WEEK 3 READINGS

Philippine Culture - Ideology and Transformation (Alice Guillermo)

SUMMARY
1. Culture as a Social Force: Philippine culture is not just a reflection of national
heritage and identity; it actively shapes and challenges social order. It serves as a
site for ideological battles, influenced by economic and political contexts.
2. Indigenous Forms and Resistance: Recent cultural expressions, particularly in music,
theater, literature, and visual arts, utilize indigenous forms to reflect the experiences
of the people amidst militarization and resistance. These forms have evolved to
articulate the struggles of the masses.
3. Democratization of Art: The document argues against the elitist view that
democratizing art and culture lowers standards. Instead, it posits that increased
engagement and production can enhance cultural quality and elevate public
expectations.
4. Cultural Production and Social Reality: Artists are encouraged to understand their
social realities and link their work to the people's struggles. This involves moving
away from stereotypes and creating art that resonates with the lived experiences of
the masses.
5. Critical and Investigative Mindset: A scientific outlook is promoted, emphasizing that
truth is derived from studying concrete reality. This approach encourages critical
thinking and challenges metaphysical obscurantism.
6. Historical Context: The document highlights the dynamic contradictions within
society that drive transformation and change, particularly through the lens of
historical processes and the struggles of the people.
7. Cultural Popularization: There is a call for the popularization of culture, which
includes literacy programs, health education, and grassroots campaigns aimed at
liberating people from superstition and colonial ideologies.
8. Art and Ideological Struggle: Art is viewed as a dynamic interplay of form and
content, deeply connected to the ideological struggles of society. Aesthetics are
historically situated and should draw from the rich realities of Philippine history.
​ In summary, the document emphasizes the transformative power of culture in the
Philippines, advocating for a progressive, people-centered approach that reflects the
struggles and aspirations of the masses while fostering critical engagement with social
realities.
​
ADDITIONAL KEY POINTS
1. Historical Context of Colonialism: Understanding the historical backdrop of
colonialism in the Philippines is crucial. The document discusses how colonial
regimes and subsequent governments have imposed ideologies that often serve elite
interests, necessitating a cultural revolution to reclaim a people's culture that reflects
true aspirations.
 2. Role of the State: The document critiques how the state has historically propagated
feudal, colonial, and comprador-bourgeois ideologies. Recognizing the state's role in
shaping cultural narratives can provide insight into ongoing struggles for cultural
identity and autonomy.
3. Cultural Revolution: The concept of a cultural revolution is central to the document. It
involves a conscious effort to demystify existing cultural narratives and create a new
culture that is rooted in the people's conditions and struggles. This revolution is seen
as essential for achieving national sovereignty and social justice.
4. Interconnectedness of Culture and Politics: The document emphasizes that culture
is deeply intertwined with political and economic realities. Understanding this
interconnectedness can help in analyzing contemporary cultural movements and
their implications for social change.
5. Art as a Tool for Liberation: The document posits that art should not only reflect
reality but also serve as a tool for liberation. This perspective encourages artists to
engage with social issues and contribute to the broader struggle for justice and
equality.
6. Importance of Education: The promotion of critical thinking and education is
highlighted as vital for fostering a new cultural consciousness. Educational initiatives
that encourage investigation and engagement with social realities can empower
individuals and communities.
7. Contemporary Relevance: Consider how the themes discussed in the document
relate to current social and political issues in the Philippines, such as ongoing
struggles for human rights, environmental justice, and the fight against neoliberal
policies.
​ By exploring these additional aspects, you can gain a more nuanced understanding of the
document's arguments and their relevance to both historical and contemporary contexts in
Philippine society.
​
​ How Culture was Manipulated during the Marcos Regime:
1. Control of Mass Media: The Marcos dictatorship exercised direct control over mass
media, including newspapers, television channels, and radio stations, often through
crony ownership. This control allowed the regime to filter and manipulate
information, presenting a sanitized version of news that aligned with state ideology.
2. State Propaganda Machinery: The regime established a state propaganda apparatus
that disseminated information designed to legitimize and perpetuate its power. This
included the use of euphemistic language and idealistic concepts to mask the
realities of oppression and maintain a façade of benevolence.
3. Cultural Appropriation: The dictatorship appropriated cultural forms to project an
image of leadership and garner international support. This included the promotion of
a populist humanism that emphasized compassion through charity projects, which
were often public performances aimed at eliciting gratitude from the impoverished
masses.
4. Ideological Mystification: The regime employed ideological mystification, using
cultural narratives that emphasized the "True, the Good, and the Beautiful" to create
 an illusion of an unchanging and eternal order. This idealization obscured the harsh
realities faced by the populace.
5. Commercialization of Culture: The regime also allowed for the commercialization of
culture, including the exploitation of women and children in media and tourism. This
commercialization often contradicted the purported values of compassion and
humanism that the regime promoted.

​ These examples illustrate how the Marcos regime manipulated cultural narratives and forms
to maintain control, suppress dissent, and project a favorable image both domestically and
internationally.

The document describes the relationship between culture and social order as a
dynamic interplay where culture both reflects and shapes the social realities of a
society. Here are the key points regarding this relationship:
1. Culture as an Arena of Ideological Struggle: Culture is viewed as a battleground for
ideological conflicts, where different social classes and groups contest for influence
and power. This struggle is influenced by the prevailing economic, political, and
social conditions.
2. Reflection of Social Reality: Culture is seen as a mirror of the existing social order,
capturing the values, beliefs, and experiences of the people. It reflects the
complexities and contradictions within society, including issues of inequality,
oppression, and resistance.
3. Influence on Social Change: While culture reflects social realities, it also has the
power to influence and drive social change. Cultural expressions can challenge
dominant ideologies, inspire collective action, and mobilize communities towards
social justice and transformation.
4. Manipulation by the State: The document highlights how the state can manipulate
culture to maintain social order and legitimize its power. This includes the
appropriation of cultural forms and narratives to create a sense of national unity and
suppress dissent.
5. Cultural Production and Material Conditions: The relationship between culture and
the material base of society is emphasized, suggesting that cultural production is
shaped by economic and social conditions. Changes in these material conditions can
lead to shifts in cultural expressions and ideologies.
6. Role of the People: The document advocates for a culture that emerges from the
experiences and struggles of the people. It argues for the democratization of culture,
where the voices of marginalized groups are amplified, and cultural production is
linked to the people's interests.
​ In summary, the document portrays culture as both a reflection of and a catalyst for social
order, emphasizing its role in ideological struggles and the potential for cultural expressions
to inspire social change and challenge oppressive systems.
​
 ​ The document suggests that culture can be a site of ideological battles in
several key ways:
1. Contestation of Values and Beliefs: Culture embodies the values, beliefs, and
practices of different social groups. As these groups contest for dominance, cultural
expressions become arenas where conflicting ideologies are articulated and
negotiated. This contestation can manifest in art, literature, music, and other cultural
forms.
2. Representation of Social Struggles: Cultural narratives often reflect the struggles of
various social classes and groups. The document emphasizes that culture can serve
as a platform for marginalized voices to challenge dominant ideologies and assert
their own narratives, thereby engaging in ideological battles.
3. Manipulation by Power Structures: The document highlights how those in power,
such as the state or ruling elites, can manipulate culture to propagate their
ideologies. This manipulation can involve the promotion of certain cultural forms
while suppressing others, thereby shaping public perception and maintaining control
over the ideological landscape.
4. Cultural Appropriation and Commodification: The commodification of culture, where
cultural expressions are reduced to marketable products, can also serve as a site of
ideological struggle. This process often involves the appropriation of cultural
symbols and practices by dominant groups, leading to tensions and conflicts over
authenticity and representation.
5. Historical Context and Ideological Shifts: The document suggests that culture is not
static; it evolves in response to historical changes and ideological shifts. Different
historical periods may see the rise of new cultural forms that challenge existing
ideologies, reflecting the ongoing nature of ideological battles.
6. Art as a Tool for Resistance: The document posits that art and culture can be
powerful tools for resistance against oppressive ideologies. Artists and cultural
producers can use their work to critique social injustices, inspire collective action,
and promote liberative values, thus actively participating in ideological struggles.
7. Education and Cultural Consciousness: The document emphasizes the importance
of education in fostering critical cultural consciousness. By encouraging individuals
to engage with and question cultural narratives, education can empower people to
recognize and challenge ideological manipulations within culture.
​ In summary, the document portrays culture as a dynamic and contested space where
ideological battles unfold, shaped by the interactions of various social forces, historical
contexts, and the struggles for representation and power.
​
Recit Questions
​ Question 1:
​ How does the document define the relationship between culture and ideology?
​ Answer: The document defines the relationship between culture and ideology as a dynamic
interplay where culture serves as both a reflection of and a battleground for ideological
struggles. Culture embodies the values and beliefs of different social groups, and it can be
used to contest or reinforce dominant ideologies. It is not a neutral realm; rather, it is shaped
 by economic, political, and social conditions, and it plays a crucial role in maintaining or
challenging the existing social order.
​ Question 2:
​ What role does the state play in the manipulation of culture according to the document?
​ Answer: According to the document, the state plays a significant role in the manipulation of
culture by controlling mass media and cultural narratives to legitimize its power and
suppress dissent. The state can appropriate cultural forms to project an image of unity and
benevolence while obscuring the realities of oppression. This manipulation often involves the
use of propaganda to create a favorable public perception and maintain social order.
​ Question 3:
​ In what ways can culture serve as a site of resistance against oppression?
​ Answer: Culture can serve as a site of resistance against oppression by providing a platform
for marginalized voices to express their experiences and challenge dominant ideologies.
Artistic expressions, such as literature, music, and visual arts, can critique social injustices
and inspire collective action. Additionally, cultural practices that draw from the lived
experiences of the people can foster a sense of identity and solidarity, empowering
communities to resist oppressive systems.
​ Question 4:
​ What is the significance of historical context in understanding cultural expressions?
​ Answer: The historical context is significant in understanding cultural expressions because it
shapes the values, beliefs, and practices that are reflected in culture. Different historical
periods may give rise to new cultural forms that respond to social changes and ideological
shifts. By examining the historical context, one can better understand how cultural
expressions are influenced by and can influence the prevailing ideologies of the time.
​ Question 5:
​ How does the document suggest that education can impact cultural consciousness?
​ Answer: The document suggests that education can significantly impact cultural
consciousness by fostering critical thinking and awareness of cultural narratives. Through
education, individuals can learn to recognize and question the ideological manipulations
present in culture. This critical engagement empowers people to challenge dominant
ideologies and promotes a more inclusive understanding of cultural expressions, ultimately
contributing to social change.
​ Question 6:
​ What examples does the document provide regarding the commodification of culture?
​ Answer: The document provides examples of the commodification of culture, such as the
commercialization of cultural forms where art and cultural expressions are reduced to
marketable products. This process often involves the appropriation of cultural symbols by
dominant groups, leading to tensions over authenticity and representation. The
commodification can also result in the exploitation of cultural practices for profit, which may
undermine their original meanings and significance.
​ These questions and answers can facilitate a deeper understanding of the themes presented
in the document and encourage critical discussion among participants.
 Notes on Bakya. Being an Apologia of Sorts for Filipino Masscult (Jose F.
Lacaba)

SUMMARY
Jose F. Lacaba’s article "Notes on Bakya" (1970) explores the concept of bakya as a symbol of
Filipino mass culture, a term used to denote what is seen as cheap, provincial, and popular among
the masses, particularly in movies, fashion, and entertainment. Here are the main highlights of the
article:

1. Definition of Bakya:
○ Originally referring to the wooden slippers worn by rural Filipinos, bakya evolved into
a term describing mass culture, associated with the tastes and preferences of the
lower classes. It denotes things that are considered cheap, gauche, or overly popular,
in contrast to class (refined, sophisticated).
2. Origins of the Bakya Crowd:
○ Lacaba attributes the origin of the term bakya crowd to director Lamberto Avellana,
who used it to criticize audiences that didn't appreciate high-quality films. The bakya
crowd became a scapegoat for the failure of Tagalog films to attain the level of
prestige expected by critics.
3. Popular Culture and Class Distinction:
○ The article discusses how bakya symbolizes the tastes of the poor and the working
class, while the upper classes look down on bakya as lacking sophistication. Lacaba
emphasizes that this class distinction shapes cultural tastes in the Philippines, with
wealthier Filipinos embracing Hollywood films, Western fashion, and high-end dining,
which are seen as "class."
4. Examples of Bakya:
○ Lacaba offers specific examples of bakya culture, such as Eddie Peregrina's songs,
Nora Aunor's real name (Nora Cabaltera Villamayor), and popular Tagalog films like
Ricky Na, Tirso Pa. He highlights the divide between those who embrace bakya and
those who follow foreign or upper-class trends.
5. Jokes and Language:
○ The article shares "Belmontisms"—humorous malapropisms attributed to bakya idol
Ricky Belmonte, such as "Wow, what beautiful chamberlains!" when seeing
chandeliers. These jokes became part of the cultural lexicon, illustrating how Filipino
English, spoken by the lower class, is mocked by the elite.
6. Bakya’s Nationalist Leaning:
○ Despite its association with imitation of foreign trends, bakya culture often favors
local adaptations (e.g., Kapitan Kidlat over Captain Marvel), giving it a form of
nationalist character. Lacaba suggests that local adaptations speak more to the
Filipino experience, even if they are derivative.
7. Recognition and Transformation of Bakya:
○ Lacaba points out that once something considered bakya gains recognition abroad
(e.g., the Reycard Duet performing in Las Vegas), it can transcend its bakya label and
 be accepted by the upper class. This reflects the fluidity of taste based on external
validation.
8. Class and Cultural Deprivation:
○ The article critiques the cultural elitism behind the rejection of bakya. Lacaba argues
that bakya culture is not a mark of inferiority but rather a product of economic
conditions. The poor often lack access to the financial and educational resources
that allow them to engage with “high culture.”
9. The Role of Intellectuals:
○ Lacaba observes that true intellectuals and artists are often more tolerant and even
affectionate toward bakya. The real disdain comes from middlebrow culture, which
neither embraces true high culture nor understands mass culture, leading to
snobbery from those who claim cultural superiority.
10. Embracing Bakya:
○ The article encourages pride in being associated with bakya, framing it as a badge of
honor for the masses, akin to the reclaiming of the term Indio by Filipinos during the
colonial period.

In summary, Lacaba's essay dissects the cultural divide between bakya and class, revealing the
socioeconomic roots of these distinctions while urging for greater recognition and appreciation of
mass culture in the Philippines.

ADDITIONAL INFO
1. Historical and Social Context:
● The article was written in 1970, a period marked by rapid modernization in the Philippines.
As the country urbanized, social and economic divides between the rural poor and the urban
middle/upper class became more pronounced. Bakya as a term reflects these divides,
especially in cultural preferences.
● During this time, Filipino mass media (especially cinema) catered to the tastes of the
masses, while intellectuals and critics often favored Westernized, more elite forms of
culture. Lacaba’s writing serves as a defense of the Filipino masses' culture against this
elitism.
2. Susan Sontag's "Notes on Camp" Influence:
● Lacaba’s essay parallels Susan Sontag’s famous work “Notes on Camp,” which explored the
aesthetics of camp—celebrating things considered artificial, exaggerated, or theatrical, often
seen as inferior by the elite. Similarly, Lacaba is trying to make sense of bakya culture,
framing it not as inferior but as authentic, democratic, and reflective of Filipino society.
● Camp has a sense of irony and self-awareness, while bakya as Lacaba presents it, is
embraced by its audience sincerely, making the latter a more direct expression of mass
taste.
3. Philippine Cinema and Pop Culture:
● Lacaba emphasizes the role of the Philippine film industry, particularly Tagalog movies, in
shaping the bakya aesthetic. The rise of stars like Nora Aunor, Joseph Estrada, and Eddie
Peregrina were tied to the aspirations and struggles of the working-class Filipino, and the
popularity of these figures highlights the cultural gap between the masses and the elite.
 ● Bomba films (sexploitation films) and melodramatic “tearjerkers” became bakya staples. The
masses consumed these films not just as entertainment but also as a reflection of their own
realities, hopes, and fantasies, which were often ignored or dismissed by critics.
4. Colonial Mentality and Nationalism:
● Lacaba touches upon the idea of colonial mentality, where Filipinos preferred Western culture
over their own. However, he shows that even the bakya crowd sometimes gravitates toward
local imitations (e.g., Darna as a Filipino version of Wonder Woman), suggesting an
underlying nationalist preference for something more "native," even if it is a copy.
● This aspect of bakya culture complicates the critique of colonial mentality, showing that
while Filipinos may adopt foreign models, they localize them in ways that resonate with their
experiences.
5. The Role of Language:
● Language is an important aspect of bakya culture, as seen in the malapropisms of stars like
Ricky Belmonte, which the educated elite mocked. Lacaba argues that this ridicule highlights
the class divide, with the upper class weaponizing English proficiency as a marker of
superiority. The bakya crowd, by contrast, is not preoccupied with perfect grammar or
pronunciation—they embrace a language that reflects their everyday lives.
6. Enduring Relevance:
● Lacaba’s article, although written in 1970, still resonates in contemporary Philippine society.
The idea of bakya has evolved, but class distinctions in taste continue to shape Filipino
culture. What is considered “low-brow” or "mainstream" is often seen as unrefined by the
elite, but it remains popular among the majority. Modern parallels can be seen in the
consumption of mainstream Filipino films, TV shows, and music.
7. Postscript on Humor and Politics:
● Lacaba’s postscript on the evolution of bakya humor into Alma Moreno, Melanie Marquez,
and Erap jokes shows how mass culture remains fertile ground for satire and humor. Joseph
Estrada’s use of bakya jokes during his presidential campaign suggests that even in politics,
the masses can appropriate humor and self-deprecation as a form of power, embracing their
identity rather than feeling ashamed.
Understanding these broader social and cultural dynamics helps provide a fuller appreciation of how
bakya is not just about taste, but a reflection of class, identity, and the tensions between the elite and
the masses in Filipino society.

POSSIBLE RECIT QUESTIONS

General Understanding:
1. What is the literal and expanded meaning of the word bakya as discussed in the article?
○ The term bakya literally refers to wooden slippers, but Lacaba uses it to describe
popular culture in the Philippines, denoting anything that is cheap, unsophisticated,
or too popular.
2. Who coined the term bakya crowd, and in what context was it used?
○ The term was coined by film director Lamberto V. Avellana in frustration with an
audience that did not appreciate his artistic films. It was initially used to describe
audiences that preferred popular, mass-market films over more "prestigious" ones.
3. How does Lacaba relate bakya to Filipino mass culture, and what is his overall stance on it?
 ○ Lacaba defends bakya as a legitimate expression of Filipino mass culture, arguing
that it reflects the tastes and realities of the majority, particularly the poor, despite
the elite’s disdain for it.
Analytical Questions:
4. What are the similarities and differences between bakya and Susan Sontag’s concept of
camp?
○ Both terms deal with aesthetics often dismissed by the cultural elite. While camp
involves irony and exaggerated styles, bakya lacks the self-conscious irony and is
more sincerely embraced by the Filipino masses.
5. How does Lacaba illustrate the class distinctions embedded in the term bakya?
○ He shows that bakya reflects the cultural tastes of the rural and urban poor, while the
term itself is used as a form of mockery by the upper classes. This mockery often
disguises class snobbery rather than genuine concern for cultural value.
6. What role does language play in reinforcing the divide between bakya culture and elite
culture in the Philippines?
○ Language, particularly the use of Filipino English (like Ricky Belmonte’s
malapropisms), is highlighted as a marker of bakya culture. The elite mock this use
of English, furthering the cultural divide between the educated and the masses.
Historical and Cultural Context:
7. How did the Philippine film industry, especially stars like Nora Aunor and Joseph Estrada,
contribute to the development of bakya culture?
○ Nora Aunor and Joseph Estrada became icons of the bakya crowd, representing the
aspirations of the working class through their roles in melodramatic films. Their
popularity showed that the masses could recognize and support figures who
resonated with their struggles and realities.
8. How did bomba films change the landscape of bakya culture in the Philippines?
○ The rise of bomba films marked a shift from more innocent popular entertainment to
more adult, provocative content. This reflected changing tastes and the gradual
maturation of the bakya audience, even though the films remained lowbrow by elite
standards.
9. What is the significance of the shift from bakya crowd to simply bakya in Lacaba’s article?
○ This shift shows that bakya was no longer just about a particular group of people but
had become a broader adjective describing certain cultural forms and tastes,
extending beyond just movies to encompass clothing, music, and lifestyle choices.
Critical Thinking:
10. How does Lacaba challenge the elite’s dismissal of bakya culture, and what does he
suggest about the real cultural divide in Philippine society?
○ Lacaba argues that the elite’s dismissal of bakya culture is more about class
superiority than genuine concern for cultural value. He suggests that the elite are out
of touch with the masses and that their mockery of bakya is a reflection of their own
cultural snobbery rather than an objective judgment of artistic quality.
11. Why does Lacaba suggest that embracing the term bakya could be a form of cultural pride
for the Filipino masses?
 ○ He draws parallels between the term bakya and the word Indio, suggesting that just
as Filipinos reclaimed Indio as a form of national identity, they could embrace bakya
as a badge of honor, symbolizing their authentic cultural experiences.
12. How does Lacaba explain the contradiction of bakya culture sometimes favoring foreign
imitations over original Filipino content?
○ Lacaba points out that even though bakya culture embraces foreign imitations like
local versions of Western superheroes, it does so in a way that localizes and makes
them part of the Filipino experience. The bakya crowd may gravitate towards these
imitations because they resonate more with their realities than original, but alien
foreign content.
Postscript and Contemporary Relevance:
13. What is the significance of the jokes about figures like Ricky Belmonte, and how did they
evolve into Erap jokes?
○ These jokes highlight how the elite ridicule bakya idols for their perceived lack of
sophistication, particularly in language. Erap, however, used this ridicule to his
advantage, turning it into a political tool that helped endear him to the masses during
his campaign for the presidency.
14. How does Lacaba's article continue to be relevant in understanding Filipino culture today?
○ The cultural divide that Lacaba highlighted in 1970 persists today, with mainstream
Filipino films, TV shows, and music often labeled as “low-brow” by the elite, while
they remain immensely popular among the masses. The tension between popular
culture and elite tastes continues to shape Filipino society and media consumption.
These questions can help guide deeper discussions on the cultural and social implications of bakya
in Lacaba’s essay and beyond.