SCAFFOLDS

Definition
A temporary framework consisting of poles or metal tubes and planks, etc.,
on or from which work may be performed during construction or
maintenance operations on a building, or by means of which access may
be obtained to the working area.
Scaffolding can be classified in either of two ways:
 By the material used to construct scaffold, i.e. wood or steel/light alloy tubes
 By the method of erection, i.e. dependent or independent.
Classification by type of material
There are two materials that may be used in scaffolding:
 Wooden
 Metal.
Tubular scaffolding
Steel and light- alloy tube are the commonest materials used for this
type of scaffolding although the use of steel is fast diminishing because it
is heavy and costly to maintain. The scaffold is erected using a series of
fittings.
Advantages of tubular scaffold include the following.
 Less likely to deteriorate than wooden scaffolding.
 Correctly used it is more rapidly erected
 More convenient for internal work owing to wider range of widths
 Take up less space when stored
 Used for multi- storey building
Disadvantages are as follows
 High cost of preservation
 High initial cost
 Many types of coupler are needed
Advantages of wooden scaffold
 Woods/timbers are cheaper and in plenty compare to tubular materials
 Easy to cut into required size
 No extra maintenance cost may be needed
 No fittings are required
 Less skills may be required to construct
 Its waste can be used for other purposes like fire wood
Disadvantages
 Wooden scaffold is restricted to low rise building (limited height)
 As log are mode out of young trees, they are prone to insect
attack, thus limiting their length usefulness
 Large holes are left in the wall after used and these need to be patched/filled
 It can occupy wider space compare to tubular in term of storing them.
 Regular replacement essential in order to avert/avoid likely failure
resulting to over dried logs
 In cannot be reused for many time

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 Types of scaffolds
The following types of scaffold are as below
 Dependent / putlog scaffold

 Independent / tubular scaffold

 Cantilever scaffold
 Slung scaffolds
 Truss out scaffold
 Suspended scaffold
 Mobile tower scaffold
 Birdcage scaffold
 Gantries
 System/patent scaffolding
 Trestle scaffold
Method of erection
There are two ways in which scaffoldings, other than trestle/bracket
scaffolds, may be erected
Dependent scaffolding
This is a type of scaffold which have outer row of standards joined
together by ledgers which in turn support the transvers putlogs which are
built into the bed joints or perpend as work proceeds
 This is sometime termed as a ‘putting scaffold’ or ‘bricklayer’s scaffold’.
 The system uses putlog whose flat end are built into the joint to
provide rigidity the stability of dependent scaffold is provided by
these putlogs.
 There is only one raw of standard connected by ledgers.
 They are therefore suitable for new work in brick or block.
 The erection procedure of dependent scaffolding is shown in the drawing below

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 Independent scaffold
These are scaffold which have two rows of standard, each row joined
together with ledger which is in turn support transverse transom.
 The scaffold is erected clear of the exiting or proposed building but is
tied to the building or structure at suitable interval.
 This is something called the mason’s scaffold, it has two rows of
standard, one close to structure and another at a distance equal to the
required platform width away from the first.
 It is stronger, and used for heavy operations, such as masonry work.
 Putlog are not used, instead transom pieces are used to support the platform
Procedure of erecting a tubular scaffold
The scaffold units have been brought to the site and sorted out in their
various lengths, fitting oiled and sorted out according to their kinds, and
planks stacked ready

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  Place the base plate for standards No 1and No 3 at equal distances
from the wall, allowing for the type of plate.
 With the aid of assistance, stand the standards on the base plates and
connect the two with a ledger using double couplers.
 The ledger should be sighted for level.
 The bolts of the couplers should be place uppermost.
 Putlogs can now be fixed using single couplers or putlog clips with the
flat ends pushed well into the joints.
 No. 2 standard is then placed into position and sighted for
uprightness and alignment with No. 6 into position and sight for
alignment.
 Connect the ledger by using a joining pin at the end of the first
ledger and joining the second ledger.
 Fix putlogs, and place standards No. 4 and No.5 sighted, aligned and
fixed, to the ledger with double couplers.
 Place putlogs in accordance with the regulations, but place two putlogs
close together at the junction of planks so as to prevent tipping
 Repeat this procedure until the required length scaffold is obtained.
 At corners, it is usual that the planks from one direction overlap those
from the other and a ledger comes over the other at a right angle.
Putlog hole are left out or made in cross joints of the lower ledger.

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 Mason’s independent

scaffold Modern developments in scaffolding

 In recent years there has been a tremendous improvement in the
design of tubular scaffolds.
 The rate at which buildings are required to be finished has made
traditional systems of erecting scaffolds for construction purposes too
slow and tedious.
 Also lack of trained indigenous labor is a common problem with
which the contractor has to contend/deal with.
 Although timber scaffolding, which require a knowledge of carpentry to
erect, is in common use and is comparatively cheap, the rapid growth in
the industry,

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 the increasing sophistication of building designs and the need to
improve safety standards have led many builders to seek other ways of
scaffolding.
 One type of access and support scaffolding system which has been
introduced into the market is called ‘cup lock’.
 The system can be erected by unskilled worker. As the name implies,
there is a series of cups on the vertical members are simply place placed
in these cup.
 A movable collar is then dropped over the connection and locked
hammer blow.
 There are therefore no bolts to tighten, no wedges to knock into
position, and no leveling out to be done after the initial line of
horizontal members.
 As stated before, the initial capital necessary to purchase tubular
scaffold precludes their use by many contractor, despite the
apparent advantages.
 It is however, necessary for craftsmen to know what is available to the user.
Cantilever scaffold
These are form of independent tied scaffold erected on cantilever beam
used where
 it is impracticable
 undesirable
 Uneconomical to use a traditional scaffold constructed from the ground
level. The assembly of a cantilever scaffold requires special skills and
should therefore always be carried out by trained and experienced
personnel.

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 SLUNG/HUNG SCAFFOLDS
These are scaffolds that are suspended by means of wire ropes or chains
and are not provided with a means of being raised or lowered by a lifting
appliance.
A secure anchorage must be provided for the suspension ropes, and this
can usually be achieved by using the structural members of the roof over
the proposed working area.
 Any member selected to provide the anchorage point must be
inspected to assess its adequacy.
 At least six evenly spaced suspension wire ropes or chains should be
used, and these must be adequately secured at both ends.
 The working platform is constructed in a similar manner to
conventional scaffolds Consisting of:
ledgers,
Transoms and
Timber scaffolding
boards Necessary
guard rails
Toe boards.
 Working platforms in excess of 2.400m × 2.400m plan size should be
checked to ensure that the supporting tubular components are not
being overstressed.
Use
Their main use is for gaining access to high ceilings or the underside of
high roofs.
TRUSS-OUT SCAFFOLDS
These are a form of independent tied scaffold that rely entirely on the
building for support,
The supporting scaffolding structure that projects from the face of the
building is known as the ‘truss-out’.
Anchorage is provided by adjustable struts fixed internally between the
floor and ceiling, from which the cantilever tubes project.
Except for securing rakers, only right-angle couplers should be used.
The general format for the remainder of the scaffold is as used for
conventional independent scaffolds
Used
 Used where it is impossible or undesirable to erect a conventional
scaffold from ground level. e.g. tall building

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 SUSPENDED SCAFFOLDS
These consist of a working platform suspended from supports such as
outriggers/brace that cantilever over the upper edge of a building, and in
this form are a temporary means of access to the face of a building for
Many new tall structures have suspension tracks/road way incorporated in
the fascia or upper edge beam, or a cradle/frame suspension track is fixed
to the upper surface of the flat roof on which is supported a manual or
power trolley with retractable davit/pivot arms for supporting the
suspended working platform or cradle.
 All forms of suspended cradles/support/frame must conform to the
minimum requirements set out in the Work at Height Regulations
2005 with regard to
Platform boards,
Guard rails and toe boards.
 Cradles/support may be single units or grouped together to form a

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 continuous working platform; if grouped together they are connected to
one another at their abutment ends with hinges.
Use
The purposes of cleaning and light maintenance work.

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 MOBILE TOWER SCAFFOLDS
The scaffold is basically a square tower constructed from scaffold tubes
mounted on wheels fitted with brakes. Platform access is gained by short
opposing inclined ladders or one inclined ladder within the tower base
area.
Use
These are used mainly by painters and maintenance staff to gain access
to ceilings where it is advantageous to have a working platform that can
be readily moved to a new position.

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 BIRDCAGE SCAFFOLDS
These types of scaffold consist basically of a two-directional arrangement
of standards, ledgers and transoms to support a close-boarded working
platform at the required height.
To ensure adequate stability standards should be placed at not more than
2.400 m centers in both directions, and the whole arrangement must be
adequately braced.
Use
These are used to provide a complete working platform at high level over a
large area
GANTRIES
These are forms of scaffolding used primarily as elevated loading and
unloading platforms over a public footpath where the structure under
construction or repair is immediately adjacent to the footpath.

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 As for hoardings, local authority permission is necessary and their specific
requirements such as;
 Pedestrian gangways,
 lighting and
 Dimensional restrictions must be fully met. It may also be necessary to
comply with police requirements as to when loading and unloading can
take place. The gantry platform can also serve as storage and
accommodation area as well as providing the staging from which a
conventional independent scaffold to provide access to the face of the
building can be erected. Gantry scaffolds can be constructed from
standard structural steel components as shown in Fig. 2.6.3 or from a
system
Gantry scaffolds can be constructed from standard structural steel
components The gantry platform serves as storage and accommodation
area as well as providing the staging from which a conventional
independent scaffold to provide access to the face of the building can be
erected. As for hoardings, local authority permission is necessary, and their
specific requirements such as pedestrian gangways, lighting and
dimensional restrictions must be fully met.
It may also be necessary to comply with police requirements as to when
loading and unloading can take place.
Uses
 These are forms of scaffolding used primarily as elevated
loading and unloading platforms over a public footpath where
the structure under construction or repair is immediately
adjacent to the footpath.

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 System/Patent Scaffolds
These scaffolds are based upon the traditional independent steel tube
scaffold, but instead of being connected together with a series of loose
couplers and clips they usually have integral interlocking connections.

They are easy to erect, adaptable, and generally can be assembled and
dismantled by semi-skilled operatives.
Advantages
 The design of these systems is such that the correct position of
handrails, lift heights and all other aspects of the Work at Height
Regulations 2005 are automatically met.
 Another advantage found in most of these system scaffolds is the

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 elimination of internal cross-bracing, giving a clear walk-through space
at all levels; façade/front bracing, however, may still be required.

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 Trestle scaffolding
The working platform is supported on the top of moveable
contrivances/set up such as tripods, ladders etc. mounted on wheels
Such type of scaffolding is used for painting and repair works inside the
room, up to a height of 5m.

Parts and terms used in scaffolding

Standard
The upright members positioned in alignment and parallel to the wall face
Ledgers
The horizontal members which connect the row of standards
Putlogs
Shorter lengths with one end flattened to enter the wall
joints. The ledger fixed diagonally across the standard for
added rigidity. Reveal pin
A short piece with chewable end attachments used across openings for the
purpose of fixing a putlog

Base plate
Abase plate is used at the foot of standard to provide stable footing, the
base is nailed to the base board if the ground upon which the scaffold rest
is weak and unstable
Double coupling or coupler
This is used to tie ledgers to standard at right angles.
Single coupler or coupler
Used to tie a putlog to a
ledger. Swivel coupler
Rotating fitting used to tie a brace to the standard
Jointing pin
Used to joint two lengths of tubing.
The pin consisting of split halves connection by a coach screw.
Tightened the bolt causes the split halves to pull apart thereby wedging
tightly against the internal surface of the tube.

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 Regulations affecting scaffolds:
Where work cannot safely be done on or from the ground or from part of
blag or other permanent structure, there shall be provided, placed and
kept in position for use and properly maintained either scaffolds or where
appropriate ladders or other means of support all of which shall be
sufficient and stable for the purpose.

Following are regulations guiding scaffolds are strictly obeyed

 Scaffold and components used must be of sound materials, safe
construction and be sufficiently strong to serve the purpose for which
they are meant.
 A partly erected or dismantle scaffold must comply with the regulations
and if not must not be allowed to remain in that condition unless a
warning notice against its use is displayed
 Timber members of scaffolds, ladders and trestles must not be treated

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 in such a way as to hide defects on them. Metal parts must be free from
corrosion and similar defects.
 The standard of scaffold must either be vertical or lean slightly
toward the building for stability
 The foot or base must not be place on loose or weak material, but
placed on an adequate base plate so as to prevent slipping or sinking

 Put logs or other supports for a platform must be securely fastened

to the ledger or standard or their movement restrained by other
means.
 If a putlog is supported by a wall, it must extend into the wall to
provide an adequate support
 The distance between two consecutive put logs varies according
to the thickness of planks used for the platform.
For 32mm thick planks/board, it must not exceed
1m.
For 38mm thick planks/board, it must not exceed
1.5m. For 50mm thick plank it must not exceed
2.6mm.
The minimum width of working platforms from which a person is liable to
fall a distance of 2m or more, must be as follows
As a footing only, minimal width must be 600mm (3 boards)
For deposit of material, minimum width must be 800mm (4
boards) For passage materials, minimum width must be
600mm (3 boards) For dressing of stone, minimum width
must be 1.30m (6 boards)
For support of higher platform, minimum with must be 1.05m (5 boards)
For higher platform and stone dressing, minimum width must be 1.50m
(7 boards)
 Plank should not be project beyond the end support at the end of
scaffold, or at the change of direction, any more than a distance of
four times the thickness of the board.
 The plank must be fixed securely to prevent tipping.
 Provision must be made for levelling pieces where boards overlaps to
make the movement of wheelbarrows easier and to prevent falls
 The clear passage of at least 400mm must be left between rails of
working plat form and any obstruction or deposited materials.
 Brace must be used to prevent the scaffold from collapsing due to
sideways sway. Where the scaffold is adequately tied to the structure
at its upper end, no brace need to use.
 Every scaffold must be tied to the structure vertically and horizontally
every 10m

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  The distance between two consecutive standards in a normal
bricklayer’s or block layer’s scaffold should not be more than 2.5m.
 Between ledgers, which is termed a ’lift’, it should not be higher than 1.6m.
 Guard rails and toe boards must be provided in all situations where
person are liable to fall a distance of 2m or more
 A guard rail or rails must be fixed 910mm from the top of the toe board or at
1.15mfrom the working platform.
 The minimum height for a toe board is 150mm and the distance
between toe board and the lowest 765mm.
 Guard rails and toe board must be placed on the inside of the standards
 Guard rails and toe board are not required for the platform of a ladder
scaffold if there is a secure hand-hold for the full length, nor for the
platform of a trestles scaffold which is supported by trestles.

 The used of a trestle scaffold is not allowed if person are not liable to fall
more than 4.5m from platform which it supports. A trestle scaffold must
not be constructed with more than one tier if folding supports are used.
 Ladders are often used on scaffold, and the following regulations
relate to them.
 Ladders of all kinds other than those used as crawling devices on roof
must stand on a firm base.
 They must be securely fixed, near their upper resting place when in use
and, if this is impracticable, at or near their lower end.
 Where neither fixing is practicable, an adult must be stationed at the
foot to prevent slipping. Ladder must have a firm base and not stand
on loose blocks or other loose materials.
On supervision of work and inspection of materials.
 No scaffold shall be erected or be substantially added to or altered or
be dismantled except under the immediate supervision of competent
person and so far as possible by competent work man possessing
adequate experience of such work.
 All materials for scaffold shall be inspected by a competent person on
each occasion or seven days before they are taken into use or after
adverse weather conditions which affects its strength and stability and
the inspector must give location and description, date of inspection,
state of scaffold must sign.
On construction and material
 Every scaffold and every part thereof shall be of good construction
suitable and sound materials and of adequate strength for the purpose of
which it is used36
 Sufficient material shall be provided for and shall be used in the
construction of scaffold
 Timber used for scaffolds shall be of suitable quality, be in good
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 condition and have the back completely stopped off.
 Timber used for scaffolds, trestles ladder and folding steps ladder shall
not be painted or treated that defects cannot easily be seen.
 Metal parts used for scaffolds shall be of suitable quality and in good
conditions and free corrosion or other patent (obvious) defects likely to
affect their strength materially
Defecting materials
 No defective materials or defective parts shall be used for a
scaffolds construction
 No rope or bond/connection which has defective weather through
contact with an acid other corrosive substance or other shall be used
 All materials and parts for scaffolds shall when not in used be kept
under good condition and parts from other materials or parts an suitable
for scaffolds (e.g. dump places)
Maintenance of scaffolds
 Every scaffold shall be properly maintained and every part shall be kept
so fixed secured or place in position as to prevent as far as practicable
accidental displacement
Partly erected or dismantled scaffolds

 No scaffold or part of scaffold shall be partly erected or

dismantled and remained in such condition as work proceeds
 The scaffold to be erected or dismantled must comply with
regulation whenever and at all cost
 A prominent warning notice indicating that the scaffold or part as case
may be, is not to be used in fastened pinned (fasten or attached to 5 th),
near any point of which the scaffold or part as the case may be is liable
to the approached for the purpose of use; or
 Access to the scaffold or part as the case may be, is as far as
reasonably practicable effective block.

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BONDING

A bond is an arrangement of bricks or stones in each course, so as to ensure the

greatest possible interlocking and to avoid the continuity of vertical joints in two
successive courses, both on the faces and the body of the wall.
The purpose of a brick bond is to provide stability and strength to the wall, as well as
to enhance its appearance.

Objectives of Bonding:

The primary objective of providing a bond is to break the continuity of the

vertical joints in the successive courses both in the length and thickness of
masonry structure. As a result, the structure will act as a bounded mass and its
load will be transmitted uniformly to the foundations.
To ensure longitudinal and lateral strength of the structure.
To provide pleasing appearance by laying bricks symmetrically.

Types of Brick Bonds

1. Stretcher Bond

Bricks are laid horizontally and flat with a long side called a stretcher and in this bond,
all brick is laid as stretchers, which is lengthwise shown in fig. Sometimes stretcher
bond is also known as a running bond.

The limitation of the stretcher bond is that it cannot make an effective and strong
bonding with adjacent bricks in full-width thick brick walls. They are only suitable for
one-half brick-thick walls such as partition walls.

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Walls constructed using these bonds are not strong enough to stand alone in case of
long span and height. Thus they need supporting structures such as brick masonry
columns at regular intervals.

Advantages of stretcher bond

This bond is mostly used in steel or reinforced concrete framed structures as the outer
facing as well as for the construction of cavity walls.

Different types of wall construction done using stretcher-type bonds are

1. Sleeper walls
2. Boundary walls
3. Partition walls
4. Division walls (internal dividers)
5. Chimney stacks
2. Header Bond

Header means a shorter square span face of the brick which has dimensions 9cm x
9cm. In these bonds, all bricks are placed as headers on the faces of any type of wall.
Sometimes header bond is also called a heading bond.

While Stretcher bond is used for the construction of walls of half-brick thickness
whereas this bond is used for the construction of walls with full-brick thickness.

In these bonds, the overlap is kept equal to 1/2 the width of the brick. For this purpose
three-quarter brickbats are used in alternate courses as quoins.

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Advantages of Header Bond

 Easy to construction
 Simple structure
 No skilled labor required
3. English Bond

English bond in the brick masonry work consists of one course of the stretcher and
another course of the header above it, i.e. pattern formed by laying alternate courses
of stretchers and headers.

Headers are laid centered on the stretchers in the course below and each alternate row
is vertically aligned.

For the breaking of continuity of vertical joints, the queen closer is used at the
beginning and end of a wall after the first header in each heading course.

A queen closer is a brick cut lengthwise into two halves and used at corners in brick
walls.

Advantages of English Bond

English bond is one of the strongest bonds but it requires more facing bricks than any
other bond. Brick flooring is done with an English bond.

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4. Flemish Bond

Flemish Bond also famous as the Dutch bond, is created by laying alternate headers
and stretchers in a single same course.

The very next course of brick is laid in such a way that the header lies in the center of
the stretcher in the course below, i.e. the alternate headers of each course are centred
on the stretcher of the course below. Each and every alternate course of this bond
starts with a header at the corner.

This bond is difficult to construct and requires high skill to lay it perfectly as all vertical
mortar joints need to be aligned vertically for the best and great effects.

For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive courses, closers are putting
alternate courses next to the quoin header. Bats are used for walls having their
thickness equal to an odd number of half bricks.

Even though Flemish bonds have a better appearance it is weaker than English bonds
for load-bearing wall construction.

So, if the pointing has to be done for brick walls, then the Flemish bond can be used
for the best aesthetic view but for the walls have to be plastered, then the English
bond is more suitable.

Advantages of Flemish Bond

 Flemish Bond gives a better outer appearance.

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Types of Flemish Bond

There are two types of Flemish bonds,

 Single Flemish Bond

 Double Flemish Bond
Single Flemish Bond:

A single Flemish Bond is a combination of English bonds and Flemish Bond. The front
exposed surface of the wall is composed of a Flemish bond and another back surface is
composed of an English bond in every single course.

Double Flemish Bond:

While a Double Flemish Bond takes a similar kind of appearance both in the front as
well as the back of elevations.

5. English Garden Wall Bond

The arrangement of bricks in the English Garden Wall is similar to that of the English
bond except that the heading courses are only inserted at every (4th or 6th ) course
whereas stretchers are used in consequent courses every (3rd, 5th, or 7th ). In short,
the arrangement consists of one course of headers and three courses of stretchers.

The queen closer is placed next to the queen header of the heading course forgiving
the necessary lap.

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6. Scottish Bond & American Bond

In the bond, the stretchers course is used 5 times consequently then it is known as the
Scottish Bond and If it is used 7 times consequently then the bond is known
as American Bond

Scottish Bond

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American Bond
7. Flemish Garden Wall Bond

The Flemish bond has Stretcher, Header & Stretcher Models. It is also known as Sussex
Bond.

In this bond instead of having 1 stretcher & 1 header, here we have 3 in 1, 3 numbers
of stretchers, and 1 header in the same course. It is also known as balanced
bonding. You can see that by the Image.

In the Flemish garden wall bond, it is two types of variations of the Flemish bond one is
3 stretchers in 1 header ratio other is 2 stretchers in 1 header ratio.

8. Stack Bond

In bond, bricks are laid directly on top of one another with joints aligned, running
vertically down the whole wall. Bricks can be stacked horizontally or vertically too.

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The alignment of joints results in minimal bonding which means that this bond is weak
and often structurally unsound unless wire bed-joint reinforcement is placed in every
horizontal course or, where loading is moderate, every alternate course. This is often
used purely for decorative purposes and in rain-screen applications.

9. Raking Bond

In this bond type, the bonding bricks are laid at any angle except zero or ninety
degrees. This type of arrangement helps to increase the longitudinal stability of thick
walls’ built-in English bonds.

In this pattern of bonding, the space between the all external stretchers of a wall is
filled using bricks inclined to the face of the wall.

A raking bond is introduced at certain intervals along with the height of any wall.

There are two common patterns of raking bonds;

1. Diagonal bond
2. Herring hone bond
1. Diagonal Bond:
It is best suited for walls of two to four brick thicknesses. A diagonal bond is normally
introduced at every fifth or seven-course along with the height of the wall.

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Bricks in this bond are placed end to end in such a way that extreme corners of the
sequence remain in contact with stretchers.

2. Herringbone bond:

This bond is suited for very thick walls usually not less than four bricks thick.

In this pattern of brickwork, bricks are laid in a course inclined at 45° in 2 directions
from the center. This type of bond is also commonly used for brick paving.

10. Zig Zag Brick Bond

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