train Protestant missionaries and wrote a book called “The
Institutes of the Christian Religion,” providing a clear and logical explanation of
Protestant beliefs, unlike any other leader of the movement.
Anglicanism: The Protestant movement in England was led by political figures like King Henry VIII
and Queen Elizabeth I.
● King Henry VIII’s desire to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon, and marry Anne Boleyn
was a significant factor in the reform.
● The Pope refused to grant the divorce due to a previous Papal dispensation that declared
Henry’s marriage to Catherine as valid and unbreakable.
● Frustrated by the Pope’s decision, Henry declared himself the “sole protector and
supreme head of the Church and the Clergy of England.”
● Henry married Anne Boleyn, and their daughter, Elizabeth I, later became the Queen of
England.
● In 1529, England officially broke away from the Pope’s authority through laws passed by
the British Parliament.
● The laws aimed to make the English Church completely independent from the Pope’s
jurisdiction.
● Henry VIII was declared the head of the English Church in this new religious
establishment.
● This newly independent Church became known as the Anglican Church.

Counter Reformation
In response to the Protestant movements led by Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin, the Roman Catholic
Church initiated reforms called the 'Counter-Reformation.'

The Counter-Reformation aimed to restore the Catholic Church's authority and made three
efforts:
● The Council of Trent was convened to resolve doctrinal disputes between Catholics and
Protestants, address moral and administrative issues within the Church, and plan a new
crusade against Muslims. They also created a list of prohibited books for Catholics.
● The Jesuits, an order of missionaries led by Ignatius Loyola, were established to spread
the message of Christ.

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● The Catholic Church revived the Inquisition, a church court that operated in various
countries.

These measures helped contain the spread of Protestantism and extended the Catholic Church's
influence to new overseas territories.

F. AGE OF DISCOVERIES

During the Renaissance, people became curious and adventurous, leading to a keen interest in
exploring new lands and sea routes. European merchants and rulers financed these voyages,
hoping to find riches, resources, and new markets for trade.

● Scientific advancement: the scientific advancement helped in building tools that helped
navigators to navigate across the oceans. For instance, Explorers used advanced tools like
the compass, astrolabe, maps, and guidebooks for navigation. The compass showed
direction, while the astrolabe determined latitude.
● Spanish and Portuguese exploration: Spain and Portugal were the first to support and

sponsor these explorations. Bartholomew Diaz sailed along Africa's west coast, reaching
the "Cape of Good Hope" in 1487. Vasco da Gama followed Diaz's route, successfully
reaching India in 1498.
● Christopher Columbus's discoveries: Christopher Columbus undertook four voyages
between 1492 and 1504. He thought he had reached India and called the locals "Indians,"
but he had discovered the "New World" (America). Columbus was unaware that he had
found a new continent.
● Ferdinand Magellan's expedition: Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer, sought a
western route to the spice islands. In three years, he crossed the Pacific via South America

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and reached the Philippines. Magellan died in a battle with a local chief in the Philippines,
but his remaining crew continued the journey. The crew completed the first
circumnavigation of the globe, proving that the Earth was round.

G. RISE OF COLONIALISM

During the 15th and 16th centuries, European seafarers explored vast oceans and found new
lands, which sparked a race among European countries to control territories in Asia, Africa, and
America. This colonization marked a part of the commercial revolution in Europe and promoted
global commerce expansion in the 17th and 18th centuries. Portugal and Spain were the first to
finance overseas discoveries, making them pioneers in colonialism. The Treaty of Tordesillas in
1494 divided their empires along a line west of the Cape Verde Islands, with Portugal gaining
lands to the east and Spain gaining lands to the west.

In the race for colonization, the Europeans agreed on four principles:

● Domination: The mother country dominated the trade, providing manufactured goods
while the colony produced raw materials.
● Exclusion: Other European nationals were excluded from the trade and couldn't engage
directly with the colony.
● Protection: Armed forces were necessary to control natives and protect trading posts and
sea routes from rivals.
● Religion expansion: Colonialism also aimed at expanding Christianity, supported by the
Pope's efforts to convert indigenous people by force or through missionary activities.
Mainly affected were the Americas, Africa, and some Buddhist countries in Southeast
Asia.

Cause of colonization
● Economic motives: European powers sought wealth and new trade routes, exploiting
valuable resources in colonies.
● Dominance: Competition among European nations led to a drive for dominance and
prestige through colonization.
● Search for new markets: Colonies provided opportunities to trade goods and access raw
materials.
● Religious factors: Some colonizers aimed to spread their beliefs and values, converting
indigenous populations to Christianity.
● Technological advancements: Advances in navigation enabled exploration of unknown
territories.
● Political and military considerations: Colonies served strategic military purposes and
safeguarded trade routes.
● Population pressure: Growing populations in Europe led to a desire for more land and
resources.

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Impact of colonization
● Resource exploitation: Colonizers used local resources for economic gain, benefiting
themselves at the expense of local populations.
● Cultural and social changes: Indigenous cultures were eroded by the imposition of
European languages, religions, and customs.
● Economic disparities: Colonized regions faced poverty while colonizers prospered from
the wealth generated.
● Forced labor and slavery: Many colonies relied on forced labor and slave systems, causing
immense suffering and lasting legacies.
● Political influence: Colonial powers
imposed their political systems,
leading to instability and
authoritarian rule.
● Infrastructure development:
Infrastructure focused on facilitating
resource extraction, rather than local
community development.
● Border disputes and conflicts:
Arbitrary borders caused ongoing
territorial disputes between different
ethnic groups.
● Education and healthcare: Education
and healthcare systems often served
colonizers' needs more than local
populations.
● Demographic changes: Colonialism
caused movement of people and
introduced new diseases to
indigenous populations.
● Nationalism and independence
movements: The experience of colonial rule spurred movements for independence and
the creation of new nation-states.

Colonization of America
● Spanish Colonization: Spain gradually took control of a vast territory in America, including
Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Guatemala, and the southwestern coast.
● Portugal and English Colonization: Portugal controlled Brazil, while English colonists
established agricultural settlements in North America and the Caribbean islands.
Jamestown, the first permanent English colony.
● Dutch and French Colonization: The Dutch had a colony named New Amsterdam, which
was later taken over by the English and renamed New York in 1664. The French
established fourteen colonies in the St. Lawrence basin of North and West America.

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● Impact on native civilizations: The colonization of America led to the downfall of native
Aztec and Inca civilizations. The European settlers viewed the native cultures as primitive
and barbarian. Many native people were killed or replaced by European settlers, and
some were converted to Christianity.

Colonization of Africa
● Bartholomew Diaz's discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 opened up new
territories for Europeans.
● Africa was not entirely unfamiliar to Europeans as it had connections with the
Mediterranean and Arab trade networks.
● In the 15th century, Europeans overlooked Africa, considering it economically poor and
culturally unfamiliar.

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● Europeans focused on the slave trade, ivory, gold, and tropical goods in Africa,
establishing coastal stations but neglecting the hinterland.
● In the 18th century, thousands of Africans were shipped across the Atlantic annually for
slave labor in English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish colonies.
● The Scramble for Africa is a term widely used by historians to describe the invasion,
annexation, division, and colonization of most of Africa by seven Western European
powers during an era known as "New Imperialism" (between 1833 and 1914). The 10
percent of Africa that was under formal European control in 1870 increased to almost 90
percent by 1914, with only Liberia and Ethiopia remaining independent.
● The Berlin Conference of 1884, which regulated European colonization and trade in
Africa, is usually accepted as the beginning of colonization in Africa.

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Colonization of Asia
● 16th-century European trade in Asia targeted India, China, Japan, and Southeast Asian
islands.
● Portuguese established settlements in India and China, and later the Dutch, British, and
French also joined the trade.
● In China, the Portuguese settled in Macau, and the Dutch settled in Taiwan. Chinese
resistance was encountered, but treaties were eventually made granting concessions to
the Europeans for port usage.
● Japan strongly resisted European influence. The Portuguese and later the Dutch
obtained trading privileges, but Japanese resistance was intense.
● The Dutch East India Company emerged as a successful trading empire in 17th-century
Asia. They gained control over Sumatra, Borneo, and the spice islands of the Malay
Peninsula while displacing Portuguese traders.

The advent of Europeans in India

● Europeans knew about India through historical connections and Arab trade during the
Middle Ages.
● Their main interest was establishing trade connections, not cultural ties, in India.
● Europe's military advantage and India's political disunity helped Europeans dominate.
● Four European powers competed for control of Indian trade: Portuguese, Dutch, English,
and French.
● Portuguese were the first to establish a trading company in India with goals of defeating
Arab rivals and spreading Christianity.
● Portuguese fought against the kings of Malabar and gained naval supremacy in the Indian
Ocean after a battle with an alliance of Egypt, Turkey, and Gujarat.
● Later, Dutch, English, and French challenged Portuguese influence in India.
● Ultimately, the British East India Company emerged victorious, leading to the British
Empire in India during the 18th century.

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