JOHN LOCKE (1632 – 1704)

Introduction

• John Locke was among the most famous philosophers

and political theorists of the 17th century. He was
regarded as ‘Father of Liberalism’.

• His life coincided with one of the most significant

epochs of British history that saw the transformation
of absolute monarchy into parliamentary democracy.

• In his most important work, the Essay Concerning

Human Understanding, Locke set out to offer an
analysis of the human mind and its acquisition of
knowledge

• In politics, Locke is best known as a proponent of

limited government. He uses a theory of natural rights
to argue that governments have obligations to their
citizens, have only limited powers over their citizens.

• He is one of the Chief exponents of the Social Contract Theory. He is also credited as the
‘father of the Enlightenment’.

• He sought to justify the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England which was a bloodless
revolution.

Prominent work

Essays on the Law of Nature 1676

A Letter Concerning 1689

Toleration

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 Two Treatises of Civil 1689 Part-1: refutation of Filmer’s theory of divine right of
Government king

Part-2: justify the Glorious Revolution| Human

beings are equal

An Essay Concerning Human 1689 deals with the foundation of human knowledge and
Understanding understanding

Thoughts on Education 1693

The reasonableness of 1695

Christianity

Of the Conduct of the 1706

Understanding

State of Nature and Natural Rights

• Locke sought to reformulate the concept of the social contract introduced earlier by
Hobbes.

• He transformed the philosophy of absolutism to that of liberalism.

• Acc. to Locke, state of nature is a state of ‘peace, goodwill, mutual assistance and
preservation’. It is a state of liberty, not a state of licence. He defines liberty as doing
what one wants to do as long as it is permitted by the laws of Nature.

“Man.. hath by nature a power.. to preserve his property- that is, his life, liberty, and
estate- against the injuries and attempts of other men.”

• Nonetheless, there are a few persons who set aside the rule of morality in pursuance of
their self-interest. Hence, in this respect, the state of nature proves to be inconvenient.

• Therefore, men abandon State of nature and enter into civil or political society by means

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 of a contract by surrendering rights but they still have their right to Life, liberty and
property.

• Another important concept in Locke's political philosophy is that of natural right to life,
liberty and property. These natural rights are derived from natural law and are limited
by it.

• In order to explain the concept of political power, Locke uses the concept of the State of
Nature and the Social Contract.

[Sovereignty- supreme legal authority which is an essential element of the state.]

Social Contract

• Hobbes postulates that society and state are formed together; they are dissolved
together. On the contrary, Locke believes that society and state were created in different
steps: first step- creation of society, 2nd step- setting up of government. So if the govt is
dissolved, society does not disintegrate. Setting up another government will restore the
order.

• He placed the Government under the control of society and sought to define the nature
of Government as a ‘trust’, who is bound to act within the terms of its constitution.
According to Locke, trust is important to Social contract. He held ‘all governance is
fiduciary, or founded on trust’.

• While Hobbes creates absolute sovereignty, Locke creates a Constitutional Government

and postulates conditional or partial surrender of natural rights to it.

• According to him, Government is created to judge and punish the offenders of natural
laws. It must govern with the ‘consent of people’ as it is created by the will of people
and people have reason.

• He also acknowledges that people have the right to overthrow one govt and set up
another in its place. Thus, He recognizes the people’s right to resistance or revolution.
He mentions that men created state using reason, they must constantly use reason to
ensure that State continues to function well.

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 • Locke’s contract once made is irrevocable. According to him , a person who signed the
contract “can never again be in the liberty of the state of nature”.

Theory of property

• According to Locke, Man creates property by mixing his labour with the objects of
nature. Since man owns his own body, the object with which he mixes his labour
becomes his own property by right. Thus Locke is the chief exponent of the theory of
property as the ‘fruit of labour’. [The second treatise of civil government;1690]

• Instead of emphasizing on the natural value of property Locke prioritized the labor of
the people to add value to the property.

• He implicitly mentioned regarding this in his ‘Second Treatise’.

• The theory is rooted in laws of nature, which permit individuals to appropriate, and
exercise control over, things in the world like land and other material resources. In other
words, Locke favored the Private property rights.

[Possessive Individualism- term coined by C.B. Macpherson, it implies that individual is the
sole proprietor of his own person or capacities for which he owes nothing to society.]

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In the words of Locke,

• ‘I have always thought the actions of men the best interpreters of their thoughts’.

• ‘What worries you, masters you’.

• ‘Government has no other end, but the presentation of property’.

• ‘All mankind…. being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his
life, health, liberty or possessions’.

• ‘All wealth is product of Labour’.

• ‘Everyman has a property in his own person. This nobody has right to, but himself’.