B. Ed. Spl. Ed. (M. R. / H. I. / V.

I)-
ODL Programme

AREA - C
C - 15 : TECHNOLOGY AND
EDUCATION OF THE VISUALLY IMPAIRED

A COLLABORATIVE PROGRAMME OF
NETAJI SUBHAS OPEN UNIVERSITY
AND
REHABILITATION COUNCIL OF INDIA

1
 AREA - C
DISABILITY SPECIALIZATION
COURSE CODE - C-15 (V.I.)
TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION OF THE VISUALLY IMPAIRED
Chairman Prof. Subha Sankar Sarkar,
Vice Chancellor,
Netaji Subhas Open University, Kolkata-64

Convenor Prof. Atindranath Dey,

Director,
School of Education,
Netaji Subhas Open University, Kolkata-64
Course Writers
Unit - 1 Mrs. Sohini Ghosh

Unit - 2 Mrs. Sohini Ghosh

Unit - 3 Mr. Pankaj Saha

Unit - 4 Mr. Pankaj Saha

Unit - 5 Mr. Pankaj Saha

Editor Mr. Sunil Baran Pattanayak

Processing
General and Format Editing Ms. Antara Choudhury

In-house Processing In-charg Ms. Swapna Deb

The Self Instructional Material (SIM) is prepared keeping conformity with the B.Ed.Spl.
Edn.(MR/HI/VI) Programme as prepared and circulated by the Rehabilitation Council of India, New
Delhi and adopted by NSOU on and from the 2015-2017 academic session.

All rights reserved. No part of this work can be reproduced in any form without the written
permission from the NSOU authorities.
Mohan Kumar Chattopadhyay
Registrar
 Netaji Subhas Open University

From the Vice-Chancellor's Desk

Dear Students, from this Academic Session (2015-17) the Curriculum and Course
Structure of B. Ed.- Special Education have been thoroughly revised as per the
stipulations which featured in the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between the
Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) and the National Council for Teacher Education
(NCTE). The newly designed course structure and syllabus is comprehensive and
futuristic has, therefore, been contextualized and adopted by NSOU from the present
academic session, following the directives of the aforesaid national statutory authorities.
Consequent upon the introduction of new syllabus the revision of Self Instructional
Material (SIM) becomes imperative. The new syllabus was circulated by RCI for
introduction in the month of June, 2015 while the new session begins in the month of
July. So the difficulties of preparing the SIMs within such a short time can easily be
understood. However, the School of Education of NSOU took up the challenge and put
the best minds together in preparing SIM without compromising the standard and quality
of such an academic package. It required many rigorous steps before printing and
circulation of the entire academic package to our dear learners. Every intervening step
was meticulously and methodically followed for ensuring quality in such a time bound
manner.
The SIMs are prepared by eminent subject experts and edited by the senior members
of the faculty specializing in the discipline concerned. Printing of the SIMs has been
done with utmost care and attention. Students are the primary beneficiaries of these
materials so developed. Therefore, you must go through the contents seriously and
take your queries, if any, to the Counselors during Personal Contact Programs (PCPs)
for clarifications. In comparison to F2F mode, the onus is on the learners in the ODL
mode. So please change your mind accordingly and shrug off your old mindset of
teacher dependence and spoon feeding habits immediately.

3
 I would further urge you to go for other Open Educational Resources (OERs) -
available on websites, for better understanding and gaining comprehensive mastery
over the subject. From this year NSOU is also providing ICT enabled support services
to the students enrolled under this University. So, in addition to the printed SIMs, the
e-contents are also provided to the students to facilitate the usage and ensure more
flexibility at the user end. The other ICT based support systems will be there for the
benefit of the learners.
So please make the most of it and do your best in the examinations. However, any
suggestion or constructive criticism regarding the SIMs and its improvement is welcome.
1 must acknowledge the contribution of all the content writers, editors and background
minds at the SoE, NSOU for their respective efforts, expertise and hard work in producing
the SIMs within a very short time.

Professor (Dr.) Subha Sankar Sarkar

Vice-Chancellor, NSOU
 B. Ed. Spl. Ed (M. R. / H. I. / V. I)-
ODL Programme

AREA - C
C-15 : TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION OF THE
VISUALLY IMPAIRED

5
 First Edition : February, 2018

Printed in accordance with the regulations of the

DEB-UGC, Government of India
 AREA - C
Netaji Subhas Open C-15 (V.I.) : TECHNOLOGY
University AND EDUCATION OF THE
VISUALLY IMPAIRED

C - 15 ❐ TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION OF THE

VISUALLY IMPAIRED

UNIT - 1 : INTRODUCING EDUCATIONAL AND INFORMATION

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY 9-36

UNIT - 2 : ADAPTIVE TECHNOLOGIES 37-66

UNIT - 3 : ACCESS TO PRINT FOR THE VISUALLY IMPAIRED 67-95

UNIT - 4 : ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE VISUALLY

IMPAIRED WITH REFERENCE TO SCHOOL-SUBJECTS
AND LOW VISION 96-119

UNIT - 5 : COMPUTER-AIDED LEARNING 120-151

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Unit-1 q Introducing
Educational and Information
Communication Technology
Structrue :
1.1. Introduction :
1.2. Objective :
1.3. Educational Technology–Concept, Importance & Scope
1.3.1 Concept of Educational Technology
1.3.2 Importance of Educational Technology
1.3.3 Scope of Educational Technology
1.4. Difference Between Educational Technology and Technology in Education
1.5. Special Significance and Goals of Technology for the Education of Children
with Visual Impairment
1.5.1 Significance of Technology for the Education of Children with Visual
Impairment
1.5.2 Goal of Technology for the Educational of Children with Visual
Impairment
1.6. Information and Commuication Technology (ICT)–Concept and Special
Significance for Teaching–Learning of the Visully Impaired
1.6.1 Concept of ICT
1.6.2 Significance of ICT for Teaching-Learning of the Visullay Impaired
1.7. ICT and the un Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilites
1.8. Let Us Sum Up
1.9. Check Your Progress
1.10. References

1.1 Introduction
Technology in the form of adaptive ans assistive devices, plays a crucial role in
the education of the visully impaired. This course brings into sharp focus the need and
importance of such technology both for the practicing teachers and the visually

9
imparied learners. While highlighting the significance of addressing the users point of
view/feedback and involving mainstream professionals in developing required
technologies, the course also dwells upon how best students with visual impairment
get access to the printed text/material. The course also acquaints the student-teachers
with various devices for making the teaching-learning process for important school
subjects meaningful, exciting and rewarding for all concerned. The educational needs
of children with low vision and related technological perspectives are addressed, too,
along with critical contributions of computer-aided learning and interventions.

1.2. Objective :
After the cmpletion of the Unit, learners would be able to–
● Acquire knoledge about the Importance and Scope of Educational Technology.
● Diffentiate between Educational Technology and Technology in Education.
● Understand the importance of Technology for the Educastion of children with
Visual Impairment;
● Relate the Concept and Nature of Educational Technology and ICT to the
Education of Children with Visual Impairment;
● Evaluate concepts of ICT on the basis of the UN Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities.

1.3. Educational Technology–concept, importance & scope

Modern age is the age of science and technology. The world of today is very
dynamic. The life of man in the primitive age was altogether different from his life
in the sputnik age. There have been tremendous changes in the life style of human
beings which may be attributed to the contribution of science and technology, science
has extended the forntiers of our knowledge in varouos wasy and directions. Science
is considered to be a blessing to be a blessing to the mankind.
Nothing better has happened than the adent of science in man’s life. The
contribution of science and technology has been experienced in almost all the spheres
of human life including education.
Before understanding the meaning of educational technoloyg, it is essential to know
the meaning of technology. The word ‘Technology’ derived from Greek word
(techniques) which means an art which is related with skill and dexterity.

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1.3.1 Concept of Educational Technology
Education technology cannot be taken as a synonym to audio-visual aids, and
technology in education emphasizes the concept of service, i.e. the use of different
equipment, gadgets and mass media. It must mean technology of education presenting
itself as a system for bringing improvement in the total process of teaching-learning
by carefully analyzing its problems and obtaining the optimum results. Educational
technology cannot be viewed in terms of its part of precesses. Instructional technology,
teaching technology, behaviour technology, programmed learning, micro-teaching,
system analysis, management of teaching-learning, teacher or pupil’s bahaviour, etc. are
all its constituents and resources.
● Definitions : Educational Technoloyg is the systematic application of scientific
knowledge about taching-learning and condition of learning to improve the efficiency
of teaching and training. (Leith, 1967).
Educational Technology can be conceived as science of teachniques and methods
by which educational objectives could be realized. (Mitra, 1968)
Educational Technology can be defined as the application of the laws as well as
the recent discoveries of science and technology to the process of education.
(Kulkurni, 1969)
Educational Technology is concerned with the application of modern skill and
techniques to requirements of educational training. This includes facilitation of learning
by manipulation of media and methods, and the control of environment is so far as
this reflects on learning. (Unwin, 1969)
Educational Technology is concerned with problmes of education and training
context and it is charecterized by the disciplined and systematic apporach to the
organization of resources for learning. (Davis, 1971)
Educational Technology is concerned with providing appropriately designed
learning situations which, holding the view of objecties to teaching or training, brings
to bear the best means of instruction. (Richmond, 1979)
Educational Technology has to be seenas a part of a persistence and complex
endeavor of bringing pupils, teachers and technical means together is an effective way.
(Ford Foundation Team, 1971)
These definitions initailly encompass the whole range of educational technology
activities from the analytic methods of psychology of learning and teaching the audio-
visual communication and mass media technology. The view propagated by these
definitions may help us to conclude about the meaning and nature of educational
technology as follows :

11
 ● Educational technology is concerned with the systematic application of science
and technology in the field of education and thus maybe defned as the application
of technology to education in order to further the case of the latter.
● Just as science and technology help in carrying out the practical task in general,
educational technology helps in providing efficiency to the task of teaching and
learning.
● Educational technology provides technical guidance and solution to the problems
of education.
● Teaching is communication and educational technology can play an effective role
in the communication between teacher and student.
● Educational technology encompasses the total teaching and learning process
involving the elements like the following :
➧ Specification of goals and behavioral objectives.
➧ Analysis of the characteristics of learner.
➧ Selection and organization of the content or subject matter to be learned.
➧ Methods and strategies of the presentation of the content.
➧ Use of aid-materials, software and hardware, mass media and communication
technquies.
➧ Effective arrangement of learning situation and learning environment.
➧ Effective classroom control and management.
➧ Continuous feedback and evaluation of the result.
● Educational technology is not limited to the use of audio-visual and does not
symbolize merely educational hardware such as sophisticated gadgets and
mechanical devices used in education. For the effective management of the total
teaching learning process it tends to utilize the results of all goods, experiments
and researches in the field of human laerning and the art of communication and
employs a combination of all possible human and non-human resourdces to
achieve the desired educational objectives.
In brief, eucational technology should stand for a wide application of the available
human and non-human resources for providing appropirate solution to the educational
problems and to improve the process and proudcts of education.
Characteristics Of Educational Technology :
●

Characteristics of Educational Technology are as follows :

● It is based on scientific and technological advancements.

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 ● It is more a practical discipline and less a theoretical one.
● It is a fast growing modern discipline.

● It makes use of the research findings of psychology, sociology, engineering,

sciences and social psychology etc. and applies the same to the field of education.
● It brings pupils, teachers and technical means together in an effective way.

● It is the science of techniques and methods. It locates the problems in the field
of education, remedies them and ultimately aims at improving the education
system.
● It is bound to improve the teacher, the learner and the teaching learning process.

● Nature of Educational Technology :

● The basis of educational technology is science.

● Educational Technology studies the effect of science and technology upon
education. In other words, science and technology are used under educational
technology. Hence, it is the practical aspect of science.
● Educational Technology is a continuous, dynamic, progressive and effect-
producing method.
● New conceptions are possible only due to educational technology such as
programmed learning, micro-teaching, simulated teaching, interaction analysis,
video-tape, tape-recorder, projector and computer, etc.
● Educational Technology accepts schools as a system. In this system, the
school-building, furniture and teachers act as input while various methods,
techniques, strategies and the teaching and examination with the help of
audio-visual aids function in th from of a process. Lastly, the output is in
of form of ability of the pupils.
● Audio-visual aids cannot be termed as educational technology. It is because
its concern is only with the process-aspect of educational technology and not
with the input and output aspects. But if these A.V. aids are used to achieve
educatioanal objectives, then it can be put in the category of Educational
Technology.
● Progrmmed Instruction is also different from Educational Technology. Its
main causes are that the student learns himself during the programmed
instructions. It does not allow interaction between pupil and teacher.
Hence, it can be used only for limited objectives and limited subject-matter.
Therefore, programmed instruction is merely a part of educational technology.
● Engineering Technology is not the educational technology because the engineering
technology has manufactured radio, tape-recorder, video-tape and T.V., etc.,
which are used in teachers as audio--visual aids, but still engineering technology

13
 is different from educational technology. In education, it is accepted as hardware
approach only.
● Educational Technology cannot solve each and every problem of education. It can
be used successfully in teaching and instructional system only.
● Some people assume that educational technology will replace the teacher which
will make the teacher unemployed one day. It is their mistake. Educational
technology can never replace the teacher. It is because of three aspects of
educational technology. These are 1. Input, 2. Process and 3. Output. Input is the
teacher’s job and therefore, edcational technology cannot snatch the place of a
teacher. In spite of this, educational technology develops cognitive domain only
and not the affective domain. Affective domain can only be developed when an
interaction between teachers and pupils takes place. Hence, educational technology
cannot replace the teacher.
● Objectives of Educational Technology :
Educational technology, in the capacity of technology of education, provides
valuable help in the total teaching-learning process for achieving the possible results
in an economic way through the availabe human and non-human resources. In this
respect, the major objectives of education technology can be summarized as follow :
Objectives at the Macro Level
In view of the broad educational goals. i.e., the macro level, the objectives of
educational technology can be listed in the following way :
● To identify educational needs/aspiration of the community.

● To determine the aims of education, broad strategies and structure of education.

● To develop a sustainable curriculum with interaction with science, at and human

values.
● To identify man-material resources and strategies for achieving the stipulated
aims of education.
● To develop certain models leading to improvement of the process of teaching and
learning.
● To develop the appropriate aids and equipment to meet the educational purposes.

● To identify the major constraints in the environment and the ways and means to
tackle those.
● To help in extending educational opportunities to the masses especially the
neglected section of the community.
● To manage the whole educational system covering planning, implementation and
the evaluation phases.
Objectives at the Micro Level

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 In view of specific classroom teaching i.e., the micro level, the objectives of
educational technology are as follows :
● To identify and analyze the charcteristics and educational needs of the pupils.
● To determine the specific classroom objectives and state them in behavioural
terms.
● To analyze the contents of instruction and organize it in proper sequence.
● To identify the available teaching-learning materials and resources.
● To identify the nature of the interaction of the sub-systems like students, teachers,
teaching-leaning materials, content of instruction and methodologies.
● To plan the teaching strategies and utilize the man-material resources for
achieving specific classroom objectives.
Approaches of Educational Technology :
Educational Technology or hardware approach

This type of educational technology has its origin in physical science and
engineering and is based on the concept of service, i.e., using technology in education
(Silverman 1968). While teaching in a big hall, teacher uses a microphone for making
his voice audible, he may be said to approach such type of education technology for
making his teaching effective. Such type of mechanical and teaching revolution has
almost mechanized the teaching-learning process. Almost all the mateirals and
equipment of hardware approach originally belong in areas other than education and
are being borrowed and utilized for educational pruposes.
Educational Technology II. or Software approach

Psychology of learning provided solid technology for bringing the desirable

behaviour changes in the students and thus serves the cause of education by laying
down definite instructional procedure, teaching behaviour and behaviour modification
devices. The second type of educational technology is sometimes referred to as
instructional technology, teaching technology or behavioural technology. This type of
technology tries to adopt a process-oriented tachnique for production of suitable
teaching learning mateiral, teaching-learning stratageis, and evaluating techniques for
the optimum results in the process of teaching and learning. Educational technology
basically stands for the techniques of developing and utilizing software and, that is why,
it is referred to as the software approach. The materials, such as programed material
and teaching-learning strategies based on psychology of learning are usually known as
software and the equipment and gadgets are called hardware.

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 Distinction between hardware and software technologies :
Hardware technology Software technology
Hardware technology has its origin in Software technology has its origin in
physical sciences and applied engineering. behavioural sciences and their applied
aspects concerning psychology of learning.
It is more oncerned with the production and It makes use of psychology of learning for
utilization of audio-visual aid material and the production and utlization of software
sophisticated instruments, and mass media techniques and materials in terms of
learning for the helping the teacher and learning materials, teaching learning
learners in their task. strategies, and other devices for smoothing
the task of teaching learning.
It tries to adopt product-oriented approach. It tries to adopt process-oriented technique
What is produced through software or approach for the production of teaching-
technology in the shape of teaching-learning learning material. What is produced here
material and strategy gets utilized by the is made available for beign used by the
hardware instruments and gadgets for hardware appliances.
effective teaching-learning.

Educational Technology III. or System Approach

This type of educational technology is related to the concept of system engineering
which owes its origin to computer science. It represents the latest concept in
educational technology of education. This systems approach takes education as a
system having a set of inputs which are subjected to a process, design to produce
certain outputs which are intended tomeet the stipulated objectives of the system. Thus,
in system approach, one has to make a continuous comparison of the different roles
played by man, machine and media in a system of education and develop an appropriate
instructional design and strategy in relation to the stipulated objecties.

1.3.2 Importance of Educational Technology

Keeping an eye over such broad concepts of educational technology, one is able
to map out the areas of its operation in terms of topic or aspects covered through its
study or application. In brief, they may be summarzed as below :
● Analysis of the process of teaching and learning : Educational technology tries
to discuss the concept of teaching, analysis of the teaching process, variable of
the teaching, phases of teaching, levels of teaching, theories of teaching,
principles and maxims of teaching, the concept of learning, relevance of the
theories, the relationship between teaching and learning.

16
● Spelling out the educational goals or objectives : Educational technology tries
to discuss the topics such as identification of education needs and aspirations of
the community, survey of the resources available for satisfaction of these needs.
● Development of curriculum : This aspect of educational technology is concerned
with the designing of a suitable curriculum for the achievement of the stipulated
objectives.
● Development of teaching – learning material : This area of educational
technology is concerned with the production and development of the suitable
teaching-learning material in veiw of stipulated objectives, design curriculum and
available resources.
● Teaching preparation or teaching – training : Teacher is a key figure in any
process of teaching and learning. Educational technology, therefore, takes care
of the proper preparations of teachers for exercising their complex responsibilities.
● Development and selection of the teaching learning strategies and topics : This
aspect deals with the central problems of teaching learning act. Here educational
technology tires to describe the ways and discovering, selecting and developing
suitable strategies and tactics of teaching.
● Development, selection and use of appropriate auido visual aids : Teching-
learning is greatly influenced and benefited by the use of appropirate audio-visual
aids. Educational technology covers this aspets by discussing various types of
audio-visual used for educational purpose, their proper select suiting to a
particular taching-learning situation.
● Effective utilization of the bardware and mass media : Various sophisticated
instrument, equipment, gadget and communication devices through mechanization
ane electronics revolution playing an effective role in the attainment of
educational objectives by helping the teachers and learners in their respective
roles.
● To work for the effective utilization of the subsystem of education : Educational
technology considers education as a system orperating, in a systematic and
scientific way, for the achievement of educational objectives.
● To provide essential feedback and control through evaluation : Educational
technology is essentially concerened with the task of exercising appropriate
control over the process of teaching and learning by planning and devising
suitable tools and devices for the continuous evaluation of the process and
products of the teaching-learning activities.

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 Thus, educational technology is concerned with all variables, phases, levels, and
aspects of the teaching-learning process. In breif, it works for overall planning and
organization of the system or subsystem of education.
In above discussion, an attempt has been made to identify the importance of the
subject educational technology by mapping out its field of operation, but in true sense,
it is unwise to put hedge and boundaries around such a developing and fast growing
subject.

1.3.3 Scope of Educational Technology

Educational Technology is as wide as Education itself. Educational Technology
implies the use of all educational resources–Men, Materials, Methods and Techniqus,
Means and Media in an integrated and systematic manner for optimized learing.
Educatioal Technology is comprehensive. It is associated with all aspects of educative
process-methods, teaching strategies, learning materials, handling of various euqipment
etc.
The following 4M’s are the major components of Educational Technology :
● Methods : It is concerned with the devices such as Programmed Learning Team
Teaching, Micro Teaching and Personalized System of Instruction in Teaching
Learning situations.
● Materials : Instructional materials such as Programmed Text book the material
of this type may be handwritten or printed.
● Media : The media used here are audio, or visual or audiovisual. A few examples
are radio, tape recorder, charts, films, educational television etc.
● Man Power : Man power controls educational technology in every way.
Educational Technology without man is zero.
The technologies included in it are mentioned below :
● Behavioural Technology : Behavioural technology is the important component of
Educational Technology. It puts emphasis on the use of psychological principles
in learning and teaching so that the behaviour of the teacher and pupils may be
modified in accordance with the teaching objectives.
● Instructional Technology : Instrucitional Technology means a network of
techniques or devices employed to accomplish certain defined set of learning
objectives. Instructional technology implies the application of psychological,
sociological and scientific principles and knowledge to instruction for achieving
the specific objectives of learning.
● Teaching Technology : Teaching is the social and professional activity. It is a
process of development. Teaching is a system of actions which induce learning

18
 through interpersonal relationship. Teaching technology is the application of
philosophical, sociological and scientific knowledge to teaching.
● Instructional Design : In order to bring desired changes in the pupils’ behaviour,
the teaching situatios, working tools and new approaches were considered
important in addition to the learning princples. The composite form of all these
is instructional design.
● Training Psychology : Training Psychology is an important method of teaching
and learning. Its development resulted out of the research work carried out on
the complicated training problems and situations. Training psychology emphasizes
that the whole training task should be divided into three parts.
These are :
Preparing outline of the task.
Task analysis
Putting the task in sequence.
The main role of training psychology is in Teacher Education.
● Cybernetic Psychology : It’s part of training psychology. Cybernetic psychology
accepts human beings as machine. Cybernetic psychology emphasizes the fact
that all the methods of feedback bring the desired changes by controlling the
behaviour of the pupil.
● System Analysis : System Analysis is a problem solving process in which the
needs of the management are diagnosed and by using an appropriate method for
solving the problem, evaluation is carried out.
If you consider the working areas, Eductional Technology includes the following :
Curriculum Construction, Teaching-Learning Strategies, Audio-Visual materials,
Determining Educational Objectives, Training the teachers, Feedback, Hardware and
Software etc. In short, the scope of Educational Technology extends to all resources
(human and non-human) for the augmentation and development of education. Thus
Educational Technology has a wide scope.
Use and Significance of Educational Technology (in the Indian context) :
In India, before the 1960’s the term educational technology was almost unknown
to the educational system. It was used as synonym to audio-visual teaching aids. The
role of educational technologist in India, today, is not merely that of an audio-visual
aid master, hardware expert, media expert or programmed text writer, but of one who
is concerned with the information of an overall design to carry out an evaluation of
the total process ofe education in terms of specific objectivs. Educational technology,
as we find it today, has a meaningful present and promising future in our country. Some
of the significant development in this direcition may be summarized as follows :

19
 ● There has been a wider and more effective utilization of radio for braodcasting
educational programmes througout the country. These will planned programmes
are now broadcast throughout the country for both in-school and out-of-school
groups.
● Another significant development in the use of educational technology is
concerned with the development of television programmes.
● The third important area where educational technology has been useful is the
probelem of-training and re-training a large number of school teachers in an
effective way.
● Another application of educational technology is being used in our country relates
to language instruction.
● Another field of operation of educational technology in our country is concerned
with the correspondence education.
● Another use of which education technology is being put in our country is
concerned with preparation, development and utilization of audio-visual material,
and handling as well as maintenance of the hardware applicances and sophisticated
gadgets.
● In the latest trend, educational technology is providing its worth by utilizing the
services of computers and advanced form of ICT technology in the field of
education.
Thus educational technology has been providing its worth in our country by
guiding, planning, implementing and evaluating various programmes of formal as
well as non-fromal educaiton.

1.4. Difference Between Educational Technology and Technology

in Education
The term “technology in education” refers to the use of technological advancement
such a various equipment, meterials and machines for educational purpose. It invokes
the increasingly complex range of audio-visual equipment, hardware and sophisticated
electronic devices like projectors, films, radio, televisiona, tape recoder, recording
machines, tele-text and computer aided instructions for individualized and group
learning. The term technology in educationa is thus a service concept like technology
in the service of farming and agriculture or science in the service of mankind. In this
sense, educational technology can provide its services to the teachers of the following
grounds :

20
 ● For explaining the purpose and functions of different forms of appliances,
equipment and audio-visuals materials and mass media.
● For providing training and acquiring the material and handling the equipment to
overcome their reluctance to use new media and materials.
● For showing the relevance to the use of equipment and material in the context
of individualized and group learning for achieveing the goals of formal or non-
formal education.
Educational Technology
The term “technology of education” or “educational technology” cannot limit itself
to the role of service as confined in the case of technology in education. The term,
technology of the education, does not represent something added or helped from outside
as sounded in the case of technology in education. It signifies a system of tchnological
approach to the problems of education. Emphasizing on this point of view, T. K.,
Robinson (1976) writes”.
The strongest protagonist for educational technologies are not, however satisfied
with a role limited to technology in education and the provision of audio-visual aids.
They see themselves as crucially involved in the design and evaluation of systems of
learning involving an understanding of the psychology of learning and communication
and information theory to be used to establish a rational for a good teaching practice
which uses a variety of media and modes and which enables the teachers to deploy
his skills more effectively and apply them more widely. This is technology of education.
In veiw of the discussion carried out in the above pages, the following conclusion
can be drawn about the concepts of educational technology :
● Educational technology cannot be taken as a synonym to audio-visual aids, and
technology in education emphasizes the concept of services, i.e. the use of
different equipment, gadgets and mass media.
● Educational technology must mean technology of education presenting itself as
a system for bringing improvement in the total process of teaching-learning by
carefully analyzing its problems and obtaining the optimum results.
● Educational technology cannot be viewed in terms of is part or processes.
Instructional technology, teaching technology, behaviour technollgy, programmed
learning, micro-teaching, system analysis, management of teaching-learning,
teacher or pupiols behaviour, etc. are all its constituents and resources.

21
1.5. Special Significance and Goals of Technology for the Education
of Children with Visual Impairment
1.5.1 Special Significance of Technology for the Education of Children with Visual
Impairment

1.5.2 Goals of Technology for the Education of Children with Visual Impairment
In order to gurantee equal opportunities to all students, the accessibility of ICT
educational tools is worldwide considered a major issue. Nowadays, visually impaired
students can take advantages of a large number of effective assistive technologies but,
while using electronic material for leaning purposes, they often encounter a number
of different accessibility and usability problems. The variety of obstacls they may find
on their way is quite large mainly because the term “visually impaired” encompasses
a wide range of deficits, ranging from blindness to a number of other multifaceted,
although less severe, visual impariments. The accessibility requirements for e-learning
products established by the laws in force can be considered an important step onwards;
further measures, nevertheless, are still needed to foster the actual “usability” of such
products by sight impaired people.
The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union [2000] states that :
“Any discrimination based on any ground such as gender, race, colour, ethnic or social
origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion,
membership of a national minority, property, birth, disability, age or sexual orientation
shall be prohibited.”
In the field of education, the basic concept of “Non-discrimiation” entails the
ability of all people to have “equal opportunity in education, regardless of their social
class, ethnicity, background or physical disabilities” [Klironomos et al., 2005]. Students
with disabilities have, then, the right to except the same standard of education as their
schoolmates and, in this view, they also have the right toaccess and use mainstream
educational tools, including ICT based ones, which are generally referred to as “e-
learning tools”.
Such tools are worldwide considered powerful tools to foster teaching [Hitchcock
et al., 2003] but, at the same time, it is well known that, due to the widespread use
of technological tools, “disavantaged or excluded groups, including the unskilled,
disabled and the elderly, face the danger of further marginalization [...]”, in fact, “with
the advent of the digital computer, and its broad penetration [...], disabled and elderly
people face serious problems in accessing computing devices” [Stephanidis and
Savidis, 2001] Anderson [2006] underlines that, in the field of education,

22
“while....technologies are benefical and have been shown to help with educational
tasks, their desgin and usability are an issue”. Students with disabiliities may, in fact,
face relevant difficuties both in “accessing and in “using” e-learning tools and,
depending on the type of impairment, the types of obstacles encountered may very
considerably.
In the following, the issue of the accessibility and usability of e-learning tools by
visually impaired students is tackled, taking into account the fact that in almost all the
developed countries they represent a significant part of the school population. In recent
years, the World Health Organization [2004] has emphasized that “childhood blindness
remains a significant problem, with an estimated 1.4 million blind children below age
1.5”, the problem appears even more relevant if we consider also the students with
visual impairments other than blindness (the incidence of low vision being generally
estimated three times greater than blindness). In the same report, in fact, it was found
that, in 2002, there were 161 million (about 2.6% of the world population) visually
impaired pepole in the world, of whom 124 million (about 2%) had low vision and
37 million (about 0.6%) were blind. Data of the World Health Organization seem to
confirm, then, that sight impaired students are a relevant percentage of the overall
population of the students with disabilities [Viisola, M., 1999].
Such students, in principle, could highly benefit from using [ICT for educational
purposes but they actually, despite the availability of a growing number of technology-
enhanced and sophisticated assistive devices, face a number of accessibility problems
[Burzagli et al., 2004]. The task of listing all such problems is not easy, mainly because
students with visual disabilities are a highly dishomogeneous category showing a wide
range of different specific abilities, disabilities and needs; blind and low vision
students, for instance, despite the fact that they are both often simply referred to as
“visually impaired”, present very different visual problems, find different obstacles and
ask for different kinds of help and support. What’s more, even the category of low
vision students is a higlly heterogeneous one : it encompasses a wide veriety of
different visual charcteristics. In this perspective, the different instructional tools (those
ICT based, as well as ones), may meet or not to the needs of each single user,
depending on her/his specific impairment.
After a brief review of the-e-learning tools that are widely used for educational
purposes, examples are provided of some problems encountereed by students with
visual disabilities in accessing and using e-learning material. Such problems often
result into obstacles for the effective use of the tools and may also have a negative
influence on the overall learing process.
In the end, a glance is taken to the accessibility requirements addressing the specific

23
needs of visually impaired people established by the Italian law in force, which directly
recalls the Section 508 Rehabilitation Act 1.
Different E-learning Tools for Different Visual Needs :
While affording the choice of the e-learning tools to be used in concrete educational
settings by visually impaired students, from one side, it is important to consider the
nature, the specific features and the functionalities of the technological tools at hand;
from the other side, it is necessary to take into account the actual, specific needs of
the potential user/s (which are, of course, related to their impairments).
To this end, in the following, an overview and a basis classification of the main
tools used in the field of e-learning is proposed; subsequently, a quick look is taken
to the different needs of the different categories of visually imparied students and to
the main obstacles that they may encounter.
● E-learning tools : Anohina, [2005] deifnes “e-learning” as a learning process that
“takes places via any electronic medium”. In a global perspective, such a term
refers, then, to any educational process making use of technological/electronic
media and applications such as : “web-based teaching materials, hypermedia in
general, multimedia CEFOMs, web sites, discussion boards, collaborative
software, e-mail, wikis, computer aided assessment, educational animation,
simulations, games, learning management software, etc....” [Wikipedia] in this
veiw, the term “e-learning tools” ecompasses at least those tools used for :
❏ Online learning : those educational resources made available through
interconnected computer networks, comprising also synchronous and
asynchronous communication tools, when used in an educational perspective.
❏ Computer-based learning : those learning mateirals locally available on the
user’s PC and used when the computer is not connected to a network.
❏ M-learning : those educational tools made available through “mobile
devices” such as palmtops (or handhelds), Personal Digital Assistants
(PDAs), tablet PCs mobile or smart phones; such tools, may also take
advantage of the connection to the net via “wireless transmission” [Hoppe
et al, 2003]. The concept of “e-leaning tool” is, then, linked both to the
media (hardware devices) employed and to the programs (sofrtware
applications) used to support the educational process. Such software
applications can be roughly divided into :
❏ E-learning platforms : those internet-based environment expressly addressed
to the delivery of integrated electronic educational contents and to the
management of a variety of educational activities aimed at fulfilling specific

24
 educational objectives 1 Section 508 of the Rehabilitation ACT Subpart C-
Functional Performance Criteira § 1194.31)[Lin and Kuo, 2005]. All the
digital contents made available by and through such platforms, are generally
called “learning objects”.
❏ Web based applications : those applications (both designed for educational
purposes and used to fulfil educational objectives) which are directly
accessible using any available browser and which don’t need to be installed
on the user PC.
❏ Stand-alone applications : those products (both “educational” and “used for
education”) which cannot be used directly via browser but that need to be
installed locally, on the user machine; this category includes also products
“dowloadable” from the Web, but that still need to be installed on the
computer.
● E-learning tools and the needs of visually impaired students : Examples of
what kind of accessibility and usability problems can be found in the different
categories of software applications are provided in the following, keeping aside,
for the moment, all the possible problems linked to the use of computers in their
standard configuration and of other specific hardware devices. While considering
such obstacles, it is important to reflect on the fact that they are strictly related
to the type of user impairment. Blind and low vision students encounter different
types of obstacles : in order to fully access the contents, in fact, the first category
needs necessarily to rely on screen readers, while the second category, thanks to
optical aids and/or to specific customization options, may access a much wider
variety of software applications, including, often, those with graphic interface.
Other significant differences can be found among the needs of the different
categories of low vision students due to the wide variety of their visual
impairments [Dini et al, 2006].

1.6. Information and Commuication Technology (ICT)-Concept

and Special Significance for Teaching-Learning of the Visully
Impaired

■ 1.6.1 Concept of ICT

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is an extended term for

information technology (IT) which stresses the role of unified communications and the

25
integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals), computers as
well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual system,
which enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information.
The term ICT is also used to refer to the covergence of audio-visual and telephone
networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system. There are
large ceonomic incentives (huge cost savings due to elimination of the telephone
network) to merge the telephone network with the computer network system using a
single unified system of cabling, signal distribution and management.
However, ICT has no universal definition, as “the concepts, methods and
applications involved in ICT are constantly evolving on an almost daily basis. The
broadness of ICT covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit or
receive information electronically in digital form, e.g. personal computers, digital
television, email, robots. For clarity, Zippo provided an ICT hiearchy where all levels
of the hiearchy “contain some degree of commonality in that they are related to
technologies that facilitate the transfer of information and various types of electronically
mediated communications”. Skills Framework for the Information Age is one of many
models for describing and managing competencies for ICT professional for the 21st
century.
The phrase information and communication technology has been used by academic
researchers since the 1980s, and the abbreviation ICT became popular after it was used
in a report to the UK government by Dennis Stevenson in 1997, and in the revised
National Curriculum for England, Wales and Northern Ireland in 2000. But in 2012,
the Royal Society recommended that ICT should no longer be used in British schools
“as it has attracted too many negative connotations”, and with effect from 2014 the
National Curriculum uses the word computing, which reflects the addition of computer
programing into the curriculum.
Information and Communication Technology can contribute to universal access to
education, equity in education, the delivery of quality learning and teaching, teachers’
professional development and more efficient education management, governance and
administration. UNESCO takes a holistic and comprehensive approach in promoting
ICT in education. Access, inclusion and quality are among the main challenges they
can address. The Organization’s Intersectral Platform for ICT in education focuses on
these issues through the joint work of three of its sectors : Communication &
Information, Education and Science.
In modern society ICT is ever-present, with over three billion people having access
to the Internet. With approximately 8 out of 10 Internet users owning a smartphone,
information and data are increasing by leaps and bounds. This rapid growth, especially

26
in developing countries, has led ICT to become a keystone of everyday life, in which
life without some facet of technology renders most of clerical, work and routine tasks
dysfunctional. The most recent authoratative data, released in 2014, shows “that
Internet use continues to grow steadily, at 6.6% globally in 2014 (3.3% in developed
countries, 8.7% in the developing world); the number of Internet users in developing
countries has doubled in five years (2009-2014), with two thirds of all pepole online
now living in the developing world”.
However, hurdles are still at large. “Of the 4.3 billion people not yet using the
Internet, 90% live in developing countries. In the world’s 42 Least Connected Countries
(LCCs), which are home to 2.5 billion people, access to ICTs remains largely out of
reach, particularly for these counteries, with many developing countries dearth of any
type of Internet. This also includes the availability of telephone lines, particularly the
availability of cellular coverage, and other forms of electronic transmission of data. The
latest “Measuring the Information Society Report” cautiously stated that the increase
in the aforementioned cellular data coverage is ostensible, as “many users have multiple
subscriptions, with global growth figures sometimes translating inot little real
improvement in the level of connectivity of those at the very botton of the pyramid;
an estimated 450 million people worldwide live in place which are still out of reach
of mobile cellular service”.
Favourably, the gap between the access to the Internet and mobile coverage has
decreased substantially in the last fifteen years, in which “2015 is the deadline for
achievements of an UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which global leaders
agreed upon in the year 2000, and the new data show ICT progress and highlight
remaining gaps.” ICT continues to take on new form, with nanotechnology set to usher
in a new wave of ICT electronics and gadgets. ICT newest editions into the modern
electronic world include smart watches, such as the Apple Watch, smart wristbands
such as the Nike + Fuel Band, and smart TVs such as Google TV. With desktops soon
becoming part of a bygone era, and laptops becoming the preferred method of
computing, ICT continues to insnuate and later itself in the ever-charging globe.
Information communication technologies play a role in facilitating accelerated
pluralism in new social movements today. The internet according to Bruce Bimber is
“accelerating the process of issue group formation and action” and coined the term
accelerated pluralism to explain this new phenomena. ICTs are tools for “enabling
social movement leaders and empowering dictators” in effect promoting societal
change. ICTs can be used to garner grassroots support for a cause due to the internet
allowing for political discourse and direct interventions with state policy as well as
change the way complaints from the populace are handled by governments.

27
1.6.2 Significance of ICT for Teaching-Learning of the Visullay
Impaired
For many blind or partially sighted learners, information and communication
technology (ICT) computers can enable access to the curriculum by providing
alternative methods of reading and recording work.
It is likely that pupil with visual impairments may need to use ICT across most
of the curriculum and that they will be following the same curriculum as their peers.
There is range of different ways in which ICT can provide support for these learners.
These include :
➧ Tools to support communication
➧ Improve access to information
➧ Curriculum tool to develop concepts in subject areas
➧ A means of production of learning materials in alternative formats.
Key to effective learning is assessement of a large of factors. This may involve
input from a range of professionals in order to assess :
➧ The learners functional vision.
➧ Mobility needs
➧ Curriculum needs
➧ Whether it is appropriate to use ICT.
The success in the information society demands computer literacy. It is more or
less impossible to complete an education let alone get and maintain a position on the
job market without IT skills. Likewise, the ability to utillise information technology
is important in most other aspects of life. Consider email for correspondence, home-
banking, access to public services, access to library services, e-commerce, access to
traffic information, the ability to book theatre tickets-just to name a few examples.
As such, information technology, computer literacy and information access in
important to eveyone in information society, the visually impaired not excluded. In fact,
these competencies may be even more important to people with visual disability. To
some extent, IT competencies may eventually reslove some of the issues of
underemployment and unemployment amongst the visually disabled.
Information technology offers a range of possibilities to the blind and partially
sighted : The computer can be used as an intelligent interface between the visually
impaired and the sightedl; inforamtion that would otherwise be inaccessible or require
manual processing to become accessible can be automatically transformd into formats
better suited for the visually impaired; as technologies emerge and mature, technologies

28
that were used solely as enabling technologies in the past are becoming mainstream,
thus affecting price as well as quality; and finally, the abiligy to establish a virtual
framework through the use of computers, geography and physical location matters less,
hence increasing the opportunities in terms of employment and education.
At the same time, however, information technology and the ways in which the
technology is deployed represent an equal range of challenges. Althoug the Internet-
in theory-makes information available to anyone who can use a computer, poor web-
design raises new barriers. Furthermore, the short learning curve combined with
relatively inexpensive solutions based on speech synthesis may further erode basic
skills such as Braille literacy.
Visually impaired have been able to command the user interfaces of computers
using screen readers, speech synthesis, Braille displays and screen magnification
systems. Furthermore, the visually impaired have access to the vast majority of all
business applications, personal productivity tools, office applications, email system and
web-browsers. Using enabling technology in combination with general-prupose
computer system, the blind and partially sighted have been able to transform
information form formats aimed at the sighted into formats more suitable to meet the
needs of the visually impaired. Enabling technologies for such automatics transformation
include Braille translation system, screen magnification system and text-to-speech
engines.
Today, all inforamation is produced electronically and is-at least in theory-available
directly from the publisher. A number of issues still reamain, especially in the areas
of copyright and copy protection. In addition to information publisehd in print, vast
amounts of information are available directly on the Internet and on CD ROM and
DVD. Finally, electronic books (or eBooks) are emerging in the mainstream market.
A recent survey estimated that, by 2005, electronic books will account for as much
as 10 percent of the total American market for published books.

1.7. ICT and the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with

Disabilites
The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) is the first
international human rights treaty to place an obligation on States Parties to focus on
mechanism for monitoring-Article 33(2). The provision does not seek to replace
international monitoring, however, but rather to complement the work of the U.N.
Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities-whose mandate and functioning
are set out in Articles 3,4 34, 36 and 37 of the CRPD and in the Optional Protocol.

29
The report by the Global Intiative on Inclusive Information and Communication
Technologies (G3ict) and Disabled People’s International (DPI) is but one example of
how voluntry monitoring can be effected.
This third edition of the CRPD ICT Accessibility Progress Report covers 76
countries including 74 ratifying countries, South Sudan (formatly part of ratifying
country-Sudan) and the United States as a benckmark country. Those 76 countries
represent 72 percent of the world population and 81 percent of tht total population of
ratifying countries. This report offers disability advocates, governments, civil soceity
and international organizations monitoring the progress of the implementation of the
CRPD by States Parties, a unique benchamarking tool that collects data on country
laws, policies, and programs pertanining to accessible and assistive information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs) around the globe.
Based on the findings from the 2010 and 2012 editions of the CRPD ICT
Accessibility Progress Report, it was clear that digital accessiblity is not merely about
greater use of technology by persons with disablilities. It is about transforming
information-based policies and the ICT econsystem. Addressing the ICT arena is part
of a larger effort to build an inforamtion society based on ensuring people’s right to
communicate, use knowledge for their own ends, and overcome barriers on freedom
to use, share and modify ICTs and information content. This comports with the theme
of this year’s High-Level Meeting on Disability and Development of the General
Assembly on the realization of the Millennium Development Goals and other
internationally-agreed development goals for persons with disablilities.
The 2010 and 2012 editions of the CRPE ICT Accessiblity Progress Report
described how a disability inclusive development agenda is possible only if the multiple
actors in the ICT arena commit to work in coordination, cooperation and collaboration.
Developing a shared vision of a world information society that contributes to human
development based on agreed upon principles, including persons with disabilites’ right
to access information, is a long-term undertaking. Strategic wisdom needs to inform
future action, particularly in the negotiation of the empowerment of persons with
disabilities through ICTs.
ICT policies and programs should be seen not as one-time interventions, or solely
as check-offs to demonstrate complience with global treaties, but as processes whcih
promote learning and human development from trial and error, and create spaces for
the engagement of different social groups. Civil soceity actors, including NGOs and
DPOs need to build their own capacities, develop perspectives, lobby with government
and business, participate in national and interantional ICT policy-making processes, and

30
build constituencies among a wide cross-section of society on the role of ICTs for the
promotion of equlity for persons with disabilities.
In 2013, the two sets of surveys from the CRPE ICT Accessibility Progress Report
(3rd edition) were filled out by 86 local correspondents in 76 countries. Data collection
for the third edition of the Progress Report was completed in cooperation with Disabled
People’s International (DPI) and various disabled person’s organizations and experts
in countries wher DPI correspondents were not available.
Convention on the Right of Persons with Disabilities 2013 ICT Accessibility
Progress Report Where do we stand on CRPD implementation and disability-inclusive
development in 2013? The data and information in the chapters ahead reflect the :
● Degree to which each of the dispostions of the CRPD on Assistive Technologies
(ATs) and ICT is actually enacted by ratifying countries in local laws, policies
and regulations and their actual impact.
● Nature and type of disability inclusive practices used by ratifying countries in
local policies and programs.
The report concludes with a brierf set of recommendations that CRPD ratifying
countries, DPOs and NGOs, national, regional and international development agencies
could take to ensure increased progress in CRPD implementation and digital
saccessibility. Thse three recommendations are to :
● Provide a legal foundation for ICT accessibility and reasonable accommodation
in the country legislation which then can support and ligitimize specific policies
and programs;
● Promote disability-inclusive policies and programs identified as priority areas by
key stakeholders; and
● Address gaps in capacity building through disability-inclusive cooperative
development practices.

●Introduced to ICT Accessibility in the CRPD : The significance of ICT

accessibility for persons with disabilities is best described by the language found in
paragraph (v) of the Preamble of the convention on the Rights of persons with
Disabilities (CRPD), which recognize “the importance of accessibility to the physical,
social, economic and cultural environment, to health and education and to information
and communication, in enabling persons with disabilities to fully enjoy all human rights
and fundamental freedoms”.

31
 While the Preamable clearly defines accessibility as an enabler for persons with
disabilities to exercise their rights, Article 3(f) of the Convention also identifies
accessibility as one of its eight “General Priciples”. Article 9 is dedicated to
accessibility and stipulates : “To enable persons with disabilities to live independetly
and participate fully in all aspects of life, States Parties shall take appropriate measures
to ensure to persons eith disabilites aceess, on an equal basis with others, to the
physical environment, to transportation, to inforamation and communications, including
information and communication technologies and system, and to other facilities and
services open on provided to the public, both urabl and in rural areas”.
Furthermore, Article 2 describes reasonable accommodation and the lack thereof
as discrimination. In the case of information and communication technologies, because
many accessiblity and assistive solutions are available and already implemented, it can
be inferred that the CRPD dispostions on reasonable accommodation apply in most
cases. For example, an inaccessible website may not allow persons with disabilities
to obtain information or use a service on an equal basis with others. Yet, methods to
create accessible websites are well documented and if implemdnted correctly, do not
cost more nor constitute a disproportionate or undue burden.
Therefore, while the CRPD does not define accessibilility at large as a right, it
carries language which establishes the accessibility of information and Communication
Technologies (“ICTs”) as an obligation of States Parties and soceity at large. The notion
that discrimination occurs when ad ICT based service is inaccessible is consistent with
emerging jurisprudence in the United States and the United Kingdom : inaccessible
websites or inaccessible ATMs for instance do constitute discrimination against persons
with disabilities because equal access is not provided while it could.
The obligation to provide accessible ICT based products and services and ensure
equal access is also reflected in many advanced policies and programs launched or
promoted by States Parties around the world. Examples of such programs include :
● Captioning or signing of television programs (implemented to some extent by 71
percent of the countries);
● Offering relay services for deaf and speech imparied users of telephony
(implemented by 26 persent of the countries);
● Implementation of computer-based Assistive Technologies in schools and
universities (52 percent of the countries have some levelof implementation);
● Providing accesible government websites (implemented by 45 percent of the
countries); and,
● Accessible public electronic kiosks or ATMs deployed (implemented by 39
percent of the countries).

32
 While the above list cannot be exhaustive in the context of this introduction, it
confirms that State Parties have in some areas acknowledged and acted upon the
obligation to provide equal access to information and communication technologies and
services, setting benchamarks for what constitutes resonable ICT accommodation for
persons with disabilities.
Treaty Implemenatation and the G3ict CRPD ICT Accessibility Progress
●
Report :
The G3ict CRPD ICT Accessibility Progress Report (3rd edition) is uniquely suited
to address key aspects of treaty implementation, as well as seving as a path finding
framework for the U.N. to adpot or adapt within its disability-inclusive development
agenda towards 2015 and beyond. The G3ict CRPD Progress Report identifies the
degree to which each of the dipositions of the CRPD on accessible ICTs and Assistive
Technologies is actually enacted in local laws, policies and regulations and their impact.
It includes 57 data points relative to the status of ICT and AT accessibility for each
country surveyed. Data is collected and presented within the following three clusters
of data points :
● State Party CRPD legal and programmatic commitments;
● State Party capacity for implementation;
● Assessment of the State’s implementation and actual results for persons with
disabilities.
By drawing links between State’s commitments and implementation/impact on
persons with disabilities and comparing data from various countries including from
other international information and rsearch sources.
16 significant findings, benchmarks and recommendations may be derived from the
G3ict CRPD ICT Accessibility Progress Report for policy makers, international
institutions business and industry, nongovernmental organization, disabled person’s
organization, and others.
Results may be used by ratifying countries in order to improve their cmpliance with
the CRPD. For example, governments may use the results to improve the consultation
and participation process of Non-Governental Organizations (NGOs) to the development
and implementation of legislation.
Furthermore, States could use CRPD results to request targeted training and support
from their Institutions of Higher Education (IHE). Those IHEs could provide training
to government entities on critidcal ICT and AT issues in whcih the country was deemed
to be out-of-compliance.

33
 The data may also be used by international bodies as a baseline against which those
bodies can estimate or judge, in part, the adequacy and focus of their own CRPD
responsibilities and comitments. International organizations can use the data to foster
international cooperation and monitor existing needs for ICT and AT accessibility in
communities. Furthermore, and in keeping with the conceptual framewrok and capacity
building approach for the U.N. human rights treaty body system, G3ict has standardized
its global survey using a structure-process-outcome data collection strategy.
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2013 ICT Accessibility
Progress Report For example, U.N. agencies such as UNDP, UNESCO, ILO, ITU or
WHO in their role of providing technical assistance may use the data to identify
policies and programs required by the CRPD and determine how to best engage State
Parties in the implementation of those policies.
On a regional level, DPOs and NGOs can also use the data to gauge the lack of
CRPD compliance by governments in order to raise the awarness of the challenges and
oppotunities of ICTs and ATs for persons with disabilities and facilities the sharing of
lessons learned, good practices, tools and products.
Results could also help DPOs and NGOs to determine which actions need to taken
to facilities the implementation of the CRPD.
What further steps can CRPD ratifying countries, DPSs and NGOs, national,
regional and international development agencies take to ensure increased progress in
CRPD implementation and digital accessibility? G3ict offers the following three
recommendations :
(a) Establish a legal foundation for successful CRPD implementation (of the ICT and
AT provisions of the CRPD)
(b) Promote disability inclusive policies and programs identified in priority areas by
key stakeholders; and
(c) Address gaps in capacity building through the use of diasbility-inclusive
cooperative development practices.

1.8. Let Us Sum Up

It is absolutely essential for any person to take appropriate decision in life.
Subsequently access to information becomes essential for leading a meanigful life. ICT
have revolutionzied the manner in which access to information is provided to the

34
citizen. Technology advancements have also permitted disabled persons reach out and
gain access to inforamtion through the computer equipped with specific provisions.
Traditionally ICT has been a great boon to the disabled persons, having providing them
with reading aids, audio books and other communication methods.
Technonogy can also be used to reach out to a large number of persons with
disabilities who are currently deprived of any educational and vocational opportunities.
At present, the technological innovations have made the mode of communication
effective, and the process and dissemination of information faster and opened up large
aveunes for successful employment. The prupose of assistive technology is to enable
persons with VI, Hi, loco motor difficulties, MR, etc. to acheive greater participation,
choice and self-reliance in roles and activities that are importnat to them. The success
in the application of assistive technology has many parameters. Firslty, the persons with
disabilities should know what types of adaptation in technology are available in the
field. Secondly, he/she should know in what ways it would empower him/her in
mainstreaming, and thirdly, the individual should also understand his/her own potential
for the better use of the technology.

1.9. Check Your Progress

1. What do you mean by educational technology?
2. State the basic natures of educational technology?
3. Discuss the importance of educatioal technology?
4. What are the scopes of educationall technology?
5. What do you mean by technology in education?
6. State the differences between educational technology and technology in education.
7. What do you mean by technology in education?
8. State the differences between educational technology and technology in education.
9. What do you mean by information and communication technology?
10. What is the significance of ICT for teaching learning of visually impaired
Students?
11. What is UNCRPD?
12. Write a short note on ICT accessibility in the UNCRPD.

35
1.10 References
1. Jonassen David H., (2004). Edcuational Communications and Technology. L. E.
rlbaum Associates.
2. Kumar, S., (2014). Complete Information on Educational Technology-
Characteristics, Nature, Objective and Component of Edudcational Technology.
Retrieved 23rd May 2017 from https://educationaltechnology.net/definitions-
educational-technoloyg/
3. Sathis, M., (2011 March, 26). Difference Between Technology of Education and
Technology in Education. Retrieved 23rd May 2017 from http://
www.differencebetween.com/difference-between- technology-of-education-and-vs-
technology-in-education/
4. Bocconi, S., Dii, S., Ott, M., (2007). ICT Educational Tools and Visually
Impaired Students :
Different Answers to Different Accessibility Needs. Retrieved 20th June, 2017
from https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-73283-9 55

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Unit - 2 q Adaptive Technologies
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Concept and Purposes
2.3.1 Concept of Adaptive Technology
2.3.2 Purposes of Adaptive Technology
2.4 Basic Consideration - Access, Affordability and Availability
2.4.1 Access as the Basic Consideration of Adaptive Technologies
2.4.2 Affordability as the Basic Consideration of Adaptive Technologies
2.4.3 Availability as the Basic Consideration of Adaptive Technologies
2.5 Addressing User's Perspective in Developing Adaptive Technologies
2.6 Roles of IIT's and the Scientific Community
2.6.1 Role of IIT's in Developing Adaptive Technologies
2.6.2 Role of Scientific Community in Developing Adaptive Technologies
2.7 Universal/ Inclusive Design - Concept, Advantages and Limitations
2.7.1 Concept of Universal/ Inclusive Design
2.7.2 Advantages of Universal/ Inclusive Design
2.7.3 Limitations of Universal/ Inclusive Design
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Check Your Progress
2.10 References

2.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the developmental efforts related to adaptive technologies, which
can be combined with other technologies and processes to form an adaptive system. The
goal of an adaptive system, is to create an instructionally sound and flexible

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environment that supports learning for students with a range of abilities, disabilities,
interests, backgrounds, and other characteristics. After defining key terms and
establishing a rationale for adaptation, we present a general framework to discuss about
adaptive technologies.

2.2 Objective
After the completion of the Unit, learners will be able to -
● Acquire Information about the Concept and Purposes of Adaptive Technology;
● Acquire Knowledge about the Basic Considerations of the Adaptive Technologies;
● Understand User's Perspective for the Development of Adaptive Technologies;
● Consider the Role of IIT's and the other Scientific Community to Promote
Adaptive Technologies;
● Evaluate the Concepts of Universal/ Inclusive Design.

2.3 Adaptive Technology - Concept and Purposes

Adaptive Technology is a broad term often used to describe both the products and
services for people with special needs. It enhances the vocation, recreation, education,
and independence of the user.
Any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off
the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve
functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. The next thing that comes to
mind is the question of who, how, where and when does one require and should be
entitled to adaptive/assistive technology as well as to what extent and at what cost
should it be available? Adaptive Technology can provide equality between visually
impaired individuals and their sighted peers within the emerging information society.
With the aid of the appropriate technological devices, visually impaired persons can
independently access, process, store and transmit the same information handled by
sighted people. Both use computers to manipulate this information. The only difference
lies in the form in which the information is displayed. The vast proportion of
employment, education and daily living activities require access to electronic
information. Technology can, in innumerable instances, assist individuals who are blind
or visually impaired to become active participants in their societies. There are
essentially five methods of output that can render computers and printed materials
accessible for individuals who are blind or visually impaired:

38
Screen Reader, Braille Printer, reading device, electronic Braille displays, and text
magnification.

2.3.1 Concept of Adaptive Technology

The term adaptive technology is often used as the synonym for assistive technology;
however, they are different terms. Assistive technology refers to "any item, piece of
equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized,
that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with
disabilities", while adaptive technology covers items that are specifically designed for
persons with disabilities and would seldom be used by non-disabled persons. In other
words, "assistive technology is any object or system that increases or maintains the
capabilities of people with disabilities," while adaptive technology is "any object or
system that is specifically designed for the purpose of increasing or maintaining the
capabilities of people with disabilities." Consequently, adaptive technology is a subset
of assistive technology. Adaptive technology often refers specifically to electronic and
information technology access.
Adaptive technology is any item, piece of equipment, software program, or product
system that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of
persons with disabilities.
● It can be low-tech: communication boards made of cardboard or fuzzy felt.
● It can be high-tech: special-purpose computers.
● It can be hardware: prosthetics, mounting systems, and positioning devices.
● It can be computer hardware: special switches, keyboards, and pointing devices.
● It can be computer software: screen readers and communication programs.
● It can be inclusive or specialized learning materials and curriculum aids.
● It can be specialized curricular software.
● It can be much more-electronic devices, wheelchairs, walkers, braces, educational
software, power lifts, pencil holders, eye-gaze and head trackers, and much more.
Adaptive technology helps people who have difficulty speaking, typing, writing,
remembering, pointing, seeing, hearing, learning, walking, and many other things.
Different disabilities require different assistive technologies.

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2.3.2. Purpose of Adaptive Technology
An adaptive system adjusts itself to suit particular learner characteristics and needs of
the learner. Adaptive technologies help achieve this goal and are typically controlled by
the computational devices, adapting content for different learners' needs and sometimes
preferences. Information is usually maintained within a learner model (LM), which is
a representation of the learner managed by an adaptive system. LMs provide the basis
for deciding how to provide personalized content to a particular individual and may
include cognitive as well as noncognitive information. LMs have been used in many
areas, such as adaptive educational and training systems (e.g., intelligent tutoring
systems), help systems, and recommender systems. Adaptive systems may consist of
hard or soft technologies (e.g., devices vs. algorithms). Hard technologies are devices
that may be used in adaptive systems to capture learner information (e.g., eye-tracking
devices) and thus can be used to detect and classify learners' performance data or
affective states such as confusion, frustration, excitement, and boredom. Hard
technologies also can be used to present content in different formats (e.g., tactile tablet
to accommodate visual disabilities). Soft technologies represent algorithms, programs,
or environments that broaden the types of interaction between students and computers.
For instance, an adaptive algorithm may be employed in a program that selects an
assessment task or learning object most appropriate for a learner at a particular point in
time. The effectiveness of adaptive technologies hinges on accurate and informative
student or learner models. For the remainder of this paper we use the terms student
model (SM) and learner model (LM) interchangeably. Because this focuses on the
educational functions of adaptive systems, we limit our modeling discussion to the
context of students or learners, rather than more broadly defined users.
Four-Process Adaptive Cycle is the success of any adaptive technology to promote
learning requires accurate diagnosis of learner characteristics (e.g., knowledge, skill,
motivation, persistence). The collection of learner information then can be used as the
basis for the prescription of optimal content, such as hints, explanations, hypertext links,
practice problems, encouragement, metacognitive support, and so forth. Our framework
involves a four-process cycle connecting the learner to appropriate educational materials
and resources (e.g., other learners, learning objects, applications, and pedagogical
agents) through the use of a LM . The components of this four-process cycle are
(a) capture,
(b) analyze,

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(c) select, and
(d) present.

Capture - The capture process entails gathering personal information about the learner
as he or she interacts with the environment, depicted by the larger human figure.
Relevant information can include cognitive as well as noncognitive aspects of the
learner. This information is used to update internal models maintained by the system.
Analyze - The analyze process requires the creation and maintenance of a model of the
learner in relation to the domain, typically representing information in terms of
inferences on current states. This is depicted as the smaller human figure (i.e., the SM).
Select - Information (i.e., content in the broadest sense) is selected according to the
model of the learner maintained by the system and the goals of the system (e.g., next
learning object or test item). This process is often required to determine how and when
to intervene.

Four-process adaptive cycle.

Present - Based on results from the select process, specific content is presented to the
learner. This entails appropriate use of different media, devices, and technologies

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efficiently to convey information to the learner. This model accommodates alternative
scenarios. It describes some of these scenarios that involve different types of adaptation,
starting with a completely adaptive cycle and continuing to a nonadaptive presentation.

2.4 Basic Consideration - Access, Affordability and Availability

Before we begin our discussion on adaptive technologies that support learners in
educational settings, we briefly define relevant terms. Most generally, to adapt means an
adjustment from one situation or condition to another (e.g., software programs and
persons are capable of adaptation). Technology refers to the application of science
(methods or materials, such as electronic or digital products or systems) to achieve a
particular objective, like the enhancement of learning. A system in this context refers to
a network of related computer software, hardware, and data transmission devices.
2.4.1 Access as the Basic Consideration of Adaptive Technologies
Accessibility and usability of adaptive technology are closely related. Their goals,
approaches, and guidelines overlap significantly.
In most situations, such as when designing and developing websites and applications or
other uses of technologies, it is most effective to address them together.
There are a few situations when it is important to focus specifically on one aspect, such
as when addressing discrimination against people with disabilities and when defining
specific accessibility standards.
Accessibility
Accessibility addresses discriminatory aspects related to equivalent user experience for
people with disabilities, including people with age-related impairments. Accessibility
means that people with disabilities can perceive, understand, navigate, and interact with
technologies, and that they can contribute equally without barriers.
Usability
Usability and user experience design is about designing products to be effective,
efficient, and satisfying. Specifically, ISO defines usability as the "extent to which a
product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals effectively, efficiently
and with satisfaction in a specified context of use" (in ISO 9241-11).
Inclusion
Inclusive design, universal design, and design for all involves designing products, such

42
as websites, to be usable by everyone to the greatest extent possible, without the need
for adaptation. Inclusion addresses a broad range of issues including access to and
quality of hardware, software, and Internet connectivity; computer literacy and skills;
economic situation; education; geographic location; and language - as well as age and
disability.
Accessibility and Usability
While accessibility focuses on people with disabilities, many accessibility requirements
also improve usability for everyone. Accessibility especially benefits people without
disabilities who are in limiting situations, such as using the web on a mobile phone
when visual attention is elsewhere, in bright sunlight, in a dark room, in a quiet
environment, in a noisy environment, and in an emergency. Accessibility includes both:
● Requirements that are more specific to people with disabilities - for example, they
ensure that websites work well with assistive technologies such as screen readers
that read aloud web pages, screen magnifiers that enlarge web pages, and voice
recognition software that is used to input text. Most of these requirements are
technical and relate to the underlying code rather than to the visual appearance.
● Requirements that are also general usability principles - which are included in
accessibility requirements because they can be significant barriers to people with
disabilities. For example, a website that is developed so that it can be used without
a mouse is good usability; and use without a mouse is an accessibility requirement
because people with some physical and visual disabilities cannot use a mouse at
all. In defining accessibility requirements, care is usually taken to not include
aspects that impact all people similarly, and only include aspects that put person
with a disability is at a disadvantage relative to a person without a disability.
Usability and user experience design significantly overlap with accessibility when
"specified users" includes people with a range of disabilities and "specified context of
use" includes accessibility considerations such as assistive technologies. However, the
needs of people with disabilities are often not sufficiently addressed in usability practice
and research.
Additionally, accessibility includes a technical aspect that is usually not a focus of
usability. In practice, basic accessibility is a prerequisite for usability.
Accessibility and Inclusive Design
Several accessibility requirements also benefit people and situations that are a focus
of inclusive design. For example, Web Accessibility Benefits People With and Without

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Disabilities describes accessibility benefits to:
● people with low literacy or not fluent in the language
● people with low bandwidth connections or using older technologies
● new and infrequent users
However, accessibility focuses on disability and does not try to address broader issues.
Other efforts, such as internationalization, address other inclusion issues.
While people with disabilities are generally included in the scope of inclusive design,
it is important to also maintain a specific focus on people with disabilities through
accessibility so that the needs of people with disabilities are not diluted or
overshadowed in the broader scope of inclusion. Keeping accessibility focused on
disabilities encourages research and development on the specific needs of people with
disabilities, and solutions that are optimized for these specific needs.
Accessible Design
The goal of web accessibility is to make the web work well for people with
disabilities. Accessible design has both a technical component and a user interface
component.
There are guidelines, standards, and techniques, such as the Web Content
Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG), which is the international standard ISO/IEC 40500.
If designers, developers, and project managers approach accessibility as a checklist of
meeting accessibility standards, the focus is only on the technical aspects of
accessibility, and the human interaction aspect is often lost.
Combining accessibility standards and usability processes with real people ensures
that web design is technically and functionally usable by people with disabilities. This
is referred to as usable accessibility or accessible user experience.
Usable Accessibility
Web designers and developers can use usability processes, methods, and techniques,
such as user-centered design (UCD) process and user experience design, to address the
user interface component of accessibility. While the considerations of people with
disabilities are not always included in common practices, they can be easily integrated
into existing usability processes, methods, and techniques.
Key aspects incorporating real people in design, including:

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 ● Ensuring that everyone involved in web projects understands the basics of how
people with disabilities use the Web,
● Involving users with disabilities early and throughout the design process, and
● Involving users in evaluating web accessibility.
Accessibility standards also have an important role in accessible design. For
example, understanding the basic Accessibility Principles and using the guidelines for
developing early prototypes helps the development team provide basic accessibility so
that when users do evaluations, they are able to use the prototype enough to provide
useful feedback.
Usability processes and user involvement alone cannot address all accessibility
issues. Even large projects cannot cover the diversity of disabilities, adaptive strategies,
and assistive technologies. Accessibility guidelines, standards, and techniques ensure
that the wide range of issues are adequately covered.
Accessibility practitioners and researchers can incorporate usability techniques to
improve 'usable accessibility'. User experience designers and researchers can
incorporate accessibility to make their designs work better for more people in more
situations. Addressing accessibility, usability, and inclusion together can more
effectively lead to a more accessible, usable, and inclusive web for everyone. Resources
to help are linked throughout this page.
The role of accessibility in a universal web is a related resource that:
● provides a more in-depth exploration of the importance and benefits of
accessibility as a distinct discipline continuing to focus on people with disabilities,
● encourages increased communication and coordination between accessibility,
usability, and inclusion research and practice in the design and development of
guidelines, websites, browsers, assistive technologies, and other web tools.
One of the largest problems that affect people with disabilities is discomfort with
prostheses. An experiment performed in Massachusetts utilized 20 people with various
sensors attached to their arms. The subjects tried different arm exercises, and the sensors
recorded their movements. All of the data helped engineers develop new engineering
concepts for prosthetics.
Assistive and adaptive technology may attempt to improve the ergonomics of the
devices themselves such as Dvorak and other alternative keyboard layouts, which offer

45
more ergonomic layouts of the keys. Assistive technology devices have been created to
enable people with disabilities to use modern touch screen mobile computers such as the
iPad, iPhone and iPod touch. The Pererro is a plug and play adapter for iOS devices
which uses the built in Apple VoiceOver feature in combination with a basic switch.
This brings touch screen technology to those who were previously unable to use it.
Apple, with the release of iOS 7 had introduced the ability to navigate apps using switch
control. Switch access could be activated either through an external bluetooth connected
switch, single touch of the screen, or use of right and left head turns using the device's
camera. Additional accessibility features include the use of Assistive Touch which
allows a user to access multi-touch gestures through pre-programmed onscreen buttons.
For users with physical disabilities a large variety of switches are available and
customizable to the user's needs varying in size, shape, or amount of pressure required
for activation. Switch access may be placed near any area of the body which has
consistent and reliable mobility and less subject to fatigue. Common sites include the
hands, head, and feet. Eye gaze and head mouse systems can also be used as an
alternative mouse navigation. A user may utilize single or multiple switch sites and the
process often involves a scanning through items on a screen and activating the switch
once the desired object is highlighted.

2.4.2 Affordability as the Basic Consideration of Adaptive Technologies

Students with visual impairment face unique challenges in the educational
environment. Not only must they be able to access text information across all curricular
areas, but they also need to be able to participate fully in instruction that is often rich
with visual content. Adaptive technology is one way of supporting them in that process.
"Adaptive technology" refers to a range of tools, devices, and strategies that allow
a student to accomplish a task that they would otherwise be unable to do, or would have
difficulty accomplishing effectively. Adaptive technology can be simple or complex.
Examples of low tech tools for students with visual impairment might include enlarged
text or raised line paper, while high tech tools may encompass digital tools that "read"
to the student, connect to a braille display, or even incorporate GPS.
The term "visual impairment" describes a broad range of visual abilities and needs.
Because each child is unique, what works well for one student may not work well for
another. Selection of adaptive technology should be the result of a team process that
takes into consideration feedback from family, educators, paraprofessionals, and the

46
student. It is important to remember that "high-tech" is not always the best solution for
a student. Selected tools should reflect the student's unique strengths and needs, the
activities he needs to be able to accomplish, and the environment in which he will be
working. A student's need for assistive technology will likely change and evolve
throughout his or her education, and in most cases, no single tool will meet all of a
student's needs.
The purpose of this resource guide is to provide an introduction to the types of
adaptive technology that may benefit students with visual impairment. Specific products
and their features are not described here. Instead, a general overview of tools will help
raise your awareness so that you are able to determine what tools to investigate further.
A list of additional resources and vendors is provided at the end of this guide if you'd
like to learn more. There is also a glossary of terms if you are unfamiliar with some
of the terminology related to adaptive technology and visual impairment.

2.4.3 Availability as the Basic Consideration of Adaptive Technologies

Technology for Reading
Reading is not only an essential part of the English Language Arts curriculum, but is
also a key component of all other subject areas. Students rely on textbooks in science
and social studies, complete word problems in math, and complete assessments that are
often text-based. Assistive technology tools to support reading should reflect the
student's level of visual functioning, their literacy development, as well as the
environmental and task demands.
Environmental Considerations consider lighting and positioning of materials for optimal
visual function.
For students with some existing visual function, providing text information in enlarged
format may be the simplest strategy. As a general rule of thumb, 18 point or 24 point
font size is good, but enlarging beyond that may not be efficient. Enlarged text can be
acquired through a variety of sources, including publishers and vendors, or materials
modified through the magnification feature of copy machines, while text size of most
digital materials can be easily adjusted to a user's preference.
Handheld Magnifiers : These handheld magnifiers low-tech, portable tools allow
students with some vision to access not only text, but other objects in their environment
as well. They are available in a range of magnification power, are relatively inexpensive,
and eliminate some material modification. However, selection of magnification power

47
should be based on the recommendations of a low vision specialist. A video magnifier
can be used for other objects as well. It may be in the form of handheld device, a stand-
alone device, or work with a computer, TV or projection system.
Braille for students who requires so : Braille is an essential tool for teaching literacy
skills and will serve as a lifelong skill. Learning Braille allows students to experience
aspects of written language such as spelling, grammar and sentence structure, and will
provide a valuable foundation for written language. Braille products can be obtained
commercially or can be created using specialized software and a braille embosser.
Braille Labelling items throughout the student's environment will not only reinforce
vocabulary, spelling and reading but will also promote independence and assist with
orientation.
Audio books are generally recorded using human voice, and can be accessed through the
use of specialized computer software, devices, or mainstream tools like MP3 players.
The various devices allow options in features such as searching and navigating an audio
file. While many students will find the use of audio books useful, educators warn not
to rely solely on audio books for access to text. Students who are still developing
literacy skills need continued access to print or braille, while preferences of older
students vary.
The use of digital text provides one of the widest ranges of options to students with
varying needs. Visual aspects of documents and text can be customized, a variety of
supports can be easily integrated, and digital text can be obtained through numerous
resources. Digital text materials can be obtained commercially, through providers of
accessible instructional materials, or created by instructors and students themselves, and
can be accessed through a variety of tools including computers, mobile devices, or
specialized devices such as braille notetakers.
1. Digital text generally allows user to adjust the visual display including font size,
color, and contrast.
2. Digital text can be viewed on an enlarged monitor.
3. Computer magnification software can be used to view digital text, and can be
customized by magnification level, area of the display being magnified, and visual
qualities of display.
4. Text-to-speech software allows the computer to "read" digital text to the student
in a digitized voice. Some programs will highlight words as they are read,
allowing students to follow along.

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 5. Refreshable braille displays can be connected to the digital text source, providing
students with the option to read the text tactually.
6. Scanners with optical character recognition (OCR) can be used to create digital
text that can then be used with any of the above tools. OCR scanners can be
handheld or freestanding.

Technology for Writing

Writing Tools: Using bold felt-tip markers or soft lead pencils can provide greater
contrast on paper, allowing students with low vision to read with greater ease.
Adaptive Paper: Specialized paper with darkened lines, raised lines, or using colour can
significantly improve the writing of students with low vision.
A slate and stylus can be equated to paper and pencil for individuals who are blind. This
simple low tech tool allows students to quickly and efficiently complete simple tasks
like creating labels or writing notes to themselves. The slate and stylus is not practical
for longer writing tasks.
A handheld digital recorder allows the student to record lectures, dictate assignments,
or make notes to self.
Writing with traditional paper and pencil under a video magnification camera allows the
student to view their work in real time through the use of a large monitor.
Word processors are readily available and are highly adaptable. Text size and font can
be customized or built-in operating system accessibility features can be used to enhance
the visual display. The use of adaptive keyboards with high contrast or enlarged keys
can also be utilized.
Text-to-speech software can create a "talking word processor" which provides feedback
to the student about what they have typed, while speech recognition software allows the
student to dictate into a microphone, which the computer translates into text. Screen
magnification software can enlarge the entire display or only selected portions and may
or may not provide audio feedback.
For students with no vision, a refreshable braille display can be used in conjunction with
the word processor, which will display the text tactually allowing the student to reread
and edit their own work. This strategy can be used with or without audio feedback,
which supports multisensory learners and allows the student to choose the access
method. The incorporation of braille has the potential to significantly improve the
editing process.

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A manual braillewriter is similar to a typewriter and is a simple, yet rugged device that
is often introduced to students who are emergent readers and writers. As students
progress, they may transition to an electronic braillewriter before beginning to use a
braille notetaker.
A braille notetaker is a portable word processing device that utilizes the eight key braille
input system and has an integrated refreshable braille display. This tool encompasses
many functional areas in addition to writing. Students can use a braille notetaker to
complete assignments, read textbooks, and navigate the Internet. Although products and
their features vary, many are available with speech output, Wi-Fi connectivity, access to
e-mail, calculators, calendars and other personal organizational tools, or GPS navigation
systems. The braille notetaker is a lifelong tool and should be introduced as soon as
the student demonstrates readiness.
A braille embosser allows the student to print out their completed work in braille
format.
Technology for Computer Access
Skills and competence in computer use are essential to every student in the 21st century,
and will significantly increase a student's success in their pursuit of higher education,
vocation and independent living after graduating from high school. Instruction in basic
keyboarding and word processing skills should begin early. As students grow older, use
of social media tools should also be explicitly taught as key to participation and
inclusion in higher education, many vocational settings, and society in general.
Adaptive Hardware - Hardware such as enlarged, large print or high contrast
keyboards, as well as enlarged monitors may provide adequate supports to students with
low vision, allowing them to use the computer independently.
Operating System - Accessibility Whether using a Mac, PC, desktop or mobile device,
all operating systems have built-in accessibility features that may make the device easier
to use. These include changes to visual display (i.e. high contrast, colour scheme, font
size), enlarged icons, screen magnification, enlarging the cursor or pointer, or a built-
in screen reader.
Specialized Accessibility Software - When built-in accessibility features do not
provide adequate support, specialized software can be used to create a highly
customized computer environment. This may include features such as text-to-speech
feedback with and without text highlighting, the ability to customize what is magnified
on the screen, greater customization of visual displays, voice navigation, and advanced

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screen reading features.
Refreshable Braille Display - A refreshable braille display can be used as a peripheral
device with a desktop, laptop or mobile computing device, providing braille translation
of documents, websites, and other text information.
In conclusion, we can say that to ensure that adaptive technologies enhance users'
quality of life, future emphases should focus on consumer involvement in the selection
and evaluation of appropriate assistive technology, and ways to make technologies more
widely available and affordable.

2.5 Addressing User's Perspective in Developing Adaptive

Technologies
Technology-particularly multimedia and ubiquitous computing-can help to enrich life,
enhance productivity and promote independent living for people across the entire
spectrum of abilities. People with visual impairment rely heavily on their sense of
hearing. If an adaptive device provides auditory feedback, it could drown out important
situational information. In the case of missed conversation, this would be inconvenient.
In a situation like a traffic crossing, it would be hazardous. As a result, developing a
wearable device that uses tactile cues such as pattern of vibrations to convey
information.
Truly revolutionary technologies require engagement with users throughout the design
and development process. While it's helpful to get feedback and ideas from focus groups
on users' needs, short sessions don't give a full understanding of the challenges and
opportunities in developing adaptive technology solutions. It is imperative that people
with disabilities play a leading role in envisioning, conceptualizing, developing,
implementing, deploying, testing, and validating potential solutions, tools, and
technologies.
David Hayden was a freshman double-majoring in math and computer science, and he
also was visually impaired. Even sitting at the front of the class couldn't get him the
access to the board to understand the process being enumerated in solving math
problems or designing an algorithm by his professors.
In his sophomore year, he began working at the CUbiC lab, developing an application
on a tablet connected to a camera with a pan-tilt-zoom feature. He could take the device
to his classes and have the video of the blackboard piped into his laptop. Then he did
something even more clever-he split the screen into two halves. One side of the screen

51
showed the video of the blackboard while the other was used to design a "notes"
interface. He linked sections of the class notes to individual frames from the video.
David took the prototype to the classroom and shared it with other visually impaired
students for obtaining their feedback, which he then used to further improve the device.
At the end of his junior year, he submitted his invention to the worldwide Microsoft
Imagine Cup competition in the "touch and tablet" category. He won both the national
and world competitions in that category.
After graduation, David received an internship opportunity at NASA and is now
pursuing a Ph.D. at MIT. He's also manufacturing his Note-Taker prototype for use by
others.
Once visually impaired students started using Note-Taker in classrooms, something truly
remarkable happened. Sighted students began asking for the technology for their own
use. This is not actually uncommon among well-designed adaptive devices. For
example, the first commercially successful typewriter, the Hansen Writing Ball, was
designed to help blind people write through touch-typing. The QWERTY keyboards we
use with our computers today are descendants of this accessibility tool.
In reality, we are all looking for ways to enhance our abilities. Forn reality, we are all
looking for ways to enhance our abilities. For instance, a soldier on the battlefield needs
better access to information at night or in stressful environments. One could argue that
blindness is not only a disability but a concept. We are all blind from a touch perspective
to distant environments like exploring the surface of Mars. Assistive technologies have
the power to transcend our limitations and enrich our lives.
There are the components of user's perspective:
PURPOSE:
The purpose of this work was to contribute to a better understanding of challenges and
solutions to equitable provision of assistive technologies in resource limited
environments by (i) describing sources of awareness, types of providers and costs of
adaptive technologies; (ii) describing common reasons for not possessing adaptive
technologies; and (iii) comparing these sources, providers, costs and reasons among
younger and older men and women living in urban and rural settings.

RESULTS:
Major sources of awareness, types of providers and costs paid varied between users of
different types of adaptive technology. Lack of affordability was the main reason for not

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possessing adaptive technology. Outcome differences were found between younger and
older groups, men and women, and literate and illiterate respondents, while no
differences related to place of living were identified.
Age, gender, type of impairment and socioeconomic status need to be considered when
planning and implementing equitable provision of assistive technologies. Implications
for Rehabilitation Provision of assistive technologies needs to be made affordable as
lack of affordability was the major reason for not possessing such technologies. To
ensure equitable provision of assistive technology, services ought to consider age,
gender, impairment and socioeconomic status of their target groups. This includes
offering a range of products of different sizes provided by culturally appropriate
personnel at affordable cost, which to many may be at no or reduced cost. To cater to
the assistive technology needs among the most vulnerable groups, assistive technology
providers may learn from CBR strategies, such as, awareness raising and service
delivery at community level, the use of local resources, collaboration and coordination,
and the consideration of cultural factors.

2.6 Role of IIT's and the Scientific Community

2.6.1 Role of IIT's in Developing Adaptive Technologies

The Indian Institutes of Technology play a vital role in India's social and economic
development. IITs are apex institutions for engineering education and research. At
present, there are twenty three Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) viz. at Bombay,
Delhi, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Madras, Guwahati, Roorkee, Hyderabad, Patna,
Bhubaneshwar, Ropar, Jodhpur, Gandhinagar, Indore, Mandi, Varanasi, Tiruppati,
Palakkad, Goa, Jammu, Dharwad, and Bhilai. All are governed by The Institutes of
Technology Act, 1961 which has declared them as "Institutions of national importance",
and lays down their powers, duties, framework for governance etc.
The main objective of IITs is to impart world class education in engineering and
technology; to conduct research in the relevant fields, and to further advancement of
learning and dissemination of knowledge,to develop, apply and transfer the required
concepts and skills to solve problems and to design and develop technology-enhanced
learning systems to promote students' pan-domain thinking skills. It deals with
engineering and science domains, using disciplinary content as a vehicle to develop the
relevant thinking skills. These Institutes are also contributing significantly to education
and research in basic sciences and humanities.

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The Goals and Objectives were derived from the Sarkar Committee Report and
embodied in the IIT Act. In addition to the Sarkar Committee report, the IIT act and the
Statutes of the IITs indicate the lines along which IITs should develop. According to
these documents IITs are expected:
● to be higher technical institutions and research in some branches of Engineering;
● to provide for instruction and research in some branches of Engineering and
Technology, Science and Arts for the advancement of learning and dissemination
of knowledge in specific branches.
● to ensure the advancement of knowledge through education and research, in both
Pure and Applied Science, in engineering, Social science and Humanities;
● to serve the community and nation (which are referred to as Extension activity)
through the use of their resources both intellectual and material, particularly
through Continuing Education for professionals working in Industry.
The Science Policy Resolution (SPR) of the Government of India (1958) is a basic
document of relevance to the IITs. The SPR resolves:
● to foster, promote and sustain scientific research in all aspects - pure, applied and
educational;
● to ensure adequate supply of research scientists of higher quality;
● to recognize the work of research scientists as an important component of the
strength of the nation;
● to encourage programmes for the training of scientific and technical personnel to
fulfill the country's needs in science and education, agriculture and industry, and
defense;
● to encourage dissemination and discovery of knowledge in an atmosphere of
scientific freedom.
IITs also constitute a major source for research scientists of high caliber; they also are
expected to serve the people of India and provide the country with benefits of
application of their discovery and knowledge and as such are entitled to academic
freedom and research support as implied in the SPR.
Much in the same manner as IITs are part of the successful implementation of the SPR,
they now have a greater responsibility for fulfilling the relevant goals of the Technology
Policy Statement as well. As Institutes of Technology, their charter, is to resonate the
expectations spelt out in the Technology Policy Statement.

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The Technology Policy Statement (1983) affirms that, technology must relate to our
people's aspirations and to our local needs to cover both manufacturing and servicing
sectors.
The Statement affirms that the base for this consists of trained manpower, which IITs
are charged to develop. It envisages special attention to the promotion of newly
emerging and frontier areas and encouraging research in these areas.
IITs have a specific role to implement these avowed objectives of the Technology Policy
Statement within their general charter of education, research and extension.
Such goals require that IITs must
● excel in all aspects of academic activity and produce a high quality science based
engineering students;
● survive on specialization, work increasingly in front-line areas that transcend
disciplines;
● have a perception and a value system appropriate to the pursuit of high science
and high engineering science to meet the critically evaluated needs of the society
in terms of products and processes using indigenous resources in close
collaboration with manufacturing service sectors;
● programme into their activities the emerging technological needs with a futuristic
outlook;
● accept extension and public services as a third dimension to their role in addition
to education and research;
● attain a stature that enables them to provide leadership with credibility. They
should be the "think tanks" for higher education and research;
● aim at preparing more of "creative engineers", "innovative thinkers" and "engineer
entrepreneurs";
● develop a special nexus with rural development mainly by way of involvement in
technology based solutions for problems in rural areas;
● maintain and foster interactive linkages with leading technological institutions and
centers of research in India and abroad
● to develop in each student mastery of fundamentals, versatility of mind,
motivation for learning, intellectual discipline and self-reliance which provide the
best foundation for continuing professional achievement;

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 ● to provide a liberal; as well as a professional education so that each student
acquires a respect for moral values, a sense of their duties as a citizen, a feeling
for taste and style, and a better human understanding. All these are required for
leadership;
● to send forth men and women of the highest professional competence with a
breath of learning and a character to deal constructively with issues, and problems
anticipated in the next decade relevant to the programmes of development of our
country.
IITs must seek through their research activities to create an atmosphere of intellectual
excitement, a climate of inquiry and innovation in which a student develops a
consuming interest for understanding issues of his own volition.
● should not the IITs mainly concentrate on forging links with organized industrial
sector for import and diversification of its technology?
● should IITs commit their resources for developing appropriate rural technology for
mass impact?
● should not the Institutes strive for an optimal blend of a limited number of
objectives in order that they do not spread their resources thinly?
As Indian Institutes of Technology, they must recognize their inherent obligation to
serve students and alumni, the profession of engineering, the world of scholarship, the
nation and the society at large. IITs should seek to serve the community directly through
the use of their facilities, wherever there is a need, to which they can respond easily .
These objectives are derived from the original goals and not construed de-novo.
The Report of the Committee on Post Graduation Engineering Education lays stress on
the thrust areas such as Fibre Optics, Micro-electronics, Materials Science, Reliability
Engineering, Robotics, Ocean Engineering, Computer Science etc. IITs have a
significant role to build a superstructure in the form of Postgraduate Programmes in
such thrust areas that go to influence the quality of Undergraduate Curriculum. In order
to develop a curriculum they need to interact and develop linkages with their
surroundings specially within the manufacture and service sectors.
We are clear in our minds that the Technology Policy Statement and the Science Policy
Resolution demand a conscious integrated approach covering technology assessment,
technology acquisition, absorption, utilization and diffusion. This responsibility cannot
be solely placed on the IITs. But IITs cannot escape participation in one or more aspects

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of Technology development along with others . Technology policy studies may be
initiated in or more IITs to enable them to to have a proper appraisal of modern
technologies, and arrive at an assessment of their relevance to the needs of our society.
Such studies will help orient research and curriculum to produce engineers alive to the
needs of the nation . IITs would no longer be accused of training to the needs of the
developed.

2.6.2 Role of Scientific Communitiesin Developing Adaptive Technologies

Rehabilitative and adaptive technology refers to tools, equipment, or products that can
help a person with a disability to function successfully at school, home, work, and in
the community. Disabilities are disorders, diseases, health conditions, or injuries that
affect an individual's physical, intellectual, or mental well-being. Rehabilitative and
adaptive technologies can help people with disabilities to function more easily in their
everyday lives and can also make it easier for a caregiver to care for a disabled person.
The term "rehabilitative technology" is sometimes used to refer to aids used to help
people recover their functioning after injury or illness. "Adaptive technologies" may be
as simple as a magnifying glass to improve visual perception or as complex as a
computerized communication system.
Some of these technologies are made possible through rehabilitative engineering
research, which is the application of engineering and scientific principles to study how
people with disabilities function in society. It includes studying barriers to optimal
function and designing solutions so that people with disabilities can interact successfully
in their environments.
The NICHD houses the National Center for Medical Rehabilitation Research
(NCMRR) : The NCMRR has helped to advance scientific knowledge about disabilities
and rehabilitation, while also providing vital support and focus for the field of medical
rehabilitation to help ensure the health, independence, productivity, and quality of life
of all people.
Within the overall goals outlined some specific goals should be spelled out. It is that the
scientific communities must continue to engage in manpower development. The
students must be an agent of change of Technology practice in the country, and initiate
a new working culture in our industry, with a view to increasing productivity and
bringing to industry the capacity to innovate. Some technical graduates should,
therefore, become entrepreneurs themselves for starting new science based, technology

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oriented industries. They are thus to be so trained to build into their value system, a
sense of responsibility to their country and a desire to serve for the society. Their
perception should preclude Hi-Tech. as an important tool to solve ground level
problemsspecially for the child with different needs.
Some of the institutes, who have locational advantages, can involve themselves in the
tasks related to the development of CWSN by means of supplying competent technical
manpower and by offering laboratory solutions to the problems faced by them. Their
method of instruction should be innovative and qualitatively different. For instance,
Micro-electronics may be taught in other colleges as an educational programme, but
who have research excellence in their proximity, on the other hand, would bring in a
practical bias and illustrate a number of case studies relevant to their curricula. Their
functions of teaching, research and extension would be perceived as an integrated block
and not as separate identities. Without such an integration, a teacher cannot develop the
personality of the taught in a wholesome fashion, relating what is taught to actual
experience. The teacher's activity in extension activity will improve the quality of his
research, in turn improving his teaching content. The students will then see him as the
leader in research whose work is relevant. Some of the alumni settled abroad while
responding to our questionnaire mentioned that a major cause of their migration abroad
is the baseness of academic and research leaders.
As the information Age is ushering in, thanks to the technological advancements in the
area of Microelectronics, Materials Engineering and Bio-technology etc.,the country
will look towards to be lead-agents for promoting training, research support and
technology development in many such thrust areas. The goals of these
institute,therefore, must specifically include helping such changes happen in
this country in a programmed manner and faster. It is for each institute to decide
on what priority areas they need to emphasize, from time to time to plan for
them.

2.7 Universal/ Inclusive Design - Concept, Advantages and

Limitations
2.7.1 Concept of Universal/ Inclusive Design
Universal Design
Universal design (close relation to inclusive design) refers to broad-spectrum ideas

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meant to produce buildings, products and environments that are inherently accessible to
older people, and people with disabilities.
The term "universal design" was coined by the architect Ronald L. Mace to describe the
concept of designing all products and the built environment to be aesthetic and usable
to the greatest extent possible by everyone, regardless of their age, ability, or status in
life. However, it was the work of Selwyn Goldsmith, author of "Designing for the
Disabled" (1963), who really pioneered the concept of free access for people with
disabilities.
Universal design emerged from slightly earlier barrier-free concepts, the broader
accessibility movement, and adaptive and assistive technology and also seeks to blend
aesthetics into these core considerations. As life expectancy rises and modern medicine
increases the survival rate of those with significant injuries, illnesses, and birth defects,
there is a growing interest in universal design. There are many industries in which
universal design is having strong market penetration but there are many others in which
it has not yet been adopted to any great extent. Universal design is also being applied
to the design of technology, instruction, services, and other products and environments.
Curb cuts or sidewalk ramps, essential for people in wheelchairs but also used by all,
are a common example. Color-contrast dishware with steep sides that assists those with
visual or dexterity problems are another. There are also cabinets with pull-out shelves,
kitchen counters at several heights to accommodate different tasks and postures, and,
amidst many of the world's public transit systems, low-floor buses that "kneel" (bring
their front end to ground level to eliminate gap) and/or are equipped with ramps rather
than on-board lifts.
The Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University expounds the
following principles:
1) Equitable use
2) Flexibility in use
3) Simple and intuitive
4) Perceptible information
5) Tolerance for error
6) Low physical effort
7) Size and space for approach and use
Each principle above is succinctly defined and contains a few brief guidelines that can

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be applied to design processes in any realm: physical or digital. These principles are
broader than those of accessible design and barrier-free design.

Inclusive Design
The British Standards Institute (2005) defines inclusive design as "The design of
mainstream products and/or services that are accessible to, and usable by, as many
people as reasonably possible ... without the need for special adaptation or specialised
design."
The UK government has defined inclusive design as '…a process that ensures that all
buildings, places and spaces can be easily and comfortably accessed and used by
everyone
Every design decision has the potential to include or exclude customers. Inclusive
design emphasizes the contribution that understanding user diversity makes to
informing these decisions, and thus to including as many people as possible. User
diversity covers variation in capabilities, needs and aspirations.
Inclusive design focuses on the diversity of people and the impact of this on design
decisions. However, the complete set of performance indicators should consider a wider
set of aspects concerned with People, Profit and Planet. The performance indicators
should examine how the different aspects have an impact across the whole life-cycle of
the product. This life-cycle typically involves the stages:
1. Develop it
2. Make it
3. Distribute& sell it
4. Use it
5. Pass it on
6. Reprocess it
For most current products, the user 'Passes it on' by throwing it in the bin, and
'Reprocess it' involves storage in landfill. However, recycling and refurbishment
represent other alternatives for these stages.
Definition of inclusive design
The British Standards Institute (2005) defines inclusive design as:

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'The design of mainstream products and/or services that are accessible to, and usable by,
as many people as reasonably possible ... without the need for special adaptation or
specialised design.' Inclusive design does not suggest that it is always possible (or
appropriate) to design one product to address the needs of the entire population. Instead,
inclusive design guides an appropriate design response to diversity in the population
through:
Comparison with 'Universal design'
'Design for all' and 'Universal design' philosophies both have the same literal meaning.
These philosophies originated from design of the built environment and websites, and
were initially applied in the context of government provision (Design for All
Foundation; Preiser and Ostroff, 2001).
In the context of product design, both 'Design for all' and 'Universal design' approaches
pragmatically accept that it is not always possible for one product to meet the needs of
the entire population. Nevertheless, these approaches maintain that all mainstream
products should be accessible to as many people as technically possible (Preiser and
Ostroff, 2001).
In contrast, inclusive design originated with product design, and focuses on choosing an
appropriate target market for a particular design, and making informed decisions to
maximise the 'Product performance indicators' for that target market. While inclusive
design intends to extend the reach of mainstream products, it acknowledges the
commercial constraints associated with satisfying the needs of the target market.

2.7.2 Advantages of Universal/ Inclusive Design

The case for making our society more universally accessible and usable to all is a
compelling one on many fronts. Universal/ Inclusive Design proposes a progressive and
evolving approach to the development of inclusive environments that can be accessed,
understood and used to the greatest extent possible. Not only does Universal/ Inclusive
Design make good business sense, it also has many compelling social and legal drivers.
The human-centered approach to design that Universal Design supports is user-friendly
and convenient, but is also respectful of user dignity, rights and privacy. The degree of
difficulty that people experience when using a product, service or environment can vary,
Such as:
A person who has no significant problems but who would appreciate a well-designed
accessible and usable product, service or environment;

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1)A person who has little difficulty with all features; 2) A person who has difficulty with
some features; 3) A person who has trouble with most features; 4) A person who is
unable to use the product at all.
The degree of personal benefit will vary accordingly. Therefore, if a product, service or
environment is well designed, with accessibility and usability in mind, all of the people
in the categories above will benefit.
The age-distribution of the world's population is changing dramatically. People are
living longer as a result of medical developments in the last century and healthier
lifestyle changes
The number of people living with physical, sensory, mental health or intellectual
impairments is increasing, as is the life expectancy of people with particularly severe or
multiple impairments.
Universal design/ Inclusive Design improves access and outcomes for everyone in a
variety of situations. The goals of it are:
1. Equal Access - In order for a design to be truly universal, it must be useful to people
with all kinds of conditions and abilities. This includes people with disabilities or
activity limitations.
2. Flexibility - It's important that the design is flexible enough to apply to all different
kinds of people who have a huge variety of different abilities or disability. An example
might be providing information in Braille underneath signs so that people who are blind
can read them.
3. Simplicity - The design should be easy to understand so that people with varying
levels of education and experience can use it.
4. Effective communication - The design must convey the needed information to the
user, even if they have limitations in their sensory capabilities or ability to process this
information.
5. High tolerance for error - If a user accidentally makes a mistake while using the
design, it's important that they are not harmed or their situation is not made more
difficult as a result.
6. Minimal effort required - A person should be able to apply the design easily, even
if they have limits to their physical or mental capabilities.
7. Suitable space and size for use - No matter what size a person is or how mobile
they are, they should have enough space and the ability to effectively use the design. It

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is by considering each of these seven principles that we help our clients ensure that they
attain universal design on all types of projects.
Other things that help the person to deal with:
Independent Living
Universal Design creates inclusive design solutions and promotes accessibility and
usability, allowing people with all levels of ability to live independently. The ability of
a person to remain as independent as possible can be influenced by how accessible and
usable products, services and environments are. Factors that promote independent
living, such as universal design, have a key role to play in dealing with this global
phenomenon.
Ability as a Continuum
No two people are the same and no two people have exactly the same ability. The
considerable variation that exists between people can be influenced by both external and
internal factors. Ability can vary according to the type of activity in which a person is
participating or the environment in which that person is carrying out the activity. Every
person experiences reduced functioning at some stage during his or her lifetime. For
example "noisy environments impair anyone's hearing;
A Universal Design approach therefore requires an appreciation of the varied abilities
of every person and to design in such a way that the resulting product, service or
environment can be used by everyone regardless of age, size, ability or disability.
Participation in Society
In this technological age, the skills required to participate in society are becoming
increasingly complex. As each technological innovation is adopted the risks to people
who do not adopt of being excluded from accessing a whole range of financial, state,
social or cultural services or amenities increases. Technology is increasingly embedded
into the built environment and products so that the lines of what is specifically product,
ICT or building design have become blurred. In order the facilitate people with differing
abilities, of differing ages and sizes within society, systems and building must be
designed with the user at the center of the design process. A universally designed
environment promotes equality and makes life easier and safer for everyone.

2.7.3 Limitations of Universal/ Inclusive Design

1) There is still pressure to prepare students for success on standardized tests.

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 2) Standardized tests are not differentiated.
3) Students and teachers are evaluated based on how well students are able to read
random passages, make sense of them, and write their responses all within a given
time limit. The content itself is often not engaging, the format is even less
engaging, and the stakes are high, which create stress for all.
States and districts are having trouble in attempting to retrofit existing tests to be more
inclusive. However, this difficulty will be eliminated or reduced if tests are developed
from the beginning to be inclusive of all students.
Inclusive design is nothing new but designing to accommodate the widest possible range
of users in using fundamental principle of ergonomics and has been an integral part of
our user-centered philosophy from the start. It is also not just aimed at older or disabled
users. People of all ages and abilities can benefit from a more inclusive approach to
design, for example those at a temporary disadvantage, such as mothers with prams,
people travelling with luggage, tourists and non-English speakers.
However, the two main drivers in universal/ inclusive design are undoubtedly the ageing
population and the desire to better integrate into society those with disability. Inclusive/
universal design addresses accessibility to products, services and the built environment
and the need to do this is enshrined in legislation.
The term Universal/ Inclusive Design emphasizes the special purpose of learning
environments-they are not created to provide information or shelter but to support and
foster the changes in knowledge and skills that we call learning. While providing
accessible spaces and materials is often essential to learning, it is not sufficient. Success
requires that the components of pedagogy- the techniques, methods, scaffolds, and
processes that are embedded in classrooms and curricula-are also accessible, and that
the measure of their success is learning. Its framework is based in the neuroscience of
learning, and its principles emphasize three key aspects of pedagogy: the means of
representing information, the means for the expression of knowledge, and the means of
engagement in learning (Rose & Meyer, 2002).

2.8 Let Us Sum Up

Overall, adaptive technology aims to allow people with disabilities to "participate more
fully in all aspects of life (home, school, and community)" and increases their
opportunities for education, social interactions, and potential for meaningful
employment. It creates greater independence and control for disabled individuals. For
example, in one study of 1,342 infants, toddlers and preschoolers, all with some kind

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of developmental, physical, sensory, or cognitive disability, the use of adaptive
technology created improvements in child development. These included improvements
in cognitive, social, communication, literacy, motor, adaptive, and increases in
engagement in learning activities. It has been found to lighten caregiver load. Both
family and professional caregivers benefit from adaptive technology. The time needed
caring for a patient significantly decreases for a family member or friend with the use
of adaptive technology. Studies show that care time for a professional caregiver’s
increases when adaptive technology is used, however their work load is significantly
easier with adaptive technology taking over some of the jobs that a care giver would
have to provide.

2.9 Check Your Progress

1. What do you mean by adaptive technology?
2. State the basic natures of adaptive technology.
3. Discuss the purpose of adaptive technology.
4. What are the basic consideration of Adaption Technologies?
5. Name some adaption technologies for Complete Access?
6. What do you mean by adaptive technology in the view point of users?
7. What are the components of user's perspective in developing adaptive
technologies?
8. Point out the major notes on of IITs in the development of adaptive technologies?
9. What are the Primary notes of scientific communities for teaching learning of
visually impaired students?
10. What do you mean by Universal Design?
11. What am the advantages of Inclusive design?
12. What are the significance of Universal/ Inclusive Design for visually impaired
students?

2.10 References
1. Anderson-Inman, L., Knox-Quinn, C, & Horney, M. A. (1996). Computer-based
study strategies for students with learning disabilities: Individual differences

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 associated with adoption level. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29(5).
2. Edyburn, D. L. (2003). 2002 in review: A synthesis of the special education
technology literature. Journal of Special Education Technology, 18(3).
3. Castellani, J., Mason, C., Orkwis, R. (2005). Universal design for learning: A
guide for teachers and education professionals. Arlington, VA: Council for
Exceptional Children
4. Keates, S., and Clarkson, J. (2004). Countering design exclusion: An introduction
to inclusive design. Springer: UK.
5. Retrieved from http://www.inclusivedesigntoolkit.com/whatis/whatis.html, on
23rd Nov, 2017
6. Retrieved from http://universaldesign.ie/What-is-Universal-Design/Benefits-and-
drivers/, on 27th Nov 2017

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Unit 4 q Assistive Technologies for the Visually
Impaired with reference to School-
Subjects and Low Vision
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives:
4.3. Assistive Technologies for Mathematics
4.3.1 Taylor Frame & Algebra and Arithmetic Types
4.3.2 Abacus
4.3.3 Geo Board
4.3.3 Geometric Kit
4.3.4 Measuring Tapes and Scales
4.3.5 Soft-wares for teaching Mathematics
4.4. Assistive Technologies for Science
4.4.1 Tactile Thermometers
4.4.2 Colour Probes
4.4.3 Scientific and Mathematics Talking Calculators
4.4.4 Light Probes
4.4.5 Weighing scales
4.4.6 Software and web resources for teaching Science
4.4.7 Models
4.5 Assistive Technologies for Social Science
4.5.1 Tactile/Embossed Maps
4.5.2 Charts & Diagrams
4.5.3 Models of Different Types
4.5.4 Auditory Maps
4.5.5 Talking compass
4.5.6 GPS system
4.6. Low vision Devices:

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 4.6.1 Optical Devices
4.6.2 Non-Optical Devices
4.6.3 Projection Devices
4.7. Technology for developing Tactile Diagrams
4.7.1 Thermoform and Swell Paper technology
4.7.2 Software for developing tactile diagrams
4.8 Let us sum up
4.9 Check your progress
4.10 References & Suggested Readings

4.1 Introduction
Assistive technology refers to a range of tools, devices, and strategies that allow a
student to accomplish a task that they would otherwise be unable to do, or would have
difficulty accomplishing effectively. Assistive technology can be simple or complex.
Examples of low tech tools for students with visual impairments might include enlarged
text or raised line paper, while high tech tools may encompass digital tools that ¡§read¡¨
to the student, connect to a Braille display, or even incorporate GPS.
As we are aware that students with visual impairments face unique challenges in the
educational environment. Not only must they be able to access text information across
all curricular areas, but they also need to be able to participate fully in instruction that
is often rich with visual content. Assistive technology is one way of supporting them in
that process. This is to ensure that students with visual disabilities have the tools
necessary to fully access and participate in the curriculum, with the greatest possible
level of independence. Even more important, use of assistive technology helps prepare
students for independent living, vocational pursuits, or higher education. A student¡¦s
need for assistive technology will likely change and evolve throughout his or her
education, and in most cases, no single tool will meet all of a student¡¦s needs for any
learning concepts of a particular subject. This unit is to provide an introduction to the
types of assistive technology that may benefit students with visual impairments. Subject
specific assistive technologies are also being discussed in this unit.
Some low vision aids are more specific to the job or task at hand, including the features
and equipment options provided by the devices to perform visual tasks. Individuals with
specific low vision needs might prefer certain visually supportive features such as

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stronger magnification, additional lighting options, and portability of device. Therefore,
this unit also explores the assistive technologies for students with low vision.

4.2 Objectives:
When you will complete this unit, you will be able to:
l Sensitize about need of assistive technologies for children with visual impairment
to complete various academic activities.
l Demonstrate general techniques of using assistive
technologies designed for children with visual
impairment.
l Explain importance and significance of various
assistive technologies for children with visual
impairment.
l Illustrate how assistive technologies could compensate
the limitations imposed by the visual impairment to
complete various subject specific tasks at school as
well as at home.
l Understand different optical, non-optical and other electronic aids and appliances
meant for students with low vision.

4.3. Assistive Technologies for Mathematics

Learning mathematics has been always being found crucial for learners with visual
impairment. There are two essentials concerns related with learning mathematics. The
first is a comprehensive system of notation, capable of expressing all mathematical
relationships neatly and concisely. The second is apparatus (also including paper
pencils), which enables the students to draw the picture (mathematical signs and
notions) of the problem, and so to have something concrete before him. Students with
visual impairment faces challenges in both above said concerns. First problem is being
resolved through mathematical sign, symbols and notations in braille etc. Whereas
second concern mainly resolved through assistive technologies. Here we are going to
discuss various assistive technologies related with learning support to students with
visual impairment while learning Mathematics.
4.3.1 Taylor Frame & Algebra and Arithmetic Types
The Taylor Frame or, Taylor Mathematical Slate is a device used to teach Mathematics
to blind students. Developed by William Taylor in England in the mid 19th century. It

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was in common use until the early 1970's. The main purpose of this device is to aid in
the teaching and working of problems of long division, multiplication of large numbers,
subtraction, and addition. The Taylor Frame or Taylor Mathematical Slate consisted of
an aluminum frame and a set of metal pegs or type with the patterns.Set of types are
used that are moulded from hard yellow vinyl plastic, or are made up with lead. The
frame has rows of opening each set out as
an eight pointed star. The pegs could
therefore be placed in the frame in one of
eight orientations which could be used to
represent numbers, letters or signs. Math
can be composed in linear, vertical or in
algebraic notation.
At one end of arithmetic type, there are
are two dots placed along one side, at the
other a solid raised bar along one side. By
placing the type into the octagonal holes
in the frame, the digits 0-9 and the mathematical signs of operation can be represented.
The surface of this aluminum frame is divided into star shaped holes with eight angles,
thus allowing the double-ended metal types to be placed in different positions according
to a set system. With the help of these two types of type or, peg, there are total thirty
two orientations (each peg has 16 orientation; 8 from each side) are available as follows:

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Algebra types are symbols made up of metal to represent algebraic variables like x, y,
z, a, b, c, d and others like, brackets, square root and index. These are used in Taylor
frames. Similarly, arithmetic types are symbols made up of metal to represent numbers
like 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0 along with comparison signs like =, +, ¡Ò, decimal point
etc.
4.3.2 Abacus
Abacus is a device used by visually impaired children for doing basic mathematical
calculations. Abacus is rectangular in shape. Abacuses with varied columns are used in
different countries. This instructional material is written specifically for the abacus
generally with 13 columns. The common operations for this abacus are same with those
of the abacuses with fewer columns, but the number of columns matters especially when
fraction problems are solved.
A bar is separating the abacus horizontally cutting across all the columns, leaving 2/3
rd of the area below and 1/3 rd of the area above. The lower portion is known as lower
abacus and the upper portion is known as upper abacus. Each column in the lower
abacus has four beads, each bead assumes the value of one. Each column in the upper

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 abacus has one bead and assumes
the value of five.
It is a simple instrument for
performing rapid arithmetical
calculations. In the early 1960s,
T.V. Cranmer, then director of the
Division of services for the blind,
Kentucky Department of
Education, adapted an abacus that
blind individuals could use. He
added a foam backing to put
tension on the beads and keeping them stable. He also increased the length of the rods
to give more distance between beads and make them easily read by touch. Abacus
generated enthusiasm among blind people and teachers of those with visual impairment.
The Hadley School, USA also offeres a correspondence course in the use of the abacus
for blind people throughout the world. The abacus is an efficient and accurate tool that
enables persons with visual impairment to perform mathematical calculations. It affords
more speed and ease of manipulation than Braille writers, Taylor slates, pegboards and
other cumbersome tools. But, in abacus one cannot retain the intermediate steps of the
sum.
4.3.3 Geo Board
The geo-board is a multi-purpose board for children with visual impairment. This can
be used for showing geometrical figures and graphs. It is a peg board, square or
rectangular in shape with nails at equal
distance, both lengthwise and width wise.
The distance between the nails can be
determined according to the levels of the
students. The distance can be brought
down when a child entered to higher
classes in the school. It is suggested that it
should be at least one inch in the case of
primary school children. It is a amazing
tool for the teachers of visually impaired
children for teaching of mathematical
concepts. Rubber bands are used to show various shapes; eg. Triangle, rectangles,

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square, etc. If the distance between the nails is smaller, even circles can be
shown.
4.3.3 Geometric Kit
Geometry kit is available with many
sellers which consist a draw board,
different geometrical shapes, compass set
to frame angles and shapes, spur wheels
etc. Spur wheels are serrated wheel
revolving in a plated metal handle. It is
used for making continuous embossed
lines on the reverse side of the paper.
Geometry mat may also be included in
the kit which is a sheet of rubber for use
as a base in conjunction with the spur wheel and Braille paper for making geometrical
drawings. Compass set may include a foot ruler,
a protractor and a set square in nylon. It enables
visually impaired students to use the same
techniques as his sighted counterpart. The foot
ruler and set square have embossed markings for
their convenience. The compass has a removable
component fitted with a toothed wheel for
drawing embossed dotted lines on the reverse of
the Braille paper. Comprehensive or extended
part of kit also includes different three dimensional shapes to get proper concept of
shapes in space or three-dimension.
4.3.4 Measuring Tapes and Scales
Measuring tape is designed to indicate measurements by touch. An adapted measuring
tape could be of any size. Generally it is available
in sixty inches size (Five feet). It is a plastic
coated fabric (as in other measuring tape) to
reduce wear and tear. The measuring tape has
different tactile marks for . inch, 1inch and 1 foot
increments. This adapted measuring tape is
known as tactile measuring tape. Similarly, Metal
scales are also available for mathematical school

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work; eg. Drawing a line of specific size etc.
4.3.5 Soft-wares for teaching Mathematics
There are several mathematics learning software packages are available for
strengthening of mathematical concepts among students with visual impairment. Few
are listed as below:
l Scientific Notebook
Scientific Notebook (SN) is a software package. When installed on a laptop, the student
has a very portable device, which is more than just a graphing scientific calculator. It
is also a math/text processor, so the student can do all
assignments, calculations, and graphs in one document directly
on the laptop. It has onscreen magnification up to 400%, or
additional magnification software may be used. With the right
techniques, it is also possible for a blind student to work with
matrices using Scientific Notebook and a screen reader to
solve systems of equations and find regression lines.
Furthermore, math teachers can enter all their worksheets,
tests, etc. on this software, and the teacher of the visually
impaired can easily translate them into Nemeth code.
l Graph-It PC
Graph-It PC is designed for use with PCs and this is a product by Freedom Scientific.
The student can type in an equation and produce a tactile graphic on most embossers.
An audio representation of the graph can also be played through the speaker for a quick,
sound-picture of the graph. The software is quite limited, however, and the tactile
graphics and audio graph lack precision.
l Accessible Graphing Calculator (AGC)
The Accessible Graphing Calculator (AGC) from ViewPlus Software Inc. is a self-
voicing graphing scientific calculator software program. Unlike a hand-held calculator,
it displays results through speech and sounds, as well as visually presenting numbers
and graphs. This program is intended to have capabilities comparable to a full-featured
hand-held scientific and statistical graphing calculator. The onscreen graphics are easily
seen by a low vision student via an enlargement feature, and the graph can be listened
to by using the sophisticated audio wave feature.

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4.4. Assistive Technologies for Science
Student with visual impairment typically need some accommodations in order to safely
and fully access to the science curriculum. It is important to meet with the Teacher of
Students with Visual Impairments to discuss the curriculum and objectives and content
that will be covered during the school year. This is important for students following the
standard course of study as well as those following a modified curriculum. The
student¡¦s unique visual needs should be taken into consideration when determining how
to make materials accessible. Science materials may include measuring devices, charts,
reading materials, and equipment. Following are few important science related assistive
technologies to facilitate the learning of science concepts among students with visual
impairment:
4.4.1 Tactile Thermometers
The tactile demonstration thermometer allows students to independently read, set, and
compare temperatures. Popular tactile thermometer
by APH, USA has a two-textured, two-colored
adjustable mercury column with an easy-grip tactile
indicator. It usually includes both Fahrenheit and
Celsius scales presented in both large print and
braille. Tactile degree markings every 5 and 10
degrees. The mercury column slides up and down to
demonstrate temperature reading.
Usually talking clinical thermometer makes
temperature-taking fun and easy for kids and adults.
It's also an indispensable tool for the blind or
visually impaired individual. This model's two-
button design makes it extremely easy to use. Simply press the left button to turn the
unit on, wait for the confirming beeps, then press the right button to begin taking your
temperature. In about thirty seconds, you'll hear four beeps, followed by your body
temperature announced in a very clear voice. The temperature will then be repeated once
more, and the unit will automatically shut off after eight minutes, if you forget to turn
it off yourself, that is. The thermometer is intended for oral or underarm use, and
announces and displays your temperature in either Fahrenheit or Celsius.
4.4.2 Colour probes
Colour probes or colour detectors can be used by person with visual impairment or

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those with little colour perception to distinguish colours. This may assist them to
identify the colours. With the help of this device the affected person may be able to
identify the colour of clothing or furnishings, distinguish between items such as food or
check the ripeness of fruit.
4.4.3 Scientific and Mathematics Talking Calculators
Talking calculator is a very useful device for various calculation by students with visual
disabilities. A talking calculator is an inexpensive and invaluable device for students
with disabilities struggling with math at school. A talking
calculator can verify the accuracy of keys pressed and give
feedback to the user while making calculations. Talking
calculators look and function like common calculators.
However, this assistive technology devices has a built in speech
synthesizer so that each key pressed is spoken out loud. This
can help the user to verify that the numbers and operands have
been entered correctly. The calculator also speaks the answer to
the math problem.
Talking calculators can be used at home, for everyday
calculations such as balancing a checkbook, grocery shopping,
or calculating a recipe. For these uses, a basic model may be all
that is needed. Talking calculators are capable of advanced
mathematical operations, making it possible for the blind or
visually impaired to perform these operations without the use of
pen and paper. Various models are available for learning basic adding and subtracting
operations at school to enabling students to complete more advanced subjects such as
trigonometry.
4.4.4 Light probes
Light probes or light detectors can be used by person with visual impairment or those
with little light perception to get informed about how light or dark it is. The light probe
is a handy device used for detecting of lights are on or off, from ceiling lights to small
LED lights on appliances. It does this by emittring different tones. It can also be used
to detect which side of the paper writing is on when scanning, faxing or photocopying.
4.4.5 Weighing scales
A talking scale announces weights and are available in a
variety of sizes and styles. Kitchen scales may be the most
valuable for science education, although bathroom scales
and other types of scales are also available in talking
formats.

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4.4.6 Software and web resources for teaching Science
l Access STEM:
AccessSTEM is the ¡¥Alliance for Access to Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking & Technology (DO-IT)¡¦. The
AccessSTEM website is a space where K-12 teachers, postsecondary educators, and
employers learn to make classroom and employment opportunities in science,
technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) accessible to individuals with
disabilities, and share promising practices.
l Independence Science
Independence Science provides talking and sensory products to increase accessibility in
the science lab. This is a robust portal of technological and tactile solutions or
experimentation and modeling.
l National Science Teachers Association (NSTA)
NSTA "is the largest organization in the world committed to promoting excellence and
innovation in science teaching and learning for all." The site contains resources for
parents and information on teaching students with visual disabilities.
l Entrypoint!
ENTRY POINT! is a program of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science offering outstanding internship opportunities for students with apparent and
non-apparent disabilities in science, engineering, mathematics and computer science.
This association has developed unique partnerships with IBM, NASA, Merck, Google,
Lockheed Martin, CVS, NAVAIR, Pfizer, Infosys, Shell, Procter & Gamble and
university science laboratories to meet their human resources needs. Working with its
partners, this association identifies and screens undergraduate and graduate students
with disabilities who are pursuing degrees in science, engineering, mathematics,
computer science, and some fields of business, and places them in paid summer
internships.

4.4.7 Models
Three-dimensional models are beneficial to all students when learning about science.
This is particularly true for students with visual impairments. Students with visual
impairment should be provided with models that they could be touched, explored,
examined and communicated real concept. For students with visual impairment, it is

106
better to start with either the real object or, when this
is not possible, it should be facilitated by a three
dimensional model or object. There are abundant
resources related with tactile models and diagrams in
science. Tactile Astronomy is a web resource from
Amazing Space, is a downloadable tactile image
library for microcapsule paper. The tactile graphics
consists of vacuum-formed raised-line drawings that
are intended to supplement the graphics in a students
adapted textbook. It depicts objects, concepts, and relationships that are covered in
nearly all elementary science textbooks. The drawings use several types of lines and
textures, as well as different heights.

4.5. Assistive Technologies for Social Science

In inclusive setting, it is essential for classroom teachers and the special education
teacher to collaborate and work together closely. Special education teacher to engage
himself/herself in creating or developing accessible maps and materials. Materials need
to be ready in a timely manner so they will be ready when classmates are presented with
similar materials. The special education teacher may also need to provide models (eg.
a model of a volcano, historical objects, etc.), depending on the topic. It is important
that students first receive instruction in reading maps and other materials such as pie
charts, bar graphs, and timelines.

4.5.1 Tactile/Embossed Maps

The use of maps is an important skill for all children to learn. For students who have
visual impairments, learning to read a map is an important step towards independence,
as well as a way to participate more fully in the regular geography and social studies
curriculum. Teaching could be stimulated by using tactile maps, from the most basic
object books to more complex tactile graphics. It should be also remembered that apart
from assistive technologies fieldtrips are also very helpful in teaching social science.

4.5.2 Charts & Diagrams

Tactile resources are essential component, while teaching students with visual
impairment. Teacher should be competent enough in developing tactile chart and
diagram to elaborate social science concepts. Learning to use tactile diagrams is a skill
which should be overtly taught, with plenty of time for practice. Exploring a tactile

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diagram systematically is the key to making sense of
it. It is a very crucial task to cover whole concept in
a single diagram. Teacher should encourage the
students with visual impairment to explore a tactile
chart (bar, pie, etc.). The student should read the data
represented from each bar. Sticking to a routine
method helps students to make sense of their tactile
diagrams.
4.5.3 Models of Different Types
Models in two dimension and three dimension are important tool to facilitate concept
formation among students with visual impairment. While producing diagrams and
handouts, teacher should think about whether all the information is necessary. He/she
may be able to simplify the diagram and cut out some
of the text, making it easier for a visually impaired
students to access. Make sure that the work is printed
on the correct colour paper, some students may prefer
things on a certain paper or in a certain type face.
Making models or presenting the same increase a
visually impaired students understanding and
appreciation.
4.5.4 Auditory Maps
Human beings navigate through their environment by
developing an orientation or, mental understanding of
spatial relationships known as a spatial cognitive
maps. Spatial cognitive maps for most people involves using visual information to
development an understanding of the spatial relationship between the person and other
objects. For mobility of persons with severe visual impairments, scope of taking visual
clues and landmark is restricted. Other senses such as hearing, are used to collect
information in order to build a spatial cognitive map. Therefore, an auditory maps could
be a wonderful tool to get comprehension of geographical concepts among persons with
visual impairment.
4.5.5 Talking compass
Talking compass is a hand held device mainly helpful for getting around and taking
physical measurements by persons with visual impairment. It is a compact and easy-to-

108
use talking compass. User simply points in the
required direction, press the button, and the unit
will speak the compass point. It includes the four
major compass points, as well as the four interim
compass points. Compass also features clear,
digitized speech and ceramic piezoelectric
speaker.
4.5.6 GPS system
Survival and success depend on good orientation skills. This is an especially challenging
fact for people who are blind, because they must use only auditory and tactile queues
to determine their position in relation to other objects or places. For thousands of years,
people used landmarks and line-of-sight to return home after a long day on the hunt, but
these techniques became less effective the further they travelled. Eventually, explorers
discovered consistent heavenly bodies that could aid with orientation. For example,
early sailors kept a constellation to the left side of the ship to help with navigation. They
could use this technique to reliably
travel hundreds of miles.
With the introduction of the Global
Positioning System (GPS), the
power to quickly and accurately
determine one¡¦s place on earth) is
available to anyone. It does not
require any training. When
combined with an accessible
interface, and customizable and
current information about points of interest, the tools provide a compelling picture of
the locality and its characteristics.

4.6. Low vision Devices:

Low-vision devices are designed to improve visual performance in children or
individuals with low vision, thus enabling academic and social adaptation and providing
enrichment of daily experiences. These devices could be categorized into following
categories:
a. Optical

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b. Non-optical
c. Projective
d. Mobile & Computer based
4.6.1 Optical Devices
Low vision optical devices are devices which basically support vision through lenses.
We can say these devices are based on magnification done by magnifiers. Optical
devices could be grouped into two categories: 1) supporting near vision tasks, eg.
Handheld magnifiers, stand and hand-held magnifiers, strong magnifying reading
glasses; 2) supporting distance vision tasks, eg. small telescopes. Because these devices
can provide greatly increased magnification powers and prescription strengths, along
with higher-quality optics, they are different from regular glasses and commercially
available magnifiers. These devices are also available with light source to support
further.

4.6.2 Non-Optical Devices

Non-optical devices are low vision aids that do not use magnifying lenses to improve
visual function. They can improve the other visual aid's function or can even replace

110
optical aids. They enhance visual function by:
l Lighting control
l Enhanced contrast
l Reduction of glare
l Improving physical comfort
Low vision non-optical devices can include a number of adaptations, such as reading
stands, supplemental lighting, absorptive sunglasses, typoscopes, and tactile locator
dots. They are often recommended as part of a low vision examination, and can be used
in combination with magnifiers and other low vision optical devices that can help with
reading and a variety of tasks. Few non-optical low vision devices are listed below:
l Adjustable Reading Stand
l Typoscope
l Bold Pen
l Reading
Lamp
l Absorptive
Glasses
l Writing Guide

4.6.3 Projection Devices

Projection devices include Close Circuit Television (CCTV) and other projection based
magnifier system. CCTV consists of a monitor and a camera that projects the enlarged
image on the screen. Advantages are
higher reading speed and greater
working distance when compared to
other aids. The larger working
distance makes it easy to use for
writing, drawing, or painting. It
provides additional visual field,
brightness, contrast, and polarity
control, making it the choice for

111
diseases with low contrast and glare. It may allow magnification of 2 to 60 times with
several features including black and white or color, and fixed-focus or autofocus,
allowing objects to be seen at various distances.

4.7. Technology for developing Tactile Diagrams

Tactile graphics, including tactile pictures, tactile diagrams, tactile maps, and tactile
graphs, are images that use raised surfaces so that a visually impaired person can feel
them. They are used to convey non-textual
information such as maps, paintings, graphs and
diagrams.
Tactile graphics can be seen as a subset of
accessible images. Images can be made accessible
to the visually impaired in various ways, such as
verbal description, sound, or haptic (tactual)
feedback. One of the most common uses for tactile graphics is the production of tactile
maps.
The types and forms of tactile maps began with the oldest and most rudimentary or a
mixed media format. This tactile map is produced by simply attaching objects to a
substrate to represent different items or symbols. More recent tactile maps are produced
by computers through different means such as an ink-jet printers.

4.7.1 Thermoform and Swell Paper technology

l Thermoform Technology
Thermoform is one of the most common methods of producing tactile maps. This
process is also known as vacuum forming. Thermoform maps or plans are created from
a process where a sheet of plastic is heated and vacuumed on top of a model or master.
The master can be made from many substances, although certain materials are more
durable than others. Since this process involves creating a mould, it is somewhat time
consuming.
l Swell paper Technology
Swell paper has a special coating of heat-reactive chemicals. Microcapsules of alcohol
implanted in the paper fracture when exposed to heat and make the surface of the paper

112
inflate. Placing black ink on the paper prior to a heat process provides control over the
raised surface areas. This type of map is not as robust as the Thermoform map, but can
be produced with less effort and expense.
4.7.2 Software for developing tactile diagrams
Drawings produced by computers can turn into raised lined (embossed) graphics for the
visually impaired. The effective software applications for computer generated tactile
graphics should contain scalable vector graphic components; e.g.- lines, shapes,
freeform drawing tools, arrows, patterns, shapes fill, and line weight etc. Softwares that
contain these components are the best tools to use when producing computer generated
tactile graphics. Drawing that look like a picture are called bitmaps.
Third-party software containing mainly scalable vector graphic tools. Corel Draw,
Adobe Illustrator, and Microsoft Office (Word and PowerPoint) are the examples of
these kind of software. With the help of this application software one can produce tactile
graphic illustrations for science, maths and geography. These drawing applications may
not have scalable vector graphic drawing components, however, they can be used to
produce tactile graphics if a swell (encapsulated) paper device is doing the embossing.
Few dedicated tactile graphics production software are as follows:
l TactileView - Tactile Graphics
The TactileView Software is a tactile graphics tool from house of Index embosser.
TactileView's Design Software
l Import complex graphics
l Create tactile street maps
l Draw custom graphics
l Add audio tags to tactile
diagrams
l Web catalog
l Image and text combination
l In addition compatible with learning environment it is able to create subject wise
support; Math - Charts and graphs; Science - Diagrams for anatomy, geology, and
other visual subjects; and Art & Mobility - tactile maps for mobility, raised art &
drawings.

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4.8 Let us sum up
Learning Mathematics has been always being found crucial for learners with visual
impairment. The Taylor Frame or, Taylor Mathematical Slate is a device used to teach
Mathematics to blind students, Developed by William Taylor. The main purpose of this
device is to aid in the teaching and working of problems of long division, multiplication
of large numbers, subtraction, and addition. Abacus is a device used by visually
impaired children for doing basic Mathematical calculations. Abacus is rectangular in
shape. Abacuses with varied columns are used in different countries. Measuring tape is
designed to indicate measurements by touch. There are several Mathematics learning
software packages available for strengthening of Mathematical concepts among students
with visual impairment including Scientific Notebook, Graph-It PC, etc.
Science materials may include measuring devices, charts, reading materials, and
equipment. Following are few important science related assistive technologies to
facilitate the learning science concepts among students with visual impairment. The
tactile demonstration thermometer allows students to independently read, set, and
compare temperatures. It usually includes both Fahrenheit and Celsius scales presented
in both large print and Braille. Talking calculator is a very useful device for various
calculation by students with visual disabilities. A talking calculator is an inexpensive
and invaluable device for students with disabilities struggling with maths at school. A
talking calculator can verify the accuracy of keys pressed and give feedback to the user
while making calculations. Talking calculators look and function like common
calculators.
The special education teacher may also need to provide models (ex., a model of a
volcano, historical objects, etc.), depending on the topics of social sciences. It is
important that students first receive instruction in reading maps and other materials such
as pie charts, bar graphs, and timelines. The use of maps is an important skill for all
children to learn. For students who have visual impairments, learning to read a map is
an important step towards independence, as well as a way to participate more fully in
the regular geography and social studies curriculum. Auditory maps could be a
wonderful tool to get comprehension of geographical concepts among persons with
visual impairment. With the introduction of the Global Positioning System (GPS), the
power to quickly and accurately determine one¡¦s place on earth) is available to anyone.
It does not require any training.
There are several low vision assistive technologies available to support use of remaining
vision. These assistive technologies could be grouped into optical aids (using lens or

114
magnifier for magnification); non-optical aids (using environment control to make better
lightening condition) and projective aids (using magnification based on projective
devices). Tactile graphics, including tactile pictures, tactile diagrams, tactile maps, and
tactile graphs, are images that use raised surfaces so that a visually impaired person can
feel them. They are used to convey non-textual information such as maps, paintings,
graphs and diagrams.

4.9 Check your progress

1) The Taylor Frame or, Taylor Mathematical Slate is developed by:
a. Robert Taylor
b. William Taylor
c. James Taylor
d. Taylor Keith
2) The area of upper abacus and lower abacus is in proportion:
a. 2/3 and 1/3
b. 3/2 and 3/1
c. 1/3 and 2/3
d. 3/1 and 3/2
3) Spur wheels is
a. serrated wheel revolving in a plated metal handle
b. used for making continuous embossed lines
c. create embossed line on the reverse side of the paper d. all of the above
4) Geo-board is meant for learning:
a. Geometrical calculations
b. Geography
c. Geostationary satellite
d. Geometrical shapes
5) A talking calculator:
a. can verify the accuracy of keys pressed

115
 b. give feedback to the user while making calculations
c. Both
d. None of the above
e. Can show Movies
f. Can play Games
6) Students with visual impairment should be provided with models that they could :
a. Touch
b. Explore
c. Examine
d. All of the above
7) In the geography and social studies classes, teaching should be stimulated by using
a. tactile maps
b. tactile graphics
c. tactile chart
d. all of the above
8) Audio or tactile map aims to
a. Spatial cognition
b. Self-actualization
c. Conditioning
d. As a Stimulus
9) Which one is not an optical aid for children with low vision:
a. Stand Magnifier
b. Telescope
c. Handheld Magnifier
d. Typoscope
10) Production process of thermoform is also known as :
a. Sterlization

116
 b. Chromonisation
c. Random buffering
d. Vacuum forming

4.10 References & Suggested Readings

l American Printing House for the Blind (2015). Nearby Explorer Online. for
Android User's Guide. American Printing House for the Blind Inc.
l Biwas, P.C (2004). Education of children with Visual Impairment: in inclusive
education. Delhi: Abhijeet Publication.
l Bourgeault,S .E.( 1969). The Method of Teaching the Blind: The Language Arts,
Kuala Lumpur: American Foundation for the Overseas Blind.
l Caitlin DempseyGIS Software (2013). Developing Auditory Maps for the Blind.
Retrieved from https://www.gislounge.com/developing-auditory-maps-for-the-
blind/
l Chaudhary, Monica. (2006). Low Vision Aids. New Delhi: Japee Brothers
l Fatima, Roohi. (2010).Teaching aids in mathematics; a handbook for elementary
teachers. New Delhi: Kanishka Pub.
l Gerritsen, B. & Duffy, M. A. (2015). Helpful Non-Optical Devices for Low Vision.
Retrieved from http://www.visionaware.org/info/your-eye-condition/eye-health/
overview-of-low-vision-devices/common-non-optical-devices/1245
l Gerritsen, B. & Duffy, M. A. (2015). What Are Low Vision Optical Devices?
Retrieved from http://www.visionaware.org/info/overview-of-low-vision-devices/
low-vision-optical-devices/45
l Hersh, M.A & Johnson, M (Ed.) (2008). Assistive Technology for Visually
Impaired and Blind People. London: Springer
l ICEVI (2005). Mathematics made easy for children with visual impairment.
International Council for Education of People with Visual Impairment (ICEVI).
Retrieved From http://icevi.org/pdf/Mathematics_%20Made_%20Easy%20
for%20Children_%20with%20_Visual%20Impairment.pdf
l Kearney, G. (2012).Taylor Mathematical Slate. Commonwealth Braille and Talking
Book Cooperative. Retrieved from https://www.cbtbc.org/taylorslate/

117
l Lowenfeld, B. (1973). The Visually Handicapped Child in School. New York: John
Day Company
l Mani. M.N.G. (1997). Amazing Abacus. Coimbatore: S.R.K. Vidyalaya Colony.
l Mukhopadhyay. S., Jangira.N.K., et.al. (1987). Source Book for Training Teachers
of Visually Impaired. New Delhi: NCERT.
l Osterhaus, S. (2017). Math Technology for Visually Impaired Students. TSBVI.
Retrieved From http://www.tsbvi.edu/technology-math/1196-math-technology-for-
visually-impaired-students
l Perkins School for the Blind (2016). Learning Tactile Maps and Teaching Maps
Skills. Retrieved from http://www.perkinselearning.org/scout/tactile-maps-and-
teaching-maps-skills
l Proceedings: Asian Conference on Adaptive technologies for the Visually Impaired
(2009). New Delhi: Asian Blind Union
l Punani, Bhushan & Rawal, Nandini. (2000). Handbook for Visually Impaired.
Ahmedabad: Blind Peoples¡¦ Association
l RNIB (2015). Making tactile graphs and diagrams. Royal National Institute for the
Blind. Retrieved from http://www.rnib.org.uk/insight-online/making-tactile-graphs-
and-diagrams
l Sadao, K.C & Robinson,N.B. (2010) Assistive Technology for young children:
creating inclusive learning environments. Baltimore: Paul H Brooks
l Scheiman, Mitchell, Scheiman, Mitchel1& Whittaker, Stven (2006). Low Vision
Rehabilitation:a practical guide for occupational therapists. Thorefore (Newjersy):
Slack Incorp.
l Scholl, G.T. (1986). Foundations of the education for blind and visually
handicapped children and youth: Theory and Practice. New York: AFB Press.
l Singh, J.P (2003). Technology for the Blind: Concept and Context. New Delhi:
Kanishka Publication
l Tebo, L. R. (2017). A Resource Guide to Assistive Technology for Students with
Visual Impairment. Bowling Green State University. Retrieved from http://
www.qiat.org/docs/resourcebank/TEBO_VI_Resource_Guide.pdf
l TSBVI (2017). Mathematics and the Blind Student. NEW BEACON, Vol. XVIII,
No. 210, June 15, 1934, pp. 146-148) Retrieved From http://www.tsbvi.edu/
mathproject/ch1-sec6.asp

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l Van Geem, P. (2016). Tactile Graphics Resources. Computer Generated Tactile
Graphics. TVI, TSBVI Outreach Department. Retrieved From http://
www.tsbvi.edu/math/3189-tactile-graphics-resources
l Vasconcelos, G. & Fernandes, L. C. (2015). Low-Vision Aids, American Academy
of Ophthalmology. Retrieved from https://www.aao.org/pediatric-center-detail/low-
vision-aids
l Vijayan Premawathy & .Gnaumi Victoria. (2010). Education of Children with low
Vision. New Delhi: Kanishka Publication
l Willings, C. (2015). Tactile Graphics Resources. Retrieved from http://
teachingvisuallyimpaired.com
l Van Geem, P. (2016). Computer Generated Tactile Graphics. TVI, TSBVI Outreach
Department

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UNIT - 5 q Computer-Aided Learning
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives:
5.3 Computer Aided Learning: Concept & Need
5.4 Social Media
5.4.1 Advantage of using social media in Education
5.4.2 Disadvantage of using social media in Education
5.4.3 Few Social Media Sites used in Education
5.5. Creation of Blogs
5.5.1 Blog: Concept & Classification
5.5.2 Blogging Platforms
5.5.3 Creation of Blog
5.6. Tele-Conferencing
5.6.1 Teleconferencing: Concept and Scope
5.6.2 Advantages of Teleconferencing
5.6.3 Limitations of Teleconferencing
5.7 Distance Learning and ICT
5.7.1 Distance Learning
5.7.2 ICT and Distance Education
5.8. e-Classroom: Concept and adaptations for children with visual impairment
5.8.1 e-Classroom: Concept
5.8.2 Objectives of the E-Classroom
5.8.2 e-Classroom: Adaptations for Visually Impaired
5.9 Let us sum up
5.10 Check your progress
5.11 References & Suggested Readings

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5.1 Introduction
Technology in the form of adaptive and assistive devices, plays a crucial role in the
education of the visually impaired. This course brings into sharp focus the need and
importance of such technologies both for the practicing teachers and the visually
impaired learners. While highlighting the significance of addressing the users point of
view/feedback and involving mainstream professionals in developing required
technologies, the course also dwells upon on how best students with visual impairment
get access to the printed text/material. The course also acquaints the student-teachers
with various devices for making the teaching-learning process for important school
subjects meaningful, exciting and rewarding for all concerned. The educational needs of
children with low vision and related technological perspectives are addressed, too, along
with critical contributions of computer-aided learning and interventions.

5.2 Objectives:
In this unit we will explore the need, importance and components of computer-based
teaching-learning processes. When you will complete this unit, you will be able to:
l Sensitize about use of social media, teleconferencing
and other tools in education of children with visual
impairment.
l Demonstrate understanding of computer-based
teaching- learning processes.
l Explain importance and components of social media,
tele-conferencing and other tools of distance
education for computer aided learning among students
with visual impairment.
l Illustrate how e-classroom could be useful for the children with visual impairment.
l Understand the role of computer mediated learning among the children with visual
impairment.

5.3 Computer Aided Learning: Concept & Need

It is widely accepted that the integration of modern Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) into the teaching learning process has great potential. In fact, it

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could be the most important way by which schools and institution can meet students¡¦
educational aspirations within reasonable time and resources. The use of computers in
schools is basically vision as a teaching and learning aid besides to develop computer
literacy amongst the children. Computer aided learning will help us to make the present
teaching learning process joyful, interesting and easy to understand through audio-visual
aids. Teachers resourced with multimedia contents to explain topics better are being
widely appreciated by students. Overall it helps to improve quality of education in long
term.
Computer Aided Learning is an integrative technology, which describes an educational
environment where a computer programme is used to assist the user in learning a
particular subject. It refers to an overall integrated approach of instructional methods.
Computer aided learning is a device as well as a learning strategy to make teaching
more interesting, joyful and sustainable. Any use of computers to aid or support the
education or training of people may be considered under computer aided learning.
Computer aided learning can test attainment at any point, provide faster or slower routes
through the material for people of different aptitudes, and can also maintain a progress
record for the instructor.

5.4 Social Media

Social media are forms of electronic communication (such as websites for social
networking and microblogging) through which
users create online communities to share
information, ideas, personal messages, and other
content (such as text, pictures and videos). Social
media has gained credibility over the years as a
trusted source of information and platform where
individuals or organizations can interact with
other individuals. Social media infuses today’s
society with millions of us engrossed, some
would argue to the point of unhealthy addiction,
in the latest happenings via apps such as
Facebook and Twitter.
The use of social media in education provides students with the ability to get more
useful information, to connect with learning groups and other educational systems that
make education convenient. Social network tools afford students and institutions with

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multiple opportunities to improve learning methods. Students can benefit from online
tutorials and resources that are shared through social networks. There is valuable
knowledge to be gained through social media such as analytics and insights on various
topics or issues for study purposes. Social media is also a medium where students can
establish beneficial connections for their careers.
5.4.1 Advantage of using social media in Education
1) Connecting with experts:
The great thing about using social media is
that you soon learn who the experts are in
particular fields and subjects. When you start
following these experts you learn more and
gain useful content from them, this empowers
you to produce great results. Social media has
the ability to broaden your perspective on
various subjects and gives illuminating,
instant content that is new. You have the
opportunity of engaging experts to get
answers on topics that you may need help in.
Many institutions communicate with students via YouTube and Facebook.
2) Connect with Students:
Learning colleges have the ability to connect with
students through social media networks such as
Facebook, Google Plus groups, and YouTube.
These channels can be used to communicate
campus news, make announcements and provide
students with useful information. This builds
engagement between the College and students
which help tackle many student issues through the
group interactions.
3) Institutions Resource Sharing:
Institutions can share supportive and positive posts
that reach all students that are connected to the
networks and pages. You can initiate hashtags on
social media to engage students and online

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discussions that are helpful. Video is a prominent tool in social media trends that are
effective and you can use it to share useful videos that inspire students and help them
in their course subjects. Through social mediums such as YouTube, Facebook or
Instagram live video the engagements between students and the institution can be
sustained. It is advisable to be selective about which social platforms to use for the best
practice.
4) It helps in Research process:
Social media offers audience and
subject monitoring tools that are useful
and it is one of the best platforms to
extract data. You can find out how the
majority people feel about a particular
topic or how experts perceive and
advice on specific issues. This can help
students compile and produce useful
content for research. Whether students
are working on an assignment,working on a project or trying to gain more insight on
a subject, some of the best information and results can be extracted from social media.
5) Educational Tool:
Today’s students arrive at school, fluent in Web and social networking technologies.
Teachers can make use of this knowledge to enhance opportunities to learn. With social
media, teachers can promote cooperation and discussion, create meaningful
conversation, exchange ideas, and boost student interaction.
6) Enhance Student Engagement:
Social media is an effective way to increase student involvement and build better
interaction skills. Learners who hardly ever raise a hand in class may feel more
comfortable on Facebook, Twitter, or YouTube. Social media systems enable instructors
to identify ‘‘back channels’’ that promote conversation and surface ideas that students
are too shy or nervous to speak out in class.
7) Improve Communication among Students and Teachers:
Facebook and Twitter can improve interaction among learners and teachers. Teachers
can respond to student’s, questions via a Facebook page or Twitter feed, post homework
assignments and lesson plans, send messages and updates, schedule or announce
upcoming events, and share interesting Web sites and multimedia content. Students can

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use Twitter to get help from teachers or other students. A great way for teachers to give
participation points in addition to in class participation is by having students tweet about
something that was discussed in class.

8) Preparing Students for Successful Employment:

Students entering the workforce can use social networking sites to network and find
employment. With various
social media, older students or
alumnus can establish a
professional connection with
other students. Students could
make web presence, post a
resume, research a target
company or school, and
connect with other job seekers
and employers. Career centres
and alumni associations are
using different social media
(eg. Facebook & Twitter) to broadcast job openings and internships. Students could
follow businesses or professional organizations on social media to stay updated on new
opportunities and important developments in their field.

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9) Social Media as a Tool to Develop Students s’ Voices:
One of the major benefits of using social
media with students is teaching them to
communicate openly, honestly, and, above all,
kindly with their peers. The perceived privacy
or anonymity of being online is especially
freeing for boys, who may otherwise feel it is
uncool to engage in class discussions or to
show their emotions. Therefore, it is
imperative to use this teachable moment to
promote empathetic communication.
10) Work More Effectively:
Social media allows you to change the paradigm from teacher as expert to group as
expert. Rather than asking around between classes or sending and tracking emails to
multiple people who may know answers, you can ask a global community via social
media.
5.4.2 Disadvantage of using social media in Education
Any school and classroom need to have solid guidelines in place before you introduce
technology. This keeps everyone safe and ensures your students only harness the power
of social media for good. Some challenges are also associated with the use of social
media, which can affect children with visual impairment and others significantly.
Following are few major disadvantages of using social media in education:
a) Social Media can be a Distraction:
A common issue among teachers is that social media is distracting in the classroom.
These teachers maintain that resources like Facebook and Twitter divert students'
attention away from what's happening in class and can disrupt the learning process. With
the possibility that the use of social media tools can be an invitation for students to play
truant, teachers should make sure they won't be abused.
b) Cyberbullying:
While social networking sites provide a way for students and teachers to link up, they
can be a tool for harmful behaviour- even at school. Teachers who use social media as
part of their teaching should be wary of possible risks and plan to intervene on minor

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incidents before they become more serious.
c) Discouraging Face-to-Face Communication:
Some educators are worried that while real-time digital stream may create a safe
situation for students who are uncomfortable expressing themselves, learners are
missing valuable lessons in real-life social skills. Students may find themselves at a
disadvantage during university admission or job interviews when they need to command
attention and deliver a coherent message. At public events and in personal relationships,
they need to be able to effectively express themselves and connect with others.
Ultimately, while the debate continues over what role social media should play in the
classroom, no one can argue the influence that social networking has on today's
students. The new generation is tech-savvy generation and they conduct much of their
life through social media including sharing of emotions and achievements. They are
already using various social networking sites (viz. YouTube, Facebook, Twitter etc.) as
tools for learning and collaboration. They expect that their education will follow suit.
With this in mind, it seems practical and sensible for today's institutions to get on the
social media and explore ways to successfully integrate these tools into the learning of
students with visual disabilities.
5.4.3 Few Social Media Sites used in Education
We do have several social media platforms to connect and interact with educational
purposes. Followings are few important social media platforms (other than popular
Twitter and Facebook) through students and teachers could connect and interact with
each other:
a) Twiducate:
The Twiducate platform is a free resource for educators. Objective of Twiducate is to
create a medium for teachers and students
to continue their learning outside the
classroom. It is easily accessible and allows
teachers to create a class community online
using a class code rather than an email
address. It also allows teachers to have total
control over who is a member and what gets posted.
b) Blackboard:
This is a popular course management system as well as academic social media for

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school community. It allows multi stage restricted
permission to access, create and edit the content. The
decision to use Blackboard is usually made at the top tier.
Blackboard is an incredibly powerful, safe and
comprehensive platform. It is not a free application. Rather,
it is a very expensive platform. Again, it also lacks
flexibility at higher extent.
c) Wikispaces Classroom:
Wikispaces Classroom is a free social writing platform for education. It is easy to create
a classroom workspace where a teacher and students can communicate and work on
writing projects alone or in teams. Various assessment tools allow teachers to measure
student contribution and
engagement in real-time.
Wikispaces Classroom works great
on modern browsers, tablets, and
phones. Wikispaces Classroom is
free for teachers and students.
Over ten million registered teachers and students are available on the platform. Teacher
can assign, collaborate on, discuss and assess projects all
within the site. It can even handle multimedia.
d) Edmodo:
Edmodo is an excellent and free classroom management
system. It includes news feeds, assessment tools,
communication capabilities and security features. It connects
teachers students and others for educational purposes.
e) Skype:
It is the one site that can bring the outside world
right into your classroom. You can host authors,
visit science labs or talk to resource persons from
across the globe. It allows two way tele-
conferencing among resource persons and students.
f) Academia.edu:
Academia.edu is a social networking website for academics. The platform can be used

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to share papers, monitor their impact, and follow the research in
a particular field. It was launched in September 2008. The
platform website allows its users to create a profile, upload their
research or academic works, select areas of interests and then the
user can browse the networks of people with similar interests.
As of January 2017, there were 47 million users from around the
world.
g) Researchgate:
ResearchGate is a social networking site for scientists and researchers to share research
papers, ask and answer questions,
and find collaborators. It is believed
to be the largest academic social
network in terms of active users.
People that wish to use the site need
to have an email address at a
recognized institution or to be
manually confirmed as a published
researcher in order to sign up for an account. Members of the site each have a user
profile and can upload research output including papers, data, chapters, negative results,
patents, research proposals, methods, presentations, and software source code. Users
may also follow the activities of other users and engage in discussions with them. Users
are also able to block interactions with other users.

5.5. Creation of Blogs

A blog or, weblog is a discussion or informational website published on the World Wide
Web consisting of discrete, often informal diary-style text entries. These text entries or
multimedia entries are known as posts. Posts are typically displayed in reverse
chronological order, so that the most recent post appears first, at the top of the web page.
5.5.1 Blog: Concept & Classification
The emergence and growth of blogs in the late 1990s coincided with the advent of web
publishing tools that facilitated the posting of content by non-technical users who did
not have much experience with HTML or computer programming.
Previously, a knowledge of such technologies as HTML and File Transfer Protocol had
been required to publish content on the Web. Having a blog and making posts on blog

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could be termed as blogging. Blogging can be seen as a form of social networking
service. Indeed, bloggers do not only produce content to post on their blogs, but also
often build social relations with their readers and other bloggers. Many blogs provide
commentary on a particular subject or topic, ranging from politics to sports or
education. A typical blog combines text, digital images, and links to other blogs, web
pages, and other media related to its topic. The ability of readers to leave publicly
viewable comments, and interact with other commenters, is an important contribution
to the popularity of many blogs. However, blog owners or authors often moderate and
filter online comments to remove hate speech or other offensive content. In education,
blogs can be used as instructional resources. These blogs are referred to as edublogs.
There are different types of blogs, differing not only in the type of content, but also in
the way that content is delivered or written:
l Personal blogs:
The personal blog is an ongoing online diary or commentary written by an
individual, rather than a corporation or organization. While the vast majority of
personal blogs attract very few readers, other than the blogger's immediate family
and friends, a small number of personal blogs have become popular, to the point
that they have attracted lucrative advertising sponsorship. A tiny number of
personal bloggers have become famous, both in the online community and in the
real world.
l Collaborative blogs
A type of weblog in which posts are written and published by more than one author.
The majority of high-profile collaborative blogs are based around a single uniting
theme, such as politics, technology or advocacy. In recent years, the blogosphere
has seen the emergence and growing popularity of more collaborative efforts, often
set up by already established bloggers wishing to pool time and resources, both to
reduce the pressure of maintaining a popular website and to attract a larger
readership.
l Microblogging
Microblogging is the practice of posting small pieces of digital content¡Xwhich
could be text, pictures, links, short videos, or other media on the Internet.
Microblogging offers a portable communication mode that feels organic and
spontaneous to many users. Examples of these include Twitter, Facebook, Tumblr
etc.

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l Corporate or organizational blogs
Blog is generally personal or private in most cases. But, it can be for business or
not-for-profit organization or government purposes. Corporate or organizational
Blogs used internally, and only available to employees via an Intranet are called
corporate blogs. Companies use internal corporate blogs to enhance the
communication, culture and employee
engagement in a corporation.
5.5.2 Blogging Platforms
There are several blogging platforms.
Followings are some important blogging
platforms (other than Facebook and Twitter)
where user can create their blog and post text,
picture, videos etc. accordingly for educational
purpose:
1) Word Press:
Word Press is a Downloadable blogging (and website management) software, as well as
of of the most popular blogging platform. Currently 25 percent of the entire web blogs
are powered by Word Press. The software you get from WordPress.org is a
downloadable package,
which you then have to
upload/install on a web
server you already
manage. WordPress is
very easy to use and
need not any specific
training for using it. Only having basic computer skills are enough for use blog managed
by WordPress. Once, blog is being created, using this blogging platform on a daily basis
to publish your posts is very straightforward and easier. There are more than enough free
themes in the official directory at WordPress.org.
2) Google Blogger
Blogger is one of the oldest blogging
platforms and owned by Google. The
separate login account is not needed for
creating a blog on blogger. One need to sign

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up with his/her standard Google account, similarly to WordPress.com. Blogger takes
care of all the technical heavy lifting, allowing you to just focus on creating content.
Blogger platform is free but, personalized web domain and hoisting may lead to
additional payment. When one creates blog on blogger, individual gets a subdomain like
example.blogspot.com. You can change your custom domain too. Basic computer skills
are enough to start blogging under Blogger.
3) Tumblr
A trendy micro blogging hosted platform with a social network aspect. Tumblr is a great
blogging platform optimized specifically for bloggers who want to publish short-form
content, such as micro-blogs,
quotes, images, videos, and
animated pictures. Tumblr is also a
community of users, ready to
promote and comment on each
other’s work. Tumblr hosts your
blog for no additional cost. No specific skills are required to start and run a Tumblr
blog. The interface is user-friendly Tumblr blogs are easy to set up and easy to run
afterwards.
4) Medium
A publishing platform for your blog posts, stories
and articles. Medium has grown in popularity a lot
during the last couple of years (more than a million
people have joined Medium). In short, it¡¦s a
community of writers and bloggers, all using the
same looking site design to share their opinions and
stories on various topics.
l Wix:
Wix is very easy to use when it comes to launching a new website. However, you do
need to go through a couple of additional steps to add the blog module. Nothing too
difficult but still. Overall, Wix provides a step-
by-step wizard to get through the whole
process. More than 500 designs available.
There’s a number of essential site management
features built-in.

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5.5.3 Creation of Blog
Each platform does have certain specification and a certain path to create a blog on that.
It is very difficult to discuss creation of blog on each and every blogging platforms. We
are taking Google Blogger as an example to create a blog and use the same. Following
are the steps to create a bog with help of Google Blogger:
To set up a blog of your own
Ø Go to https://www.blogger.com/start and Click the orange ‘‘Create a Blog’’ button.
Ø Fill out the registration information, click that you accept the terms of service, then
click ‘‘continue.’’
Ø Fill in the information on the next screen, officially opening a Google account, then
click ‘‘continue.’’
Ø Give your blog a name (remember–it should suit your chosen character!) and
choose a unique URL address. Check the availability on the URL you have chosen,
and once you find an available one, click ‘‘continue.’’
Ø Now comes the fun part: scroll through the available templates and select one you
think would appeal to your character. Click ‘‘continue.’’
Ø Congratulations! You should see the ‘‘Your blog has been created’’ screen. Click
‘‘start blogging now.’’
To make a post
Ø The most recent posts will always appear at the top of your blog.
Ø Sign in to your blog at https://www.blogger.com/start2 with the e-mail and
password you gave during set-up.
Ø Now you will see your dashboard page, with many options for what to do. Click
the blue bubble that reads ‘‘New Post.’’
Ø Type in a title for your post- this will show up above the text in your blog - then
enter whatever text you wish in the box. You may also add images, videos, or links
(see below). The menu across the top will allow you to alter the font, size, and
color of your text, should you wish to do so. Keep your graphic design interesting,
but remember that the text of your posts is more important than changing each
letter into a rainbow of color. Try to make design decisions you believe your
character would make.
Ø Click ‘‘Publish Post.’’ You will now be able to choose to ‘‘View Blog,’’ ‘‘Edit
Post,¡¨ or ‘‘Create a New Post.’’ Select an option.

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To add an image to a post
Ø Save an image to your desktop. If it is not an image you took, be sure to write down
the source information and include that in a Sources Cited section on your blog.
continued Blog Creation Steps (continued)
Ø On the ‘‘New Post’’ page run your mouse across the menu of option icons just
above the text box. Click on the little blue box with the mountain in it that reads
‘‘Add Image’’ when your mouse crosses it.
Ø In the new box, click ‘‘Browse’’ and then choose the picture file from your desktop.
Choose to place image in the left, center, or right of the screen. Choose to make
image small, medium, or large. You may format and add up to five images at a
time.
Ø Click ‘‘I accept the terms of service’’ and then ‘‘Upload Image.’’ Your images
should soon appear in your post.
To add a video to a post
Ø Save a video file to your desktop. If it is not a video you took, be sure to write
down the source information and include that in a Sources Cited section on your
blog.
Ø On the ‘‘New Post’’ page run your mouse across the menu of option icons just
above the text box. Click on the little film strip that reads ‘‘Add Video’’ when your
mouse crosses it. Choose the file from your desktop, give the video a title, accept
the terms of service, and then click ‘‘Upload Video.’’
To add a link to a post
Ø Copy the desired URL from your web browser.
Ø Copy the link into your post, and then highlight it again with the mouse.
Ø Run your mouse across the menu of option icons just above the text box. Click on
the one with a green circle that reads ‘‘Add Link’’ when your mouse crosses it.
Paste or retype your link into the box and click OK.
Ø Your text should change color and become a link.
To edit or delete a post
Ø From your main blog page (you can always access this page by choosing ‘‘View
Blog’’), choose ‘‘New Post.’’ On the new post page, just above the main box,
choose the link ‘‘Edit Posts.’’

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Ø This will take you to a page showing all past posts. You may click the box for any
post and then choose ‘‘Edit’’ on the far left. This will take you back into the page
as if you are still continued. Blog Creation Steps (continued) working on the post
for the first time. You can make any changes you wish and then click ‘‘Publish
Post.’’ The new post will replace the old one.
Ø If you prefer to erase the post altogether, simply click ‘‘Delete’’ on the far right of
the ‘‘Edit’’ page for the chosen post.
To add a group of links, text, survey, or image to the sidebar
Ø From your main blog page (you can always access this page by choosing ‘‘View
Blog¡¨), choose ‘‘Customize’’ in the upper right corner.
Ø From the ‘‘Customize’’ page, you can add any number of page elements. On the
upper right, choose ‘‘Add a Gadget.’’
Ø Scroll through your gadget options, selecting the one you wish from: ‘‘Poll,’’ ‘‘Link
List,’’ ‘‘Picture,’’ or ‘‘Text.’’ You can also try adding other gadgets’ Xexperiment!
Ø Follow the instructions for the gadget you choose and then click ‘‘Save’’ to put the
gadget into your sidebar. This will return you to the layout page.
Ø Back on the layout page, you can click ‘‘Preview’’ to see what your new gadget
looks like, or you can click ‘‘Save’’ to make it part of your blog.
Ø You can always delete gadgets from the layout page, simply by clicking ‘‘Edit’’ in
the gadget’s box, and then choosing ‘‘Remove.’’
Ø You may also rearrange your page elements in this page by clicking and dragging
any element to a new location.
To add a footer image or quotation
Ø From your main blog page (you can always access this page by choosing ‘‘View
Blog’’), choose ‘‘Customize’’ in the upper right corner.
Ø From the ‘‘Customize’’ page, you can add any number of page elements. On the
bottom of the page choose ‘‘Add a Gadget.¡¨ You may now add a picture or text
across the bottom just like you did in the sidebar in the previous menu.

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5.6. Tele-Conferencing
From the points of view of the teaching functions, interactivity and user friendliness,
tele-conferencing emerges as an appropriate technology for reaching varied clientele
groups in diverse settings.
Teleconferencing means meeting
through a telecommunications
medium. It is a generic term for
linking people between two or more
locations by electronics. This
technology is famous in open and
distance learning modalities. With the
advancement of communication
technologies and reduction of costs, various organizations are also opting this
technology in their education and training programmes.

5.6.1 Teleconferencing: Concept and Scope

The word ‘tele’ means distance. The word ‘conference’ means consultations,
discussions. Through teleconferencing two or more locations situated at a distance are
connected so that they can hear or both see and hear each other. It allows the distant
sites to interact with each other and with the teaching end through phone, fax, and e-
mail. The interactions occur in real time. This means that the learners/participants and
the resource persons are present at the same time in different locations and are able to
communicate with each other. There are three following essential features of
teleconferencing:
Ø Learners/participants present at particular time and in dispersed places
Ø Resource persons present at the same time at the teaching end or different teaching
ends.
Ø Interactions between:
Ø Learner–resource persons/AV materials at the teaching end(s).
Ø Learner–learner at the learner center
Ø Learner–facilitator/materials/activities at the learner center
Ø Learner–learner at/between other learner centers

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Ø Resource person–resource person.
Tele-conferencing (especially video-conferencing) increases efficiency and results in a
more profitable use of limited resources. It is a very personal medium for human issues
where face-to-face communications are necessary.
When you can see and hear the person you are talking
to on a television monitor, they respond as though you
were in the same room together. Videoconferencing
maximizes efficiency because it provides a way to
meet with several groups in different locations, at the
same time. The communication in teleconferencing is
both vertical and horizontal, and the emphasis is on
interaction at all levels. Meaningful interaction in real
time is the strength of teleconferencing, and this sets it
apart from other technologies used in education. The
one-way limitation of educational broadcasting is overcome through the technology
configuration. Stimulating responses to visuals, situations, dialogue, discussion, sharing,
active experimentation, project work, etc. encourage interactivity. Some of other
features of tele-conferencing are as follows:
Ø Move Information, Not People or physical things.
Ø Electronic delivery is more efficient than physically moving people to a site,
whether it is a faculty member or administrator.
Ø Save Time: Content presented by one or many sources is received in many places
simultaneously and instantly. Travel is reduced resulting in more productive time.
Ø Lower Costs: Costs (travel, meals, lodging) are reduced by keeping employees in
the office, speeding up product development cycles, improving performance
through frequent meetings with timely information.
Ø Accessible: Through any origination site in the world.
Ø Larger Audiences: More people can attend. The larger the audience, the lower cost
per person.
Ø Adaptable: Useful for business, associations, hospitals, and institutions to discuss,
inform, train, educate or present.
Ø Flexible: With a remote receive or transmit truck, a transmit or receive site can be
located anywhere.

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Ø Security: Signals can be encrypted (scrambled) when it is necessary. Encryption
prevents outside viewers.
Ø Unity: Provides a shared sense of identity. People feel more a part of the
group...more often. Individuals or groups at multiple locations can be linked
frequently.
Ø Timely: For time-critical information, sites can be linked quickly. An audio or
point-to-point teleconference can be convened in three minutes.
Ø Interactive: Dynamic; requires the user's active participation. It enhances personal
communication. When used well for learning, the interactivity will enhance the
learning and the teaching experience.
Ø Concretization of experience
Ø Reflective observation
Teleconferencing could have different technical configurations and applications. It
includes use of telephone for audio conferencing, graphics in addition to audio for
audio-graphic conferencing, television and/or computer for video conferencing.
Following are different types of Teleconferencing:
Ø Audio Teleconferencing: Sometimes, it is called as Voice-only conference or,
conference calling. Interactively links people in remote locations via telephone
lines. Audio bridges tie all lines together. Meetings can be conducted via audio
conference. Preplanning is necessary which includes naming a chair, setting an
agenda, and providing printed materials to participants ahead of time so that they
can be reviewed. Distance learning can be conducted by audio conference.
Ø Audiographics Teleconferencing: Uses narrowband telecommunications channels
to transmit visual information such as graphics, alpha-numerics, documents, and
video pictures as an adjunct to voice communication. Other terms are desk-top
computer conferencing and enhanced audio. Devices include electronic tablets/
boards, freeze-frame video terminals, integrated graphics systems, Fax, remote-
access microfiche and slide projectors, optical graphic scanners, and voice/data
terminals.
Ø Computer Teleconferencing: Uses telephone lines to connect two or more
computers and modems. Anything that can be done on a computer can be sent over
the lines. It can be synchronous or asynchronous. An example of an asychronous
mode is electronic mail. Using electronic mail (E-Mail), memos, reports, updates,

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 newsletters can be sent to anyone on the local area network (LAN) or wide area
network (WAN). Items generated on computer which are normally printed and then
sent by facsimile can be sent by E-Mail. Computer conferencing is an emerging
area for distance education. Some institutions offer credit programmes completely
by computer. Through computers, faculty, students and administrators have easy
access to one another as well as access to database resources provided through
libraries.
Ø Video Teleconferencing: Combines audio and video to provide voice
communications and video images. Can be one-way video/two-way audio, or two-
way video/two-way audio. It can display anything that can be captured by a TV
camera. In two-way audio/video systems, a common application is to show people
which creates a social presence that resembles face-to-face meetings and classes
and enables participants to see the facial expressions of participants at remote sites.
Video conferencing is an effective way to use one teacher who teaches to a number
of sites. It is very cost effective for classes which may have a small number of
students enrolled at each site. Rural areas benefit particularly from classes provided
through video conferencing when they work with a larger institution.
5.6.2 Advantages of Teleconferencing
Ø It provides learning to large groups, which are geographically dispersed.
Ø For organizations, delivery costs are reduced with resultant cost benefit in terms of
time, travelling and spread of resources
over large groups
Ø It makes the best use of the available
resources by expanding them learning
opportunity and taking the resources to
the learners.
Ø It overcomes time or scheduling
problems for the learners who can
assemble at a learning centre for a limited
period only because of their full time or
part time work, and family and
community commitments.
Ø It can be designed to meet local specific requirements of training in terms of
content, language and conditions.

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Ø There is greater appeal, motivation and retention of information as a variety of
teaching methodologies are used.
Ø By using animation, graphics and other techniques, teleconferencing is good at
showing processes for demonstrations and experiments, thereby concretizing
learning.
Ø By conveying sights, sounds, and the spirit of the subject, it provides a more
rounded view of an issue.
Ø It provides uniformity of training, which is interactive. On the basis of feedback,
instructors can make appropriate shifts in the teaching strategies to meet learner
needs.
Ø The element of interactivity in teleconferencing is encouraged through dialogue and
by stimulating responses to situations and visuals. The opportunity of dialogue
allows the learners to discuss, question, and challenge issues. Stimulating the
learners to respond to situations and visuals leads to higher processes of learning.
As the learners become familiar with the technology and its practices, their
communication and learning skills are enhanced.
Ø Interactivity gives a sense of participation and an active environment for learning.
Ø The learners may feel themselves to be a part of the ¡¥real-life¡¦ learning situation,
and though located on different sites they feel they are connected. Relationships are
established as in a group situation.
Ø For the field functionaries in remote rural areas, it reduces the sense of isolation,
encourages sharing of concerns and ideas, and helps solve their problems.
5.6.3 Limitations of Teleconferencing
Teleconferencing has its limitations, but these can be overcome to a great extent by
corrective measures and using appropriate content, planning, organization and
management.
Ø If the number of centers is increased, time for interactivity for each center is
correspondingly reduced.
Ø Since teleconferencing demands real time interaction, the learners are required to
be present at particular times and places. Otherwise it will not work. It may be
difficult for learners to do so because of logistics problems and other regional
reasons resulting in poor attendance at the sessions.

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Ø Evaluation of learning could be a challenge in tele-conferencing.
Ø Teleconferencing to be effective for any type and purpose would require planning,
teaching strategy, development of content and materials, presentation techniques
and evaluation.

5.7 Distance Learning and ICT

Technology is not limited to the use of machines, and the aim is to apply the scientific
knowledge in order to obtain a practical result. The humankind has created science and
technologies, from the wheel to the computer, and the changes were significant in their
relations between the human beings and the nature, overcoming the traditional learning
and teaching process. We cannot simply use a resource. It is important that all the
pedagogical action is previously prepared, using structured objectives and allowing
students to keep in touch with new and different contents. By doing it, learners are
stimulated to build new relations with themes previously acquired. The teaching work
makes use of a pool of technological assets, aiming the learning appropriation according
to the mediation of the educator, with diversified resources and from different
methodological procedures. Technology becomes the mediation for Distance Education
and the technology serves as a vehicle through which the course is conducted.
5.7.1 Distance Learning
In conventional system of education teaching-learning takes place in classrooms, where
the students and teachers meet regularly at fixed timings. Distance education was an
educational mode supplementary, complementary and alternative to conventional/
traditional system of education,
depending on the situation it
was practised. Today it has
evolved into an independent
system of education. The growth
of communication technologies
and the cognitive sciences which
are flexible enough to use the
technologies for pedagogic
purposes have key roles in
distance education.
The term open and distance
learning and its definition are

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relatively new in the field of education, having gained prominence only in the past 20
years. The language and terms used to describe distance learning activities can still be
confusing, and geographical differences in usage. There is no one definition of open and
distance learning. Rather, there are many approaches to defining the term. Most
definitions, however, pay attention to the following characteristics:
Ø separation of teacher and learner in time or place, or in both time and place;
Ø use of mixed-media courseware, including print, radio and television broadcasts,
video and audio cassettes, computer-based learning and telecommunications.
Courseware tends to be pre-tested and validated before use;
Ø two-way communication allows learners and tutors to interact as distinguished
from the passive receipt of broadcast signals.
Ø Communication can be synchronous or asynchronous;
Ø possibility of face-to-face meetings for tutorials, learner¡Vlearner interaction,
library study and laboratory or practice sessions; and
Ø institutional accreditation.
5.7.2 ICT and Distance Education
Distance education is an educational innovation to meet the ever increasing and
diversified educational needs and demands of the society which are sequel to changing
social, economic, and other conditions on one hand and technological developments on
the other. Information and communication technology has widened the scope of
educational technology and enhanced the efficiency of
educational communication coupled with accuracy and
speed of feedback. As a result of this, it has become
possible to offer a variety of educational programmes
to different sections or groups of people through
various media of communication.
Distance Education follows the evolution of the
communication technologies, which gives support to
this kind of education. In this context, the teacher may
understand that technology contributions as a
pedagogical resource will occur continuously. Then,
he/she needs to act according to this possibility, planning his/her practices and
organizing the pedagogical actions as a mediation for this learning process, trying to

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overcome expectations and, consequently, the appropriation of knowledge. The
development of new technologies, which has instigated a revolution in our society and
in people¡¦s jobs, has permitted other possibilities for teaching and learning process. It
has also provided the development of new alternatives for the Distance Education
modality, combining the familiar educational resources with the tools of the Information
and Communications Technologies (ICTs). These directions point to the renovation of
teaching by formulating a wider conception of the educational process in order to meet
the demand of the society. In doing so, the ICTs can be used by the higher education
institutes aiming to adequate and make their contents available, then giving rise to a
greater flexibility of access to the distance courses.

5.8. e-Classroom: Concept and adaptations for children with

visual impairment
Teaching without chalk and blackboard made possible through technology that serves as
fundamental structural changes as integral to achieving significant improvements in
productivity. It used to support both teaching and learning, technology infuses
classrooms with digital learning tools, such as computers and hand held devices.
Student engagement and motivation; and accelerates learning. Technology also has the
power to transform teaching by ushering in a new model of connected teaching. This
model links teachers to their students and to professional content, resources, and
systems to help them improve their own instruction and personalized learning.
5.8.1 e-Classroom: Concept
E-classroom as part of our educational technology eliminates the barrier to quickly
access new information and it bridges the gap between the rich and the poor and urban

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to remote areas to quest for quality learning. This type of learning creates opportunities
to teachers and pupils/students to use the educational resources and other technologies
that can increase educational productivity by accelerating the rate of learning reducing
costs associated with instructional materials and better utilizing teacher¡¦s time. E-
classroom has also the potential to improve educational productivity by accelerating the
rate of learning, taking advantage of learning time outside of school hours, reducing the
cost of instructional materials, and utilizing teacher¡¦s time. It also helps to develop the
mindset of the students towards positive thinking and quest for more learning towards
excellence. These can be particularly useful in rural areas where online learning can help
teachers and learners accessible to information and to overcome distance. Digital
resources like electronic grade books, digital portfolios, learning games, is a powerful
tools to help teachers create more engaging and interactive teaching ways of learning on
teacher and student performance, are a few ways that technology can be utilized to
transform learning.
5.8.2 Objectives of the E-Classroom
There are a number of pedagogical methods and models of instruction. Rather the goals
of the electronic classroom focus on the support of a wide range of instructional and
classroom activities. The high level goals of the electronic classroom are as follows:
Ø To provide a more interactive learning experience than is generally possible in the
traditional classroom.
Ø To provide interactive and hypermedia technologies during classroom interaction.
Ø To increase student-to-student and student-to-teacher interaction and collaboration.
Ø To provide students with an integrated learning environment with access to
hypermedia databases, telecommunications, and simulations.
One primary theme running
through these objectives is
interactivity, to involve the
student actively in the learning
process. The other primary
theme is to enrich the
educational environment.
Hypermedia provides a way to
bring text, graphics, audio, and
video together;

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telecommunications opens up a window to the world; and simulations provide dynamic,
graphic models of abstract systems and theories.
These technological objectives, however, should in no way obscure or take precedence
over higher educational objectives. A good lecture devoid of technology may be
necessary to engage students in a theme. Face-to-face, unmediated interaction may be
necessary to drive a point home. Only when it proves beneficial should the instruction
turn to the electronic media.
The narrow view of the electronic classroom is that it is a room with computers and
multimedia displays. The broader view is that it is an electronic environment that
supports the many processes of classroom education. But to provide such an
environment the classroom must have some combination of the following elements:
Ø A computer workstation for the instructor.
Ø A multimedia system capable of presenting a variety of types of information (e.g.,
text, graphics, animation, audio, and video).
Ø A database of educational materials within the classroom.
Ø A computer workstation for each student
Ø A local area network that allows communication among all of the workstations, and
the viewing and sharing of screen images.
Ø A system that provides storage, sharing, and transfer of documents.
Ø A telecommunication system to link the classroom to external educational
resources.
5.8.3 e-Classroom: Adaptations for Visually Impaired
The Internet and internet based learning are tremendously important, including the lives
of people who are blind or visually impaired. The world-wide-web makes daily life a
lot easier for most of us but there are also people who cannot fully take advantage of
the benefits of the web such as blind people. Not every e-classroom platform is
optimally designed for use by individuals with visual impairments. When an e-
classroom is built without regard to proper web design, they become inaccessible by
people with vision loss who use access technology. Fortunately, things are changing and
blind people can use the web just like everyone else although web accessibility for blind
people is far from ideal.
Everyone could be benefited by accessible e-classroom. The same good techniques that

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make platform accessible to those of us who use
access technology benefit users of other devices as
well. For example, people with slower Internet
connections and those using devices such as cell
phones or tablets that have smaller screens. Since
the web and computers are primarily a visual
media, blind people obviously cannot use it
without specially designed technology. They
typically use web browsers which are specially
designed for blind people or the so-called screen
readers - software programmes which work by
speaking the text. Some, however, also use the
refreshable Braille display which, like its name
suggests, converts textual information into Braille
characters. In addition to enabling blind people to
understand the content on a particular website,
screen readers can also ‘‘detect’’ text that is highlighted or differently coloured, read pre-
selected text on demand, ‘‘determine’’ the location of the cursor, etc. by which they
make the web fully accessible to blind people but only under condition that the websites
they are accessing are designed with the use of codes that can be ‘‘read’’ by screen
readers.
Despite the ethical standards, not all website and web based platforms are fully
accessible for blind or visually impaired people. This is partly related to the fact that
blind people form a small percentage of disabled web users and partly due to
misconception that making proper adjustments to improve web accessibility is
complicated and expensive. But it is not complicated nor expensive. It is important to
mention that web accessibility for blind people does not affect the attractiveness or
usability of the website for non-disabled people in any way. And proper adjustments that
make a website accessible for all users regardless of their disabilities are not expensive
nor complicated.

5.9 Let us sum up

Computer Aided Learning is an integrative technology, which describes an educational
environment where a computer programme is used to assist the user in learning a
particular subject. It refers to an overall integrated approach of instructional methods.

146
Computer aided learning is a device as well as a learning strategy to make teaching
more interesting joyful and sustainable. Social media are forms of electronic
communication (such as websites for social networking and microblogging) through
which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages,
and other content (such as text, pictures and videos) Social media has gained credibility
over the years as a trusted source of information and platform where individuals or
organizations can interact with other individuals. Social media infuses today¡¦s society
with millions of us engrossed, some would argue to the point of unhealthy addiction,
in the latest happenings via apps such as Facebook and Twitter. The use of social media
in education provides students with the ability to get more useful information, to
connect with learning groups and other educational systems that make education
convenient. Social network tools afford students and institutions with multiple
opportunities to improve learning methods. A blog or, weblog is a discussion or
informational website published on the World Wide Web consisting of discrete, often
informal diary-style text entries. These text entries or multimedia entries are known as
posts. Posts are typically displayed in reverse chronological order, so that the most
recent post appears first, at the top of the web page.

The emergence and growth of blogs in the late 1990s coincided with the advent of web
publishing tools that facilitated the posting of content by non-technical users who did
not have much experience with HTML or computer programming. Blogging can be seen
as a form of social networking service. Indeed, bloggers do not only produce content
to post on their blogs, but also often build social relations with their readers and other
bloggers. Many blogs provide commentary on a particular subject or topic, ranging from
politics to sports or education. A typical blog combines text, digital images, and links
to other blogs, web pages, and other media related to its topic. The ability of readers
to leave publicly viewable comments, and interact with other commenters, is an
important contribution to the popularity of many blogs. However, blog owners or
authors often moderate and filter online comments to remove hate speech or other
offensive content. In education, blogs can be used as instructional resources. These
blogs are referred to as edublogs. Through teleconferencing two or more locations
situated at a distance are connected so that they can hear or both see and hear each other.
It allows the distant sites to interact with each other and with the teaching end through
phone, fax, and e-mail. The interactions occur in real time. This means that the learners/
participants and the resource persons are present at the same time in different locations
and are able to communicate with each other. Tele-conferencing (especially video-

147
conferencing) increases efficiency and results in a more profitable use of limited
resources. It is a very personal medium for human issues where face-to-face
communications are necessary. When you can see and hear the person you are talking
to on a television monitor, they respond as though you were in the same room together.
Videoconferencing maximizes efficiency because it provides a way to meet with several
groups in different locations, at the same time.

The communication in teleconferencing is both vertical and horizontal, and the

emphasis is on interaction at all levels. Meaningful interaction in real time is the
strength of teleconferencing, and this sets it apart from other technologies used in
education. The one-way limitation of educational broadcasting is overcome through the
technology configuration. Stimulating responses to visuals, situations, dialogue,
discussion, sharing, active experimentation, project work, etc. encourage interactivity.
E-classroom as part of our educational technology eliminate the barrier to quickly
access new information in the field of research and it bridges the gap between the rich
and the poor and urban to remote areas to quest for quality learning. This type of
learning creates opportunities to teachers and pupils/students to use the educational
resources and other technologies that can increase educational productivity by
accelerating the rate of learning reducing costs associated with instructional materials
and better utilizing teacher’s time. E-classroom has also the potential to improve
educational productivity by accelerating the rate of learning, taking advantage of
learning time outside of school hours, reducing the cost of instructional materials, and
utilizing teacher’s time.

5.10 Check your progress

1) Computer aided learning is to make teaching more:
a. interesting
b. joyful
c. sustainable
d. all of the above
2) Computer aided learning is a ________to make teaching more interesting:
a. device
b. learning strategy

148
 c. Both
d. None

3) Social media are forms of

a. electronic communication
b. face to face meeting
c. Personal meeting
d. Sharing papers
4) Major disadvantages of using social media in education:
a. It may create distraction
b. Cyberbullying
c. Discouraging Face-to-Face Communication
d. All of the above
5) Wikispaces Classroom is a free social writing platform for
a. Education
b. Industry
c. Movies
d. Games
6) In blogs posts are typically in
a. reverse chronological order
b. chronological order
c. random order
d. increasing post size
7) Essential features of teaching through teleconferencing:
a. Learners present at particular time at dispersed places
b. Resource persons present at the same time at the teaching end
c. Interactions between them (a & b)
d. All of the above

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8) In e-classroom technology contributions are as :
a. learning barrier
b. content facilitator
c. pedagogical resource
d. readiness
9) e-learning creates opportunities to teachers and pupils to
a. Use the educational resources
b. Use other technologies that can increase educational productivity
c. Accelerating the rate of learning
d. Reducing costs associated with instructional materials.

5.11 References & Suggested Readings

Ø Asian Blind Union (2009). Proceedings: Asian Conference on Adaptive
technologies for the Visually Impaired. New Delhi: Asian Blind Union
Ø BBC (2010). How social media is changing education. Retrieved from http://
www.bbcactive.com/BBCActiveIdeasandResources/
Howsocialmediaischangingeducation.aspx
Ø Biwas, P.C (2004). Education of children with Visual Impairment: in inclusive
education. Delhi: Abhijeet Publication.
Ø COL (2000). An Introduction to Open and Distance Learning, The Commonwealth
of Learning. Retrieved from http://oasis.col.org/bitstream/handle/11599/138/ODL
Intro.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Ø Daniels, L. (2016).10 Social Media Sites for Education. Retrieved from http://
www.teachthought.com/the-future-of-learning/technology/10-different-social-
media-sites-for-education/
Ø Hersh, M.A & Johnson, M (Ed.) (2008). Assistive Technology for Visually
Impaired and Blind People. London: Springer „h Leoncio, C. M. (2013).
Importance of e-Classroom in Teaching and Learning. Retrieved from http://
www.deped-ne.net

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Ø London College of International Business Studies (2017). The Role of Social
Media in Education. Retrieved From https://lcibs.co.uk/the-role-of-social-media-in-
education/
Ø Mening, R. (2017).How to start a Blog: Learn how to create a blog (step-by-step,
with images). Retrieved from https://websitesetup.org/start-a-blog/
Ø Mukhopadhyay. S., Jangira.N.K., et.al. (1987). Source Book for Training Teachers
of Visually Impaired. New Delhi: NCERT. „h Nielsen, L. (2015). 7 Ways Social
Media Has a Role in Education. Retrieved from http://www.techlearning.com/
blogentry/9084
Ø Norman, K. L. (1997).Teaching in the Switched On Classroom: An Introduction to
Electronic Education and Hyper Courseware. Retrieved from http://lap.umd.edu/
soc/ch1/ch1.html
Ø Punani, Bhushan & Rawal, andini.(2000). Handbook for Visually Impaired.
Ahmedabad: Blind Peoples¡¦ Association
Ø Sadao, K. C. & Robinson, N. B. (2010) Assistive Technology for young children:
creating inclusive learning environments. Baltimore: Paul H Brooks.
Ø Scholl, G.T. (1986). Foundations of the education for blind and visually
handicapped children and youth: Theory and Practice. New York: AFB Press.
Ø Singh, J.P (2003). Technology for the Blind: Concept and Context. New Delhi:
Kanishka Publication
Ø UNESCO (2012). The role of Social Media in Teaching and Learning. Innovative
ICT Practices in Teaching and Learning: A Regional Seminar, 9-11 October, 2012,
Seoul. Retrieved from http://www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ict/
Workshops/regionalseminar2012/ppt/workshop_5_-
_The_Role_of_Social_Media_in_Teaching_and_Learning.pdf
Ø W3C (2016). Accessibility. Retrieved from https://www.w3.org/standards/
webdesign/accessibility

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Notes

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