21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Ancient Indian History

INDEX

S. Page
Topic
No. No.
Chapter-1
1. 2
Sources of History
Chapter-2
2. 4
Stone Age: The Early Man
Chapter-3
3. 6
The Harappan Culture: Bronze Age Civilization
Chapter-4
4. 10
Advent of the Aryans and the Age of the Rig Veda (1500 BC to 1000 BC)
Chapter-4
5. 12
Advent of the Aryans and the Age of the Rig Veda (1500 BC to 1000 BC)
Chapter-6
6. 14
Jainism
Chapter-7
7. 16
Buddhism
Chapter-8
8. 19
The Rise of Territorial Kingdoms - Mahajanapadas
Chapter-9
9. 22
Rise of Magadha Empire under the Haryankas, The Sisunagas and the Nandas
Chapter 10
10. 24
The Age of the Mauryan Dynasty
Chapter-11
11. 28
Persian and Macedonian Invasions
Chapter-12
12. 29
Post Mauryan Period
Chapter-13
13. 31
Central Asian Contacts and their Results
Chapter-14
14. 33
The life in the Gupta Age
Chapter-15
23. 38
Harshavardhana and his times

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 1
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-1

SOURCES OF HISTORY
1. Literary Sources:

Indian Literature:
● Rig Veda : Prayers of God.
● Sam Veda : Songs and 1st book of music.
● Yajur Veda : Ritual processes
● Atharva Veda : Not written by Aryans; book on magic
● Brahmans : Explanations of Vedas
● Aranyaks : Forest books.
● Upanishads : Metaphysical.
● Puranas : Stories of kings
● Epics : Ramayana, Mahabharata
● Plays : By Kalidas etc
● Mudra Raksha : By Vishakadata

Foreign Literature:
Book “Indica”:
● Written by Megasthenes.
● Valuable information on Admin and socio-economic conditions of Mauryas.

Book “Geography of India”:

● Written by Ptolemy.
● Geographical treatise on India in 2nd Century AD

Book “Naturakus Historia”:

● Written by Pliny.
● Accounts trade relations between Rome and India in 1st Century AD.

Book “Periplus of the Erythrean Sea” :

● Records personal voyage of Indian coasts in 80 A.D.
By Fahien:
● Records the Gupta Empire in the 5th Century AD.

Book “Si-yu-ki”:
● Written by Hiuen Tsang
● Describes the social, economic and religious conditions of India in the 5th and 7th Century AD.
(Harshvardhan)
By Itsing:
● Studies the Gupta period under Sri Gupta in the 7th Century AD.

2. Archaeological evidences:
● Tools. * Remains of Flora & Fauna
● Coins * Remains of settlements
3. Inscriptions:
● Extent of empire * Administrative system
● Laws related to land * Time period
● Language & Script.
4. Monuments.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 2
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-2

STONE AGE: THE EARLY MAN

● The earliest traces of human existence in India So far discovered is between 4,00,000 and 2,00,000 BC
from Sohan valley (now in Pakistan).
● Neolithic settlements in Indian subcontinent are not older than 4000 BC.
● Wheat and barley were the first cereals grown by Indians.
● The name India was derived from the river name Sindhu which is also known as Indus.
● India was originally considered as a part of a larger area called Jambu-dvipa.

The Paleolithic Period: Hunters and Food Gatherers: (5,00,000-10,000BC)

● The Paleolithic culture of India developed in the Pleistocene period.
● Robert Bruce Foot was the first to discover a Paleolithic stone in India in 1863.
● The tools were usually made of hard rock 'quartzite' and therefore Paleolithic man in India is also called
"Quartzite Man".
● Bori in Maharashtra ( 5 lakh year old ).
● Earliest Paleolithic man lived on hunting and food gathering.
● The nature of stone tools also varied according to the climate.
● Not knowing how to grow his food, he ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh etc.
● The people were wanderers and moved from place to place. They took refuge under the rocks in caves
and hollow tree trunks.

The Mesolithic Age: Hunters and Herders: (10,000 - 4,000 BC)

● It was the transitional period between Paleolithic and Neolithic ages.
● Its characteristic tools are microliths all made of stone.
● The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering.
● Earliest domestication of animals has also been witnessed from Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
● Fishing started and small stone tools.

Neolithic Age: Food Producers: (6,000-1,000 BC)

● The word 'neolithic' was first coined by Sir John Lubbock in 1865.
● Settled life.
● Animal domestication
● Agricultural practice
● Grind and Polished stone tools.
● Pottery manufacture.
● Mehergarh - 6000 BC - 1st village.

Important Places of Stone age:

● Bhimbetka:
○ Homo Sapiens' Cave 500 painted Rock Shelters.
○ Madhya Pradesh.

● Nevasa:
○ Evidence of cotton.
○ Maharashtra.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 3
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
● Atranjikheda:
○ Textile printing.
○ Uttar Pradesh.

● Hastinapur:
○ Wild Sugarcane
○ Uttar Pradesh.

● Inamgaon:
○ Statue of mother Goddess.
○ Maharashtra.

● Mehargarh:
○ Earliest evidence of agriculture, settled life.
○ Balochistan (Pakistan)

● Koldihva:
○ Earliest evidence of rice.
○ Uttar Pradesh.

● Bagor and Adamgarh:

○ Earliest evidences of Domestication of animal.
○ Rajasthan

● Chirand:
○ Serpent cult:
○ Bihar

● Burzahom Gulfkral:
○ Pit-dwelling.
○ J&K

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 4
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-3

THE HARAPPAN CULTURE: BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATION

● It is known as the Indus Valley Civilisation because most of its settlements are found in the valley of the
Indus river.
● First site excavated was Harappa by Dayaram Sahni in 1921.
● In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the
Indus valley to the world.
● It Flourished between 2500-1500 BC.
● But 2200-1800 BC was its mature period.
● It covered the present day Pakistan & north western part of India.
● Urban civilization.
● Foreign trade.
● Craft specialization.
● Planned cities.
● Literate.
● Ruled by traders.
● Barter system.
● Boustrophedon and pictographic script.
● Very few written materials have been discovered in the Indus valley and the scholars have not been able
to decipher the Indus script so far.

Features of Urban civilization:

● Planned cities.
● Uniformity in the planning of cities.
● Big buildings.
● Covered drainage system.
● Use of burnt bricks.
● Presence of industries.
● Internal & external trade.

Indus Valley Civilisation sites:

Harappa:
● Excavated by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921.
● Montgomery district of Punjab (Now in Pakistan) on the left bank of Ravi.
● City followed grid planning.
● Row of six granaries.
● Only place having evidence of coffin burial.
● Evidence of fractional burial and coffin burial.
● Cemetery of alien people.

Mohenjo Daro:
● Excavated by R.D.Banerjee in 1922.
● Larkana district in Sind on the right bank of Indus (Now in Pakistan).

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 5
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
● City followed grid planning.
● A large granary and Great Bath, a college.
● Human skeletons showing invasion and massacre.
● Evidence of horses comes from the Superficial level.
● A piece of woven cotton along with spindle whorls and needles.
● Town was flooded more than seven times.
● Bronze dancing girl.
● Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva.
● Steatite statue of beard man.

Chanhudaro:
● Excavated in 1931 by N. Gopal Majumdar and Mackey.
● Situated in Sind on the bank of Indus.
● The city has no citadel.
● Famous for bead makers shop.
● A small pot, possibly an inkpot.
● Footprints of a dog chasing a cat.
● Three different cultural layers, Indus, Jhukar and Jhangar

Kali bangan
● Excavated in 1953 by A. Ghosh.
● Situated in Rajasthan on the Bank of Ghaggar.
● Shows both Pre Harappan and Harappan phase.
● Evidence of furrowed land.
● Evidence of seven fire altars and camel bones.
● Many houses had their own well.
● Kalibangan = black bangles.
● Evidence of wooden furrow

Dhola vira:
● Excavated in 1985- 90 y R.S. Bisht.
● Situated in Gujarat in Rann of Kutch.
● Seven cultural stages.
● Largest site.
● Unique water management

Lothal:
● Excavated in 1953 by S.R. Rao.
● Situated in Gujarat on Bhogava river near Gulf of Cambay.
● A titled floor which bears intersecting design of circles.
● Remains of rice husk.
● Evidence of horse from a terracotta figurine.
● A ship designed on a seal.
● Beads & trade ports.
● An instrument for measuring angles, pointing to modern day compass

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 6
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
Sutkagendor:
● By Stein in 1929.
● In southwestern Balochistan province, Pakistan on Dast river.
● A trade point between Harappa and Babylon

Amri:
● By N.G Majumdar in 1935.
● On the bank of the Indus river.
● Antelope evidence

Surkotada:
● By J.P Joshi in 1964.
● Gujarat.
● Bones of horses.
● Beads

Kot Diji:
● Represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan Phase.

Economy:
● Harappans practiced the barter system.
● Produced wheat, barley, peas, jowar, ragi, etc.
● Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep domestic fowls and pigs were domesticated.
● The thriving agricultural economy supported a flourishing trade both within the northern and western
areas of the sub-continent and between the people of this culture and those of the Persian and Gulf and
Mesopotamia.

Religion:
● The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva represented in seals, as sitting in a yogic posture on a
low and having three faces and two horns.
● He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction,
and two deer appear at his feet.
● The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms to please
fertility Goddess.
● There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship.
● Numerous stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of phallus, have been
discovered. Fertility cult was the main feature.
● The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan and Harappa.
● Indus people worshiped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc) and animals (unicorn etc).
● They believed in ghosts and evils forces and used amulets as protection against them.

Political Organisation:
● There is no idea about the political organization of the Harappans.
● Perhaps the Harappan rulers were more concerned with commerce than with conquests, and Harappa
was possibly ruled by the class of merchants.
● No temples have been found at any Harappan sites. Therefore the possibility of priests ruling Harappa can
be eliminated.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 7
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
Crafts:
● The Harappans were very well acquainted with the manufacturing and use of Bronze.
● Copper was obtained from the Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan and Tin was possibly brought from
Afghanistan.
● Textile impressions have also been found on several objects.
● Huge brick structure suggest that brick-laying was an important craft.
● This also attests the existence of a class of masons.
● The Harappans practised boat-making, bead making and seal-making.
● Terracotta manufacture was also an important craft.
● The goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold and precious stones.
● The potter's wheel was in full use, and the Harappans produced their own characteristic pottery, which
was glossy and shining.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 8
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-4

ADVENT OF THE ARYANS AND THE AGE OF THE RIG VEDA

(1500 BC to 1000 BC)
● The Aryans are the original inhabitants of Central Asia.
● They arrived in India around 1500 BC, though there is an ongoing debate.
● The region where the Aryans settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu. It is also referred to as the
Brahmavarta.
● The Aryans established themselves in India by defeating the natives whom they called Dasas or Dasyus.
● The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic Period (1500 BC to 1000 BC).
● The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains in the Later Vedic Period and this region came to be known as
Aryavarta (1000 BC to 600 BC).
● The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron and brought horses along with them.
● Some Aryan names are mentioned in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BC and the Mitanni inscriptions of
the fourteenth century BC, found in Iraq which suggests that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved
towards the west.

Material Life:
● Gold - Called as Hiranya.
● Iron - Called as Shyama.
● Copper - Called as Ayas

Tribal Polity:
● The chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana.
● He did not possess unlimited powers for he had to reckon with the tribal assemblies.
● Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal assemblies. Of these, Vidhata was the oldest.
● These assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions.
● The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was general in nature and less
exclusive than Sabha.
● Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rig Vedic times.
● A few non-monarchical states (ganas) are described whose head was Ganapati or Jyestha.

Tribe and Family:

● Kinship was the basis of social structure.
● People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which was called jana.
● Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda is vis.
● The term for family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda.
● It seems that family in early Vedic Phase was indicated by the term griha.

Status of Women:
● The institution of marriage was established, although symbols of primitive practices survived.
● We also notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda.
● The status of women was equal to men and they received Upanayana and education, studied Vedas and
some of them even rose to the rank of seers composing Vedic hymns.
● Monogamy was established, though polygamy and polyandry were also known.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 9
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
Social Divisions:
● Varna was the term used for colour and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the indigenous inhabitants
were dark in complexion.
● The dasas and dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves and sudras.
● Gradually, the tribal society was divided into 3 groups-warriors, priests and the people.
● The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Veda period.
● In the age of Rig Veda, divisions based on occupations had started. But this division was not very sharp.

Occupation:
● Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation.
● The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although they used several animals, the horse played the most
significant role in their life.
● The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture.
● Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an interpolation.
● The term for war in the Rig Veda is gavisthi or 'search for cows'. The Rig Veda mentions such artisans as
the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the potter, etc. This indicates that they
practiced all these crafts.
● The term, ayas used for copper or bronze shows that metal working was known.

Rig Vedic name of Rivers:

● Parushni - Present day Ravi.
● Sindhu - Present day Indus.
● Asikni - Present day Chenab.
● Vitasta - Present day Jhelum.
● Drishadvari - Present day Ghaggar.

Early Vedic Religion:

● Did not believe in idol worship.
● Worshiped the forces of nature as the manifestation of one Supreme God.
● Vedic Gods have been classified into 3 categories -Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Celestial.
● Indra, Agni, Varuna, Soma and Yama were the Rig Vedic gods.
● Prithvi, Saraswati, Usha, Aditi were female deities. They were not given the same position as male Gods.
● People did not worship for spiritual reasons but for the welfare of Praja & Pashu.
● Recitation of prayers, chanting of Vedic hymns and sacrifices or yajnas were an an important part of the
worship.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 10
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-5

THE LATER VEDIC AGE (1000 BC - 500 BC)

● In later Vedic times, the vidatha completely disappeared.
● The Sabha and Samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed.
● Women were no longer permitted to sit in the Sabha, and it was now dominated by nobles and
Brahmanas.
● The formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful.
● Tribal authority tended to become territorial.
● The term Rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in this period.
● The King performed the Rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power to him.
● He performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal house
ran uninterrupted.
● He also performed the Vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race
against his kinsmen.
● During this period collection of taxes and tributes seems to have become common. These were probably
deposited with an officer called ‘sangrihitri’ who worked as the king’s companion.
● Even in later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing army.
● Tribal units were mustered in times of war, and, according to one ritual for success in war; the king had to
eat along with his people from the same plate.
● Sama, Yajur, Atharva veda were developed during this period.
● The Zend Avesta is a Persian/Iranian text of Zoroastrianism. This book speaks about the lands and gods of
the people speaking the Indo-Iranian languages. It has references to the regions of northern and north-
western parts of India. It has terms which show linguistic similarity with the Vedas. This text is an indirect
evidence that the early home of the Aryans was outside the Indian subcontinent.

Economic Life:
● The Aryans now lived a sedentary life, domesticated animal and cultivated on a greater scale than earlier
sugarcane.
● Cattle still constituted the principal form of movable property.
● Wheat was also cultivated during this period along with barley.
● Rice is mentioned in sources but was not an important crop at this time.
● Beans and Sesame and pulses such as Moong, Urad etc. were also known.
● New arts, artists and craftsmen also emerged i.e. smelters, ironsmiths, carpenters, weavers, leather
workers, jewelers, dyers and potters.
● Trade was also boosted.
● Iron was an important metal used for implements in this period.
● Iron was called syama-ayas or krishna-ayas or the dark metal.

Social life:
● The later Vedic society came to be divided into 4 varnas called the Brahmanas, rajanyas or kshatriyas,
vaisyas and shudras, each Varna was assigned with its duty.
● Rajanya refers to kshatriyas and they were the warriors and rulers who received bali as tax
● All the 3 higher varnas shared one common feature, they were known as Dvijas (twice born), i.e., they
were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 11
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
● The fourth Varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony, and with it began the imposition of
disabilities on the shudras.
● The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times. Literally, it means the cow-pen or place where
cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept.
● People began to practice gotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between persons belonging to the
same gotra or having the same ancestor.

In the post-Vedic texts, we hear of four ashramas:

● Brahmachari or student,
● Grihastha or householder,
● Vanaprastha or partial retirement and
● Sanyasa or complete retirement from the world.
● Ashramas or four stages of life were not well established in early Vedic times.
● But only three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts.
● The fourth stage had not been well-established in Later Vedic times. 4th Ashrama only mentioned in
Jabala Upanishad

Religion:
● The two outstanding Rig Vedic Gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former importance.
● On the other hand Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy the supreme position in later Vedic pantheon.
● Rudra, the God of animals, became important in later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be conceived as
the preserver and protector of the people.
● In addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and we notice signs of idolatry.
● Important female deities during the Later Vedic Age were: Usha (goddess of Dawn), Aditi (Mother of
Gods), Prithvi (Earth Goddess), Aryani (Forest Goddess) and Saraswati (River deity).
● The mode of worship changed considerably.
● Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the dominant mode of placating the gods.
● Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both public and domestic character.
● The guests were known as the Goghna or one who was fed on cattle. The priests who officiated at
sacrifices were regarded generously and given dakshinas or gifts.

The Late Vedic Texts:

● The Later Vedic texts were composed after the Rig Veda Samhitas.
● The Yajur, Sama and Atharva Vedas were composed after the Rig Veda.
● Satyameva Jayate is from Mudaka Upanishad
● In the Rig Veda, the term asva (horse) occurs 215 times and vrishabha (bull) 170 times.
● Tiger and rhinoceros, which are tropical animals, are not mentioned in the Rig Veda.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 12
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-6

JAINISM
● The sacred books of Jain tell us that their first Tirthankara was Rishab, the founder of Jainism.
● Rishab was followed by 23 Tirthankaras.
● The Vishnu Purana and Bhagavat Purana describe Rishab as an incarnation of Narayana.
● Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara.

Varadhmana Mahavira:
● Mahavira was born in village Kundagrama in district Muzzaffarpur in a Kshatriya family in 540 BC.
● He was a prince and related to Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha.
● He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter called Priyadarsana.
● He became ascetic after the death of his parents.
● For 12 years he practiced extreme mortification.
● In the 13th year he reached Nirvana under a Sal tree becoming a Jina and a Kevlin an omniscient at
Jhrimbikagrama.
● From the remaining 30 years Mahavira moved from one place to another and preached his religion.
● At the age of 72 he attained Kaivalya (death) at Pavapuri near Patna in 468 BC.
● He rejected the authority of Vedas and the Vedic rituals.
● He did not believe in the existence of God.
● He believed in Karma and transmigration of soul.

The 4 main teachings of Jainism:

● Not to injure life.
● Not to tell a lie.
● Not to steal.
● Not to possess property

Jainism taught five doctrines:

● Non-injury
● Non-lying
● Non-stealing
● Non-possession
● Observe continence
 Only the 5th doctrine was added by Mahavira, the other four were taken over by previous teachers.
 The Jaina philosophy shows a close affinity to Hindu Samkhya philosophy.
 They ignore the idea of God and accept that the world is full of sorrows and believe in the theory of
karma and transmigration of souls.
 Attainment of Nirvana or Moksha was the most important human desire. It could be attained
through Triratnas:
● Right faith (Samyak Vishwas)
● Right knowledge (Samyak Jnan)
● Right conduct (Samyak Karma)

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 13
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
Sects of Jainism:
Swetambaras -
● They wore white dress.
● They were more liberal and supporters of change.

Digambaras -
● They kept themselves naked.
● They were orthodox and rigid.

Patrons:
● Chandragupta Maurya spread Jainism in Karnataka.
● Jainism spread to Kalinga in Orissa in the 4th century BC and in the 2nd century BC it enjoyed the
patronage of King Kharavela.
● In the south Jainism was patronized by royal dynasties such as Gangas, Kadambas, Chalukyas and
Rashtrakutas

Jain Councils:
● 1st council was held at Pataliputra by Sthalabahuin the beginning of the 3rd cent BC and resulted in the
compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas.
● 2nd Council was held at Valabhi in the 5th century AD under the leadership of Devaradhi Kshamasramana
and resulted in final re-compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas
 The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas helped the growth of this language and its literature.
 The Jainas built Bhikshu grihas or cave dwellings for the residence of their monks. Innumerable
manuscripts in palm leaves were written down and some of them were painted with gold dust.
 These have given rise to a new school of painting known as the Western Indian School.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 14
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-7

BUDDHISM
● Among the heterodox sects, Buddhism was the most popular.
● It was so influential that its ideas were adopted by Asoka as a state policy.

Life of Gautama Buddha:

● Gautama Buddha was born as Siddhartha in the Sakya Kshatriya clan to its king Suddhodhana and his
chief queen Mahamaya.
● He was born in 563 BC at Lumbini in Kapilvastu.
● Father Suddodhana was the king of Kapilvastu.
● Mother Mahamaya was a princess of Kosala dynasty.
● He was married to Yasodhara (Princess of Kolli dynasty) from whom he had a son Rahul.
● At the age of 29, he renounced home, this was his Mahabhinishkramana (great going forth) and became a
wandering ascetic.
● His first teacher was Alara Kalama. Another teacher was Udraka Ramputra. At the age of 35 under a pipal
tree at Uruvella (Bodh Gaya) on the bank of river Niranjana (modern name Falgu) attained Nirvana
(enlightenment) after 49 days of continuous meditation.
● Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath (Deer park) to his five disciples, this is known as
Dharmachakra Pravartana (Turning of the wheel of law) Ananda and Upali were his famous disciples.
● He died at the age of 80 in 483 BC at Kushinagar. This is known as Mahaparinirvana.
● Eight great places associated with Buddhism are Lumbini, Sarnath, Sravasti, Rajgriha, Bodh Gaya,
Kushinagar, Sankisa and Vaishali.
● Patliputra is not associated with Buddha.

Doctrine of Buddhism - Four Noble Truths:

● This world is full of sufferings.
● Desire is the root cause of sufferings.
● The cessation of sufferings is attainable.
● The cessation of sufferings can be attained by following the “Eight Fold Path”

Three Jewels of Buddhism (Triratna) are:

● Buddha
● Dharma
● Sangha

The ultimate aim of life is to attain nirvana, the eternal state of peace and bliss, which means liberation from
the cycle of birth and death.

The world is momentary.

The interesting fact about Buddhist philosophy is that while it believes in cycle of birth and death it does not
believe in the concept of soul.

“The Middle Path” of Buddhism states that man should avoid both extremes.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 15
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
The Eightfold Path:
● Right faith.
● Right resolve
● Right speech
● Right action
● Right living
● Right effort
● Right thought
● Right concentration

Patrons of Buddhism:
● Ashoka, the greatest patron of Buddhism, he called 3rd Buddhist council & sent a mission consisting of his
son Mahendra & his daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.
● Palas of Bengal & Bihar were last great patrons of Buddhism

Symbols representing events of Buddha’s life:

● Janma (Birth) - Lotus.
● Mahabhnishkramana (Renunciation) - Horse.
● Nirvana (Enlightenment) - Bodhi tree.
● Drarmachakra pravartana (First Sermon) - Wheel.
● Mahaparinirvana (Death) - Stupa.

Buddhist Councils:
First Council:
● The first Buddhist council was held at Rajgriha in 483 B.C.
● Under the patronage of Ajatshatru.
● It took place just after the death of Lord Buddha.
● The compilation of Sutta Pitaka and Vinay Pitaka took place during this council.

Second Council:
● It took place after 100 years of the death of Lord Buddha i.e. 383 in B.C.
● It took place in Vaishali under the patronage of king Kalashoka, and was presided over by Sabakami.
● The schism took place in this council on the issue of rules and discipline. As a result two groups,
Mahasanghika and Therivadi (Sthaviravadin) were formed.

Third Council:
● It took place in Patliputra under the patronage of Ashoka.
● It was presided by Mogliputta Tisa. It is also known as the council of Therivadins.
● “Katthavattu” was added to the Abhidhama Patika during this council.
● However, none of the Ashokan inscription gives us the information about the council.

Fourth Council:
● It was held in Kundalgrama in Kashmir.
● The president of the council was Vasumitra and the vice president was Ashvagosha.
● Mahavibhasha, the doctrine of Sravastivadin was written in Sanskrit in copper plate and enclosed in the
stone boxes.
● During this council the two sects of Buddhism i.e. Hinayana and Mahayana were formed officially.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 16
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
Sects of Buddhism:
Hinayana:
● Its followers believed in the original teaching of Buddha.
● They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.
● Followers of this do not believe in idol-worship and historicity of Buddha.
● This sect treats Lord Buddha as a teacher and not as the God.
● The literature of this sect is mainly in Pali.
● It is known as ‘Southern Buddhist Religion’, because it prevailed in the South of India, e.g. Sri Lanka,
Burma (Myanmar), Syam (Thailand), Java etc.
● There were two sub sects of Hinayana i.e. Vaibhasika and Sautantrika

Mahayana:
● Its followers believed in the historicity of Buddha.
● They sought the salvation of all through the grace and help of Buddha & Bodhisatva. This sect believes in
idol-worship.
● This sect treated Buddha as God.
● The literature of this sect is compiled in Sanskrit language.
● It is known as ‘Northern Buddhist Religion’, because it prevailed in the North of India, e.g. China, Korea,
Japan, etc.
● There were two sub sects of Mahayana:
○ Madhyamika or Shunyavada: Founded by Nagarjuna.
○ Yogacharya or Vijananavada: Founded by Maitreyanath and his disciple Asanga.

Vajrayana:
● Its followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring the magical power i.e. Vajra.
● The sect developed in Tibet.
● The sect believe in worship of female deities.
● The chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras.
● It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

Buddhist Texts:
Tripitaka: Tripatika refers to three commentaries, these are as:
● Sutta Pitaka : It contain the sayings of Buddha.
● Vinay Pitaka : It contain the monastic code, the most important is Patimoksha
● Abhidamma Pitaka : It consists of the religious and metaphysical discourses of Buddha
● Dipavamsa & Mahavamsa : The great chronicles of Sri Lanka.

Buddha Charita:
● Written by Asvaghosa (Sanskrit poet).
● It is an epic poem written on the life of Gautam Buddha in the early second century in the Sanskrit
language.

Milindapanho: A dialogue between Milinda (Indo Greek ruler Menander) and Buddhist saint Nagasena.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 17
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-8

THE RISE OF TERRITORIAL KINGDOMS - MAHAJANAPADAS

● In the later Vedic period, the tribal organizations gradually shifted to the territorial identity, and the areas
of settlements were now regarded as janapadas or states.
● Aryans began migrating eastwards from about 1000 BCE.
● As they moved eastwards, they encountered thick forests. Iron played a significant role in the clearing of
the forest.
● The fertile soil of the Gangetic valley and the use of iron ploughshares improved agricultural productivity.
● Iron also played a big role in improving craft production such as pottery, carpentry and metal working.
● This in turn paved the way for Second Urbanization.
● In transition from tribal to monarchy, they lost the essential democratic pattern of the tribe but retained
the idea of government through an assembly representing the tribes.
● These states consisted of either a single tribe such as Shakyas, Kolias, Malas etc.
● Each janapada tried to dominate and subjugate other janapadas to become Mahajanapadas.
● In the meantime, a spirit of scepticism began to pervade questioning every custom and orthodoxy in the
belief system in the society leading to rise of new ideas and faiths.
● New heterodox religious sects that emerged during this period. Of the several alternate beliefs, only
Jainism and Buddhism touched the hearts of the people.
● The loyalty of the people shifted from jana (tribe or clan) to janapada (territory). Janapada literally meant
‘the place where the tribe sets its foot upon.’
● The janapadas fought with one another for resources and political dominance.
● Some janapadas extended their territories and brought various janas within their jurisdiction. Such
janapadas grew into mahajanapadas

Literary sources of this period:

● The epics Mahabharata and Ramayana.
● The dharmasastras.
● The Buddhist texts such as the Tripitakas and Jatakas.
● Jaina texts.
● The Greek accounts such as that of Arrian.

Archaeological excavations that corroborated the literary evidences.

● Iron objects such as hoes, sickles, knives, hooks, nails, arrowheads, vessels and mirrors confirm the
widespread use of iron technology.
● Textiles, beads, pottery, ivory objects, ceramics and glassware and artefacts of other metals are found.
● A large number of terracotta artefacts have also been found.
● Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery, considered luxury-ware and “urban hallmark” have been
excavated.
● Houses were built with mud bricks and in some cases with burnt bricks.
● Facilities such as drains, ring wells and soak-pits are found, confirming the second urbanization in the
Gangetic plains

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 18
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
Second Urbanisation after the first urbanisation of Harappan Civilization:
● Agricultural surplus.
● The growth of crafts and trade.
● Emergence of towns in the Gangetic plains.
● Political and administrative centres such as Rajgriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi and Champa.
● Centres of trade and commerce such as Ujjain and Taxila.
● Holy centres such as Vaishali

Political Organisation:
● The mahajanapadas represented the emergence of territorial kingdoms that ruled over people (jana).
● The king headed the government aided by a centralised administration.
● The king was also the sovereign ruler.
● The king levied taxes out of agricultural surplus and redistributed it and ensured maintenance of law and
order in a hierarchical society by force and coercion.
● These features marked the formation of state in the Gangetic plains.
● Vedic orthodoxy was an established practice in these kingdoms.
● The kingship was hereditary and the succession was in most cases based on the law of primogeniture.
● The king was assisted by councils called parishad and sabha.
● The councils were advisory in nature.
● Bali was a tax imposed based on the area of cultivable land.
● Bhaga was obtained as a share of the produce.
● Kara and Shulka were some of the other taxes collected during this period.

Social and economic life:

● The richer landowners were called grihapatis.
● These landowners employed labourers called dasas or karmakaras.
● The smaller landowners were known as kassakas or krishakas.
● The society was stratified on the basis of varna. It emerged as a marker of status.
● Cultivators and artisans were identified as the shudras.
● A new social category that emerged during this period was placed below the shudras in the social
hierarchy and considered untouchables.
● Untouchableswere forced to live on the fringes of the settlements and subsisted on hunting and
gathering their food.
● Untouchableswere were marginalised and given only menial jobs as urbanisation was on the rise.
● They had their own language, which was different from that spoken by the Indo-Aryans.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 19
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
Sixteen Mahajanapadas as per Puranic, Buddhist and Jaina traditions:

● Gandhara - Capital Taxila

● Kamboja - Capital Rajpur
● Asmaka - Capital Potana
● Vatsa - Capital Kausambi
● Avanti - Capital Ujjain
● Shurasena - Capital Mathura
● Chedi - Capital Shuktimati
● Malla - Capital Kushinara
● Kuru - Capital Hastinapur
● Panchala - Capital Kampilya, Ahichhatra
● Matsya - Capital Virat Nagari
● Vajji (Vrijji) - Capital Vaishali
● Anga - Capital Champa
● Kasi - Capital Banaras
● Kosala - Capital Shravasti
● Magadha - Capital Rajgriha

The mahajanapadas are classified as gana-sanghas and chiefdoms based on the nature of their polity.

Ganasanghas or oligarchies:
● These were centred on clans.
● The Vrijjis were one of the best known of the gana-sanghas, and Vaishali was their capital in the Mithila
region.
● These kingdoms did not come under the single decision-making authority of a king.
● Decisions were taken on a collective basis by the heads of the different clans together.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 20
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-9

RISE OF MAGADHA EMPIRE UNDER THE HARYANKAS,

THE SISUNAGAS AND THE NANDAS
● Between the 6th and the 4th centuries BCE, Magadha (in present day Bihar) became the most powerful
Mahajanapada.
● Among the 16 mahajanapadas, Kasi was initially powerful.
● However, Kosala became dominant later.
● A power struggle broke out between Magadha, Kosala, Vrijji and Avanti.
● Eventually Magadha emerged as the dominant mahajanapada and established the first Indian empire.

Causes of Magadha’s Success:

● Advantages of geographical location. Both Rajgir and Pataliputra situated at strategic Locations.
● Pataliputra was a true water fort (Jaladurga), and was not easy to capture.
● Abundance of natural resources, such as rich iron deposits situated near Rajgir.
● This enabled Magadhan rulers to equip with effective weapons.
● The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plains and sufficient rainfall were they conductive for agriculture
produces.
● Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce.
● The princess could levy tolls and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army.
● First to use of elephants on a large scale in its wars against neighbours.
● Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious rulers.
● Ambitious rulers and their policies.

The Haryankas:
Bimbisara: (542-493 BC)
● The first known ruler of Magadha was Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty.
● He extended the territory of Magadhan Empire by matrimonial alliances and conquests.
● He strengthened his position by marriage alliances.
● He took three wives. He also married the princesses of Lichchhavis and Madra.
● Marriage relations with the different princely families gave enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the
way for the expansion of Magadha westward and northward.
● By marrying off his sister to Prasenajit, ruler of Kosala, he received Kasi as dowry.
● The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir, which was called Girivraja at that time.
● It was surrounded by five hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides.
● This made Rajgir impregnable.
● Bimbisara patronised various religious sects and their leaders. He had an encounter with Buddha as well.

Ajatasatru: (492-460 BC)

● Ajatasatru killed his father Bimbisara and seized the throne.
● Throughout his reign, he pursued an aggressive policy of expansion.
● King Prasenajit took back Kasi, which he had handed out as dowry to Bimbisara.
● This led to a military confrontation between Magadha and Kosala.
● Kosala was then annexed to Magadha.
● He defeated the Lichchhavis and the Mallas.
Ajatashatru is also believed to have met Buddha in his lifetime.
21
●

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
Udayin: (460-444 BC)
● He built a fort upon the confluence of the Ganga and Son at Patna.
● This was done because Patna lay in the centre of the Magadhan kingdom.

The Sishunagas:
● Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty of Sisunagas, who temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali.
● Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of the Avanti with its capital at Ujjain.
● This brought to an end the 100 years old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.
● From now onwards Avanti became a part of the Magadha empire.

The Nandas:
● The Nandas became the emperors of Magadha in 362 BCE.
● The first Nanda ruler was Mahapadma.
● He usurped the throne by murdering the last of the Shishunaga kings.
● Mahapadma Nanda was succeeded by his eight sons, and they were together known as the navanandas
or the nine Nandas.
● Mahapadma Nanda claimed to be the ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling
princes
● An inscription known as the Hathigumpha (elephant cave) from Udayagiri near Bhubaneshwar, Odisha,
records the aqueduct built by King Nanda three hundred years earlier.
● The Hathigumpha inscription speaks of Kalinga as a part of the Nanda Empire
● This is also indicative of the geographical extent of the Nanda Empire.
● So great was their power that Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did not dare to move towards
the east.
● The Nandas added to the Magadha power by the conquering Kalinga from where they brought an image
of the Jina as a victory trophy.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 22
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-10

THE AGE OF THE MAURYAN DYNASTY

Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 B.C.):

● He established the Mauryan Empire and became its first emperor in 321 BCE
● Inspired by Alexander, Chandragupta led a revolt against the Nandas and dethroned the last Nanda ruler
Dhananand.
● Chandragupta was a youth living in Taxila when Alexander invaded India.
● Greek historians have recorded his name as “Sandrakottus” or “Sandrakoptus”.
● He first captured the region of North West.
● From the Junagadh rock inscription we come to know that Chandragupta had expanded his empire
westward as far as Gujarat.
● According to Apianus, in 305 BC Chandragupta Maurya defeated Selecus Nikator at the bank of river
Indus, who surrendered a vast territory including Aria (herat), Arachosia (Kandhar), Gedrosia (Baluchistan)
& Paropanisade (Kabul), in return for 500 elephants.
● After the treaty with Selecus Nikator, the boundary of empire reached up-to Hindukush.
● Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Selecus Nikator.
● Much of the information that we have about Chandragupta is through Indica, the account written by
Megasthenes.
● Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went to Chandragiri Hill, Sravanbelgola (Karnataka) with Bhadrabahu,
where he died by slow starvation.
● Under Chandragupta Maurya, for the first time, the whole of Northern India was united.
● Chandragupta was advised and aided by Chanakya, known for political manoeuvring, in governing his
empire.
● Chanakya, also known as Kautilya and Vishnugupta, was a Brahmin and a sworn adversary of the Nandas.
● Chanakya is the author of the Arthasastra, a treatise on political strategy and governance.
● Chankya’s intrigues and brilliant strategy to subvert the intended invasion of Magadha is the theme of the
play, Mudrarakshasa

Bindusara (298 –273 B.C.):

● Chandragupta’s son Bindusara succeeded him as emperor in 297 BCE in a peaceful and natural transition.
● He is known by different names like Madrasar, Simhasena and Amitrochates.
● King of Syria Antiochus I sent his ambassador Diamakus to the court of Bindusara.
● Bindusara patronized Ajivika sect.

Ashoka:
● According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka usurped the throne after killing his 99 brothers and spared Tissa,
the youngest one.
● Radhagupta, a minister of Bindusara helped him in fratricidal struggle and capture the throne.
● Ashoka formally crowned himself in 269 BC.
● The queens of Ashoka were Assandhimitta, Kaurvaki and Padmavati.
● Devi was his first love but she never got the status of queen.
● Under Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire reached its climax. For the first time, the whole of the sub-continent,
leaving out the extreme south, was under imperial control.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 23
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
● Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC, in the 9th years of his coronation.
● The King was moved by massacre in this war and therefore abandoned the policy of physical occupation
in favor of policy of cultural conquest.
● He became a Buddhist and his new-found values and beliefs were recorded in a series of edicts, which
confirm his passion for peace and moral righteousness or dhamma.
● Ashoka’s Dhamma was different from Buddhism.
● Dhamma propagated the tenets of tolerance as well as moral and ethical conduct.
● Its broad objective was to preserve the social order as with the expansion of Mauryan Empire the
population had become heterogeneous, diverse and multi-racial.
● It ordained that people should obey their parents, pay respect to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks and
show mercy to slaves and servants.
● He held that if people behaved well they would attain Swarga (heaven).
● Ashoka’s death was followed by the division of the Mauryan Empire into two partsWestern and Eastern.
● The Western part came to be ruled by Kunala and then by Samprati for a short while.
● Eastern part came to be ruled by Dasaratha.
● The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated in 185 BC by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra
Sunga, who established his own Sunga dynasty.

Ashokan Edicts:
● There are 33 edicts comprising 14 Major Rock Edicts, 2 known as Kalinga edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts, some
Minor Rock Edicts and a few Minor Pillar Inscriptions.
● The Major Rock Edicts extend from Kandahar in Afghanistan, Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra in northwest
Pakistan to Uttarakhand district in the north, Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west, Odisha in the east and
as far south as Karnataka and Kurnool district in Andhra Pradesh.
● Minor Pillar Inscriptions have been found as far north as Nepal (near Lumbini).
● Edicts were written on rocks & pillars.
● All pillar edicts are carved out of Chunar hills and from there they were dispatched at different places.
● The inscriptions are mostly in Prakrit language and Brahmi script.
● In the North - western region they are written in Prakrit language & Khroshti and Aramaic script.
● In Afghanistan they are written in Aramaic script and Greek language.
● At Shahbazgarhi and Manshera the script is Kharosthi.
● At Kandhar, the edicts found are bilingual.
● In Major rock edicts we find various principles of dhamma.
● In Minor rock edicts we find personal history of Ashoka & summary of his dhamma.
● In Pillar edicts we find appendix to rock edits.

Contents of Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka:

● Prohibition of animal sacrifices & festive gatherings.
● Measures of social welfare, medical mission sent everywhere.
● Respect to Brahamanas.
● Courtesy to relatives, elders, consideration for animals.
● Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras & their duties.
● Need for efficient organization of administration (orders to Dhamma Mahamatras).
● Need for tolerance among all religious sects. “All sects dwell in peace”.
● System of Dhamma-yatras.
● Attack on meaningless ceremonies & rituals.
● Conquest through Dhamma instead of war.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 24
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
● Explanation of Dhamma-policy.
● Appeal for tolerance among all religious sects.
● Kalinga war, mention five contemporary Hellenic (Greek) kings.
● Inspiration to spend religious life.

The names of Ashoka from different sources:

● Piyadassi - At Kandhar major rock edict.
● Devanampriyas Ashoka Rajas - At Gurjara minor rock edict.
● Ashoka - At Maski minor rock edict.
● Ashoka Maurya - At Rudradaman’s Junagarh rock edict.
● Piyadassi Raja - At Barabar cave inscription.

The Mauryan State and Polity:

● The Mauryan government was a centralized bureaucracy with the king as the fountainhead of all the
powers.
● He was assisted by the council of ministers i.e. mantri parishad.
● According to Kautilya, there are 7 elements of states (Saptanga theory):
● Raja (the king)
● Amatya (the secretaries)
● Janapada (territory)
● Durg (fort)
● Kosha (the treasure)
● Sena (Army)
● Mitra (Friend)
● The State during this period actively took part, as well as regulated trade and commerce.
● The officer's salary was paid in cash.
● The provinces were divided into districts which were known as Vish or Ahara
● The three officials mentioned in Ashokan edicts i.e. Yukta, Rajjuka and Pradeshika were associated with
the district administration.
● Gramika was the head of village Nagaraka was the chief officer responsible for the law and order in the
city.
● Megasthenese gives an account of the committee system of administering the municipalities in the cities.
● Sohgaura (Gorakhpur district, U.P.) copper plate inscription & Mahasthana (Bogara district, Bangladesh)
inscription deal with the relief measures to be adopted during a famine.

Military:
● Kautilya permitted all the four varnas to serve in the army.
● According to Pliny, Mauryas maintained an army of six lakh soldiers.
● Mauryans also maintained a Navy

Socio-Economic life under the Mauryas:

● State took active participation in economy.
● Shudras were involved in agriculture for the first time
● Crown land was called Sita.
● There were provisions for irrigation by the state.
● The normal taxation rate was one sixth of the produce.
● The weight and measures were regulated by the states.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 25
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
● Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale & they were collected at gate.
● The state enjoyed monopoly in mining, forest, salt, sale of liquor, manufacture of arms etc.
● The Arthasastra refers to the regions producing specialised textiles – Kasi (Benares), Vanga (Bengal),
Kamarupa (Assam), Madurai and many others.
● Stone work–stone carving and polishing– had evolved as a highly skilled craft. This expertise is seen in the
stone sculptures in the stupa at Sanchi and the highly polished Chunar stone used for Ashoka’s pillars.
● Each craft had a head called pamukha (pramukha or leader) and a jettha (jyeshtha or elder) and was
organised in a seni (srenior a guild).
● Disputes between srenis were resolved by a mahasetthi, and this ensured the smooth functioning of craft
production in the cities.
● In the Mauryan Empire, the silver coin known as pana and its sub-divisions were the most commonly used
currency

Art and Culture:

● Sanskrit language and literature were enriched by the work of the grammarian Panini (c. 500 BCE), and
Katyayana, who was a contemporary of the Nandas and had written a commentary on Panini’s work.
● The Arthasastra notes the performing arts of the period, including music, instrumental music, bards,
dance and theatre.
● Tibetan Buddhist text Divyavadana gives information about Ashoka and his efforts to spread Buddhism

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 26
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-11

PERSIAN AND MACEDONIAN INVASIONS

● The period from the sixth century witnessed close cultural contact of the north-west of India with Persia
and Greece.
● Gandhara and its adjoining regions on the Indus were part of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia.
● The region continued to be part of the Persian Empire till the invasion of Alexander the Great.
● Cyrus, the emperor of Persia, invaded India around 530 BCE and destroyed the city of Kapisha.
● The word “Hindu” appears for the first time in an inscription of Darius I at Persepolis, Iran. Darius lists
“Hindu” as part of his empire.
● The word “Sindhu”, denoting a river in general and Indus in particular, became “Hindu” in Persian.
● The Greeks dropped the S and called it Indu, which eventually came to be called Hindu and later India.
● Taxila city was brought to light by the excavation carried out in the 1940s by Sir John Marshall.
● Taxila is considered “one of the greatest intellectual achievements of any ancient civilization”.
● Panini seems to have compiled his wellknown work, Ashtadhyayi, here.

Impact of Persian Contact:

● The cultural impact was felt most in the Gandhara region.
● The most significant impact was the development of the Kharosthi script, used in the north-western part
of India.
● It was used by Ashoka in his inscriptions in the Gandhara region.
● The Kharosthi script was derived from Aramaic used widely in the Achaemenid Empire of Persia.
● Like Aramaic, Kharosthi was written from right to left.
● Persian sigloi (silver coin) is an imitation from the region. The Indian word for coin karsa is of Persian
origin.
● The Ashokan edicts use the term lipi instead of the Iranian term dipi.
● The Mauryan art and architecture show traces of Persian influence. Mauryan columns of the Ashokan
Pillar are similar to the columns found in the Achaemenid Empire.
● The bell-shaped capital of the columns, especially the lion capital of Sarnath pillar and the bell capital of
Rampurval pillar, show resemblance to designs of the Achaemenid columns.

Alexander’s invasion:
● During Dana Nanda’s reign, Alexander invaded north-west India (327–325 BCE).
● It marked the beginning of the interaction between India and the West
● In 326 BCE when Alexander entered the Indian subcontinent after defeating the Persians, Ambhi, the
ruler of Taxila, surrendered and accepted the suzerainty of Alexander.
● In the battle of Hydaspes, Alexander defeated Porus. Alexander restored his throne on the condition of
accepting his suzerainty.
● Alexander expressed his desire to march further east to attack the Magadha Empire (Nandas).
● However, his already tired troops refused to be engaged in a war against such a powerful adversary.
● During his return, Alexander died of typhoid in Babylon.
● Alexander’s invasion led to the establishment of Greek satrapies in the north-western region of the Indian
subcontinent.
● Trade routes opened up with the West.
● As trade contact increased, many Greek settlements were established in the northwest of India.
● Alexandria near Kabul, Boukephala near Peshawar in Pakistan and Alexandria in Sindh were some of the
prominent Greek settlements.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 27
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-12

POST MAURYAN PERIOD

With the downfall of Mauryas, the Indian sub-continent witnessed a rise of multiple regional kingdoms.

Unlike Mauryas, none of these regional kingdoms could extend their political authority over the large area
equivalent to that of Mauryan Empire.

Sunga dynasty: (185–73 B.C.)

● Sunga Dynasty was established by Pushymitra Sunga, a Brahmin Commander-in-Chief of last Mauryan
ruler named Brihadratha in 185 BC.
● The capital of Sungas was Videsa in modern Madhya Pradesh.
● Pushyamitra didn’t adopt any royal title and ruled with the name of Senani.
● He performed two horse sacrifices (Ashvamedha) and one of these was performed by Panini, the great
grammarian.
● During the reign of Sungas, there was a revival of Brahmanical influence. The Bhagavata religion became
important.
● The great Buddhist Stupa at Bharhut (in M.P.) was built during the reign of Sungas.
● The fine gateway railing which surrounds the Sanchi stupa, built by Ashoka, was constructed during the
Sunga period.
● Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra, the hero of Kalidasa’s drama ‘Malvikagnimitra’.
● The Greek king Antialcidas-I sent his ambassador named Herodotus to the court of Sungas.
● Herodotus constructed a pillar “Garudadhwaja” in the honor of God Vasudeva.
● After Agnimitra, a series of weak rulers such as Vasumitra, Vajramitra, Bhagabhadra, Devabhuti, followed,
leading the decline of the dynasty.

Kanva Dynasty: (73 to 28 B.C.)

● In 73 BC, Devabhuti, the last ruler of the Sunga dynasty, was murdered by his minister Vasudeva, who
usurped the throne and founded the Kanva dynasty.
● The dynasty was confined to Magadha only.
● The period of Kanva rule came to an end in28 BC when their kingdom was annexed by Satavahanas.

Chedi Dynasty:
● After Mauryas, the Chedi dynasty emerged in the Kalinga region, i.e. modern Odisha.
● The capital city of this dynasty was Sisupalgarh.
● The important ruler of this dynasty was Kharwela.
● Kharvela patronized Jainism and the Hatigumpha inscription gives a reference of his victories.

Satavahana Dynasty: (60 B.C. to 225 A.D.)

● Successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and Central India were the Satvahanas.
● The Satavahanas emerged in the first century BCE in the Deccan region.
● They ruled over parts of Andhra, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.
● Their capital was Pratishtana or Paithan while Bhrauch was a most important port city.
● The early Satvahana kings appeared not in Andhra but in Maharashtra but most of their early inscriptions
have been found in Andhra.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 28
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
● Simuka (60 BC – 37 BC) was the founder of the Satvahana dynasty. He was immediate successor of
Ashoka in this region.
● Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest of the Satavahana kings.
● He defeated the Shaka ruler Nahapana and reissued the coins of Nahapana with his own royal insignia.
● The inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri at Nashik mentions him as the conqueror of the Shakas,
Pahlavas, and Yavanas.
● He is also said to have performed the prestigious Vedic asvamedha sacrifice.
● Satakarni I, raised the power and prestige of the dynasty by conquests.
● He performed Vedic sacrifices.
● Vasishthiputra Pulumavi, the successor of Gautamiputra Satakarni, expanded the frontiers of the
Satavahana Empire.
● Yagnashri Satakarni was another famous ruler who issued coins with a ship motif, indicating the
importance of the overseas trade during his reign.
● Hala, its 17th ruler, was the author of ‘Gathasaptasati’ or, Sattasai in Prakrit. The text contains the love
lures.
● The Satavahana Empire declined around the 3rd century CE and was replaced by the Ikshvakus, followed
by the Pallavas, in Andhra and the Kadambas in northern Karnataka.
● They were succeeded by the Vakataka dynasty in Maharashtra.
● The Naneghat inscription refers to tax exemptions given to the lands granted to Buddhist monks under
the Satavahanas.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 29
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-13

CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS

The Indo-Greek kings:
● Indo-Greeks (Bacterian Greeks) were the first foreign rulers of North-Western India in the Post-Maurya
period.
● Demetrius II, was the first known Indo-Greek king (c. 175 BCE).
● He issued bi-lingual square coins with Greek on the obverse and Kharoshti (the local language of north-
western Pakistan) on the reverse.
● The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165 BC – 145 BC), also known as Milinda.
● His capital was Sialkot.
● He is mentioned in the famous Buddhist text Milind-Panaho.
● He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena or Nagarjuna.
● The Indo-Greek kings introduced the regular coinage in India in large number.
● Another Indo-Greek king was Antialcidas (or Antialkidas), c. 110. He sent his emissary Heliodorus , to the
court of King Bhagabhadra.
● Heliodorus erected a pillar or garudadhvaja with its capital adorned by a figure of Garuda, in honour of
God Krishna (Vasudeva).
● The pillar stands in isolation in the middle of a open ground in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.
● Heliodorus had evidently become a follower of Vishnu.
● The last Indo-Greek king was Hesatrius.
● The distinguishing feature of the reign of the Indo-Greek kings was their exquisite coinage. They carried
the portrait of the reigning king on one side with his name.
● Indian accounts of the period refer to the yavana invasion of Ayodhya (Saketa) and further east into the
Magadha territory.
● They ceded land to Pushyamitra, the Sunga emperor who had usurped the throne after the last Mauryan
ruler.
● At about 165 BCE, Bactria was lost to the Parthians and Sakas.

The Sakas:
● The Sakas were pushed back from eastern Iran by the Parthian ruler Mithradates (188–123 BCE).
● The Sakas, also known as Scythians, replaced the Indo-Greeks in India.
● They then turned to north-western India and finally settled in the region between the Indus valley and
Saurashtra.
● The first Saka ruler in India was Maues or Moa/Moga (20 BCE to 22 CE).
● His successor Azes destroyed the last remnants of the Indo-Greek kingdoms and extended Saka rule as far
as Mathura.
● The Sakas appointed kshatrapas or satraps as provincial governors to administer their territories.
● One of the most famous Saka rulers and kshatrapa in India was Rudradaman (130 AD -150 AD).
● He is famous not only for his military conquests but also for his public works.
● He repaired the famous Sudarsan lake of the Mauryan period and gave patronage to Sanskrit language.
● The Junagarh inscription in Gujarat is attributed to Rudradaman is first ever inscription written in Sanskrit.
● According to this inscription, he had even defeated the Satavahanas in battle.
● In about 58 BC a king of Ujjain, Vikramaditya – is supposed to have fought effectively against the Sakas.
An era called Vikrama Samvat is reckoned from 58 B.C.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 30
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
The Parthians:
● 1st Century BC to 1st Century AD
● Originally the Parthians (Pahlavas) lived in Iran.
● They replaced the Sakas in North-Western India, but controlled an area much smaller than the Sakas.
● Famous Parthian king was Gondaphernes in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have come to India from
Israel for the propagation of Christianity.

The Kushans:
● 1st to 3rd Century A.D.
● The Kushans were one of the five Yeu-chi clans of Central Asia.
● They replaced the Parthians in North-Western India and then expanded to the lower Indus basin and the
upper and middle Gangetic basin.
● The Kushans controlled famous silk route starting from China, passing through their empire on to Iran &
Western Asia.
● The dynasty was founded by Kadphises I or Kujul Kadhphises.
● The Kushans were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a wide scale.
● The second king was Kadphises II or Vema Kadphises was the first king who issued the gold coins.
● The most famous Kushan ruler was Kanishka (78 AD – 101 AD), also known as ‘Second Ashoka’.
● He started an era in 78 AD which is now known as the Saka era and is used officially by the Government
of India.
● The empire of Kanshika was spread over a large area in the portion of five countries i.e. Russia,
Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan and India.
● His capital was Peshawar.
● Kanishka was a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism.
● In his reign 4th Buddhist council was held in Kundalavana, Kashmir where the doctrines of the Mahayana
form of Buddhism were finalized.
● Kanishka patronized various scholars like Nagarjuna, Ashvagosha, Vasumitra, Parsava, & Charaka.
● Large size headless statue of Kanishka is found at Mathura.

Art and Culture:

● The Greek influence led to an Indo-Greek style of sculpture and art commonly referred to as Gandhara
art.
● Statues of Buddha, sculpted particularly in Taxila and the north-western regions, show him in graceful
garments, surrounded by cherubs and leaves inspired by the Greek tradition.
● The Buddhists began to carve out rock caves in the hills of western India, which served as religious
centres with chaityas and viharas, stretching from the Ajanta caves to the Kanheri caves in Mumbai.
● Large statues of Buddha were sculpted in these caves as a part of the Mahayana tradition.
● Kanishka was the patron of Buddhist philosophers such as Asvaghosha, Parsva and Vasumitra, as well as
the great Buddhist teacher Nagarjuna.
● Asvaghosha is known for his Buddhacharita and is celebrated as the author of the first Sanskrit play,
Sariputraprakarana, in nine acts.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 31
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-14

THE LIFE IN THE GUPTA AGE

● In the period from c. 300 to 700 CE, the Gupta kingdom emerged as a great power and achieved the
political unification of a large part of the Indian subcontinent.
● After the decline of Mauryas, it was the Gupta dynasty in Magadha which was able to carve a large
empire.
● The founder of the dynasty was Sri Gupta (240–280 CE). He used the simple title of Maharaja.
● Sri Gupta was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha (280–319 CE).

Literary sources for reconstructing the history of the Gupta period

● Narada, Vishnu, Brihaspati and Katyayana smritis.
● Kamandaka’s Nitisara, a work on polity addressed to the king (400 CE)
● Devichandraguptam and Mudrarakshasam by Vishakadutta.
● Works of Kalidasa.
● Accounts of the Chinese traveler Fahien.
● Mricchakatika by Sudraka.
● Katha Sagar Sarita by Somdev.
● Swapnavasavadattam by Bhasa

Epigraphical Sources for reconstructing the history of the Gupta period :

● Allahabad pillar of Samudragupta.
● Paharpur copper plates of Buddhagupta.
● Poona copper plate of Prabhavatigupta.

Chandragupta-I:
● He was the first Gupta ruler to assume the title of Maharajadhiraja.
● He started the Gupta era i.e. 320 A.D.
● He strengthened his kingdom by matrimonial alliance with the powerful family of Lichchhavis who were
the rulers of Mithila.
● After marriage he issued a special type of coins called “Chandragupta I-kumaradevi type”.
● Chandragupa I was able to establish his authority over Magadha, Prayaga & Saketa.

Samudragupta (335 – 380 A.D.)

● Samudragupta was the greatest king of the Gupta dynasty.
● He took the title Licchichividhutra as his mother was Licchichivi princess.
● The most detailed and authentic record of his reign is preserved in the Prayaga Prasasti (Allahabad pillar
inscription), composed by his court poet Harisena.
● He is also described as a monarch with sharp intellect and polished poetry skills, for this he is described as
Kaviraj.
● In the Gangetic Valley & Central India, Samudragupta annexed the territories of the defeated monarchs,
but in South India he remained content with victories alone- he did not annex the territories of the
conquered rulers.
● Smudragupta’s military campaigns justify the description of him as the ‘Napoleon of India’ by V.A. Smith.
● Samudragupta was a Vaishnavite.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 32
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
● Meghavarna, king of Sri Lanka, sent an embassy to Samudragupta for his permission to build a monastery
for Buddhist pilgrims at Bodh Gaya. The permission was granted.
● He held the titles of:
○ Kaviraja i.e. king of poets (Prayaga Prasasti).
○ Param Bhagavat (Nalanda copper plate).
○ Ashvamedha-parakrama i.e. whose might was demonstrated by the horse-sacrifice (coin).
○ Vikram i.e. prowess (coin).
○ Sarva-raj-ochcheta i.e. up rooter of all kings (coin) etc.
○ Only Gupta ruler whose title was Sarva-raj-ochechhetta.

Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya): (380 - 414 A.D.)

● Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta.
● Ramgupta ruled for a very short period. He was ‘the only Gupta ruler to issue copper coins’.
● Chandragupta II extended the limits of empire by matrimonial alliances (with the Nagas & Vakatakas) and
conquests (Western India).
● He married Kubernaga of Naga dynasty and married his own daughter Prabhavatigupta with Vakataka
prince Rudrasena II.
● As a result of the overthrow of Saka rule in Western India, the Gupta Empire was
● extended up to the Arabian Sea.
● He issued the silver coins in the memory of victory over Sakas.
● He was the first Gupta ruler to issue silver coins and adopted the titles Sakari & Vikramaditya.
● Ujjain was made the second capital by Chandragupta II.
● Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien visited India during his regime.
● Mehrauli (near Qutub Minar, Delhi) Iron Pillar inscription says that the king defeated the confederacy of
Vangas and Vahikas (Bulkh).

Navaratna (i.e. Nine Gems) of Chandragupta II were:

● Kalidasa.
● Amarsinh (Amarsinhkosha).
● Dhanavantri (Navanitakam - related to medicine)
● Varahamihira (Panch Sidhantaka, Vrihatsamhit, VrihatJataka, Laghu lataka)
● Vararuchi (Vartika-a comment on Ashtadhyayi)
● Ghatakarna
● Kshapranak
● Velabhatt
● Shanku

Kumaragupta I: (415-455 AD)

● Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I.
● He took the titles like Mahindraditya, Mahendra Sinh, & Ashvamedha Mahendrah.
● Kumaragupta was the worshipper of god Kartikeya.
● He founded the Nalanda Mahavihara which developed into a great centre of learning.
● Towards the end of his reign, the Gupta Empire was threatened from the North by the Huns, which was
temporarily checked by his son Skandagupta.
● Pusyamitra invaded the Guptan region during the reign of Kumaragupta I.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 33
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
Skandagupta: (455 AD - 467 AD)
● The last great ruler of the Gupta dynasty.
● During his reign the Gupta Empire was invaded by the Huns.
● He succeeded in defeating the Huns.
● Success in repelling the Huns was celebrated by the assumption of the title ‘Vikramaditya’ (Bhitari Pillar
Inscription).
● The continuous attacks of the Huns weakened the empire and adversely affected its economy.
● The gold coinage of Skandagupta bears testimony to this.
● The decline of the empire began soon after his death.
● Titles taken were Vikramaditya and Kramaditya (coins), Param Bhagavat (coins),
● Sharkropama (Kahaum Pillar Inscription), Devaraja (Arya Manjushri Mula Kalpa) etc.

Gupta Polity:
● The Gupta administration was similar to that of Mauryas, however it differed in the degree of
centralization.
● For the first time the post of officers became hereditary.
● Unlike the Mauryan period the district and local officials were not appointed by the centre but at the
provincial level.
● Gupta administration was highly decentralized.
● It comprised a network of self-governing tribes and tributary kingdoms and their chiefs often served as
representatives of imperial powers.
● The Gupta king took exalted titles like the Mahadhiraja, Samrat, Ekadhiraja,
● Chakravartin, befitting their large empire and imperial status.

Religion:
● This was the period of evolution of Vajraynism and Buddhist tantric cults.
● Idol worship became a common feature of Hinduism from Gupta period onwards

Economic Life:
● In the Gupta period land survey is evident from the Poona plates of Prabhavati Gupta and many other
inscriptions.
● An officer named Pustapala maintained records of all land transactions in the district.
● The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in ancient India, but in gold content, Gupta coins are
not as pure as Kushanas.
● The Guptas also issued good number of silver coins for local exchange.
● The Gupta copper coins are very few as compared to Kushanas, which show that use of money was not
the medium of exchange for the common people.
● Gupta period witnessed decline in long distance Indo-Roman trade.
● The trade with South-East Asia got an impetus.
● The ports of the East coast were Tamralipti, Ghantashala and Kandura.
● The ports on the western coast were located at Bharoach, Chaul, Kalyan and Cambay.
● The institution of slavery tended to become weak during this period.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 34
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
Art and Culture:
● Idol worship came into being as a result the practice of free standing temples started for the first time.
● The Nagara Style of architecture evolved during this period.
● The temples with shikhara and garbhagriha (shrine room) in which the image of the god was placed,
began during this period.

The examples of temple during this period are:

■ Dasavatara temple of Deogarh (Jhansi distric, UP)
■ Siva temple of Bhumra (Nagod, MP)
■ Vishnu and Kankali temple (Tigawa, MP)
■ Parvati temple of Nanchana-Kuthwa (Panna district, MP)
■ Shiva temple of Khoh (Satna, Panna, MP)
■ Krishna brick temple of Bhittargaon (Kanpur, UP)
■ Laxman temple of Sirpur (Raipur, MP)
■ Vishnu temple and Varah temple of Eran (MP).

● The art of paintings and rock cut caves architecture also reached to the finest level.
● Example of these are rock cut caves at Ajanta, Ellora (in Maharashtra) and Bagh (MP).
● The frescoes of the Ajanta caves are the masterpieces of the paintings of this age.
● The centres of the Gandhar sculptures declined and their places were taken by Benaras, Patliputra and
Mathura.
● For the first time we get images of Vishnu, Shiva and other Gods.
● Among the best specimens of the images of Buddha is a seated Buddha image of Sarnath, which depicts
the Buddha preaching the Dhamma.
● Of the Brahmanical images perhaps the most impressive is the Great Boar (Varah) carved in relief at the
entrance of a cave at Udayagiri.

The six philosophies of Hinduism were compiled during this period:

Year of
Philosophy Authors OriginalBook Theme
Beginning

It is a logical quest for God. It tells that the

Nyaya Gautama 6th BC Nyaya Sutra material power Maya, with the help of God,
becomes the universe.

It aims is to receive happiness in this life and

th
Vaisheshika
Vaisheshika Kanada 6 BC finally ultimate liberation through the
Sutra
attachment of true knowledge of Divine.

It explains that the aim of Sankhya is to

Sankhya Kapila 6th BC Sankhya Sutra eliminate all kinds of physical and mental pains
and to receive liberation.

Maharishi It has 4 chapters and accepts three kinds of

Yoga 2nd BC Yoga Sutra
Patanjali evidences for determining the aim of life.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 35
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

It is condensed explanation of Vedic theme

Purva Purva Mimamsa
Jaimini 4th BC and at the same time, the classification of its
Mimansa Sutra
issues.

It explains that Brahma Sutra is for that person

Vedanta
Maharishi Uttara who has a real deep desire to know God. True
(Uttara 4th BC
Vyasa Mimamsa Sutra liberation could only be attained by lovingly
Mimansa)
surrendering to Him.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 36
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad

Chapter-15

HARSHAVARDHANA AND HIS TIMES

 North India splintered into several warrior kingdoms after the downfall of the Gupta Empire.
 Maithriyas had organised a powerful state in Sourashtra (Gujarat), with Valabhi as their capital.
 Agra and Oudh were organised into an independent and sovereign state by the Maukharis.
 The Vakatakas had recovered their position of ascendency in the western Deccan.
 Thaneswar, lying north of Delhi between Sutlej and Yamuna, was formed into an independent state by
Pushyabhutis.
 It rose to prominence under Harsha.
 Harsha ruled the kingdom as large as that of the Guptas from 606 to 647 CE
 The founder of the Vardhana dynasty was Pushyabhuti who ruled from Thaneswar.
 With the accession of Prabakara Vardhana (580–605 CE), the Pushyabhuti family became strong and
powerful.
 He gave his daughter Rajyasri in marriage to the Maukhari king, Grahavarman, of Kanauj (near modern
Kanpur).
 Rajavardhana (605-606 CE), the eldest son of Prabhakaravardhana, ascended the throne after his father’s
death.
 He was treacherously murdered by Sasanka, the Gauda ruler of Bengal.
 This resulted in his younger brother Harsha-vardhana becoming the king of Thanesar.

Harshavardhana:
● As Thanesar was too close to the threats from the northwest, he shifted his capital from Thanesar to
Kanauj.
● Harsha entered into an alliance with the king of Kamarupa (Pragiyaotisha), which is today the modern
Assam.
● Harsha subjugated the Gauda Empire, which included Magatha, Gouda, Odra and Kongoda only after the
death of Sasanka.
● Harsha had cordial relations with China. The contemporary T’ang emperor, Tai Tsung, sent an embassy to
his court in 643 and again in 647 CE.
● Bhaga, Hiranya and Bali were the three kinds of tax collected during Harsha’s reign.
● Bhaga was the land tax paid in kind. One-sixth of the produce was collected as land revenue. Hiranya was
the tax paid by farmers and merchants in cash.
● Mimamsakas were appointed to dispense justice. Banishment and the cutting of limbs of the body were
the usual punishments.
● The empire was divided into several provinces.
● Each province was divided into Bhuktis. And each Bhukti was divided into several Vishayas.
● Harsha was a worshipper of Siva. But he embraced Buddhism under the influence of his sister Rajyasri
and the Buddhist monk Hieun Tsang.
● He subscribed to the Mahayana school of thought.
● Harsha summoned two Buddhist assemblies (643 CE), one at Kanauj and another at Prayag.
● Harsha convened quinquennial assemblies known as Mahamoksha Parishad at Prayag (at the confluence
of the Ganges and Yamuna). Here he distributed his wealth among Buddhists, Vedic scholars and the poor
people.
● Bana, the author of Harshacharita and Kadambari, was a court poet of Harsha.
● Harsha wrote plays such as Priyadarsika, Rathnavali and Nagananda.
Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 37
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD
 21st Century IAS, Hyderabad
Hieun Tsang:
● The Chinese pilgrim, spent nearly 13 years in India (630–643 CE), collecting sacred texts and relics which
he took back to China.
● He was known as the “prince of pilgrims” because he visited important pilgrim centres associated with
the life of Buddha.
● His Si-Yu-Ki provides detailed information about the social, economic, religious and cultural conditions
during the reign of Harsha.
● Hieun Tsang spent about five years in the University of Nalanda and studied there.
● Harsha admired him for his deep devotion to Buddha and his profound knowledge of Buddhism
● After the death of Harsha, the Pratiharas (Jalore-Rajasthan), the Palas (Bengal) and the Rashtrakutas
(Deccan) engaged in a triangular contest for the control of the Ganga–Yamuna doab and the lands
adjoining it.
● The Palas controlled vast areas of the eastern Gangetic Plain.

Ph : 04035052121, 9133237733 38
https://telegram.me/IAS21stcenturyHYD