LOCKE: FOUNDATIONS OF LIBERALISM, PROPERTY & CONSENT

BIOGRAPHY

John Locke was born at Somerset, England in 1632. He was a philosopher and physician. Locke
went into exile in Holland due to his suspected involvement for plotting against the King of
England but during his exile he was closely associated with the English revolutionaries. After the
success of the Glorious Revolution or Bloodless Revolution, he returned to England. Locke, in the
later part of his life became the Commissioner for Appeals and Trade, who dealt with the problems
of the English colonies.

INFLUENCE

He defended the Glorious Revolution wherein, common people with the help of wealthy noblemen
known as the Whigs organized a revolution against a Catholic monarch King James II who
exercised absolutism and persecuted Protestants. After this revolution, King James II fled from
England and Protestant William III also known as William of Orange became the King. He then
established limited constitutional monarchy and parliamentary supremacy in England. Though
Locke did not live in England at the time of Glorious Revolution but he had strong associations
with the Whigs. Moreover, the struggle between the Kings and Parliament for supremacy was very
much alive during his lifetime.

IMPORTANCE

He belongs to social contract tradition. He is known as "the most influential philosopher of his
age”. He was the guiding and spiritual father of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment period. He
is known as the father of liberalism. His theory is also known as first liberal theory of the state. He
defended religious toleration (separation of Church and State) and pluralism (other institutions are
also important apart from the state). He is the champion of individual freedom as he argued that
all individuals in the state of nature possessed some natural rights like right to life, liberty and
property which were derived from natural law and are limited by it 1. His famous work is Second
Treatise of Government (1689).

1State of nature for Locke was a state of perfect freedom and equality wherein, some people lived in warlike
conditions while some lived harmoniously with others. All individuals were governed by natural laws and each one

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PROPERTY

He considered property as the most essential natural right derived from natural law, which means
natural rights existed prior to the formation of government. In the state of nature, individuals had
right to property which was determined by three limitations: a) sufficiency limitation: one could
appropriate based on his required need b) spoilage limitation: one must acquire only that much
property that one can use c) labour limitation: only that property can be acquired which results
from one’s own labour. However, these limitations were violated with the introduction of money.

He proposed a labor theory of property. He argued that earth and its fruits belonged to God and
was given by him to all the humans equally. But it was human labour which distinguished private
and common ownership. He emphasized that human beings were trustees and stewards who could
appropriate and consume by being industrious and creative.

Locke emphasized on the need for a minimal state with limited government to protect property of
all. Such a state would make sure that no part or the whole of an individual’s property could be
taken or taxes could be levied without their consent. However, he argued that all natural rights
including right to property could be limited if it harmed oneself or others.

CONSENT

Locke has been criticized for not explaining the concept of consent even though fundamental
principle of his theory is based on consent. He just spoke of two kinds of consent: a) express or
direct and b) tacit consent (which is understood). When the state of nature descends into a state of
war then free, equal and rational individuals expressed their explicit consent willingly to establish
a sovereign through a social contract. For Locke, consent was necessary even if it was ‘tacit
consent’. Consent could be withdrawn when the freedom of the individual was violated or
curtailed. He argued that legitimate political authority of sovereign was derived from the consent
of the people.

He argues that sovereign is not absolute as he is just a trustee. He is governed by ‘natural laws’.
At the same time, he also had to protect the natural laws. He stated that citizens obligations to the

of them had the right to enforce these laws. However, disputes arose among individuals with regard to interpretation
of these law as there was no political authority to interpret them.

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sovereign is based on two conditions a) to ensure ‘peace, safety and public good for the people’ b)
to preserve and enhance their life, liberty and property. He emphasizes on people’s right to resist
and replace a sovereign through revolution or rebellion by using force under following conditions:

1. if sovereign violates natural laws.

2. If he imposes his own arbitrary will in place of natural laws.
3. if he fails to protect the natural rights itself by introducing measures such as taxation or if
power or authority is given to a foreign entity.
4. If he interferes in the functioning of legislature.
5. If the election procedures were changed by him without seeking the consent of citizens
6. If he threatened civil peace and order.
7. If he subjects his citizens to foreign power.

CONCLUSION

Locke was one of the most controversial and influential theorists in the entire history of political
thought. Subsequent liberal theorists have worked within the framework that Locke provided.
Scholars believe that Karl Marx later adapted Locke's theory on property in his philosophies. His
political philosophy is credited for shaping both the American Constitution and the French
Revolution. His political writings provides strong philosophical defense for
modern democratic institutions.