THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE ANCIENT REGIME

UNIT SUMMARY

→ The 18th century: Europe experienced a period of important changes

→ New ideas:
• The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement whose objective was to increase knowledge and reform
society
• Rousseau, Voltaire and Montesquieu were important Enlightenment thinkers
• The independence of the United States was a victory for the Enlightenment
→ New government:
• Enlightened despotism combined absolute monarchy with Enlightenment ideas
• A new royal dynasty and a more centralised government changed politics in Spain
→ Economic changes:
• Agriculture improved and more goods were produced. Transatlantic trade also increased
• The reforms of Felipe V and Carlos IIl contributed to economic growth in Spain
→ Society:
• Society continued to be based on the estates of the realm, but Enlightenment thinkers wanted to change this
→ Art and culture:
• Enlightenment ideas were spread through books, newspapers, schools and meetings
• The Rococo style, with its elaborate decoration, reflected the tastes of the nobility
• Neoclassical art reflected the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers

1. THE 18TH CENTURY: THE EARLY MODERN AND MODERN AGES

The 18th century was a period of transition between the Early Modern Age and the Modern Age in Europe. During this period,
important changes took place that contributed to the collapse of the Ancien Régime and the end of the Early Modern Age. One of
the main developments in the 18th century was an intellectual movement called the Enlightenment. The supporters of this
movement wanted to use reason, science and education to combat ignorance and reform society. Their new ideas eventually
transformed most of the basic structures of the Ancien Régime.

• In some countries, absolute monarchs introduced social reforms to improve their subjects quality of life. However, they
did not allow the people to participate in choosing the government.
• New forms of industry and commerce contributed to significant economic expansion.
• The three traditional estates of the realm continued to exist, but the wealthy middle class, or bourgeoisie, became more
important and tried to gain more political power.
• Artistic styles reflected the reforms implemented by monarchs and the tastes of the upper classes. Monarchs, the nobility
and wealthy subjects sponsored artists.

2. THE ENLIGHTENMENT: A CHANGE IN THINKING

The Enlightenment was an important intellectual movement that emerged in Europe during the 18th century. Enlightenment
thinkers criticised the traditions of the Ancien Régime and suggested new ideas to change and reform society. They believed, for
example, that all people should have the same legal rights and freedoms. Enlightenment thinkers wanted to 'enlighten' society by
using reason, science and education. Their ideas were spread through newspapers, periodicals and books, such as the
Encyclopaedia. They were also taught and discussed in schools and special academies.

2.1. Enlightenment criticisms and proposals

Enlightenment thinkers wanted to make substantial changes in various areas of society.

In relation to politics, they proposed measures to limit the powers of absolute monarchs.

• Montesquieu argued for the separation of powers. This meant that the three branches of government (the legislative,
executive and judicial branches) should be separated from one another.
• Voltaire favoured a strong monarchy, but he also supported the existence of a parliament.
• Rousseau introduced the idea of popular sovereignty.
In relation to economy, a group of thinkers called the Physiocrats argued that agriculture was the true source of wealth. They also
believed that the state should not interfere with trade and other economic activities. In relation to society, Enlightenment thinkers
criticised the social inequality of the estates system and argued that no group should have special privileges under the law.

2.2. The Enlightenment in Spain

In Spain, a group of important thinkers and politicians wanted to use Enlightenment ideas to improve economic, social and cultural
conditions in their country. This was necessary because Spain had declined during the reigns of the Lesser Hapsburgs.

To spread their ideas, Spanish Enlightenment thinkers published scientific and literary papers and established schools and
academies. New public spaces were also created, such as the Royal Botanical Garden in Madrid. However, Enlightenment ideas
also encountered resistance from the nobility, the Church and from many people who defended their traditional way of life. This
made it difficult to implement reform.

2.3. Enlightened despotism

Enlightened despotism was a new form of government that developed in some European countries in the 18th century. Its
objective was to modernise the country and improve subjects' quality of life by combining absolute monarchy with Enlightenment
ideas.

Examples of enlightened despots include Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph Il of Austria, Frederick II of Prussia and Carlos III of
Spain.

• These monarchs implemented enlightened reforms such as the unification of the legal system; modernisation of the
army; and the promotion of agriculture, industry, education and culture.
• They appointed enlightened thinkers to important positions, for example as ministers, and created centralised
governments to consolidate their power and implement their policies.

In the end, enlightened despotism was not a successful form of government because it maintained the privileges of the estate
system.

3. THE UNITED STATES: AN ENLIGHTENMENT VICTORY.

During the American War of Independence, 13 British colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America fought for their
independence from Great Britain. The main reasons for the conflict were: Ideological the Enlightenment ideas of equality and
liberty Political -Great Britain refused to give the colonies representation in the Parliament. This was where laws were passed,
including laws related to colonial taxes. Socio-economic prosperous middle-class colonists wanted control over their own
commercial activities.

The conflict started when the British government increased taxes. The American colonists refused to pay them and then began to
arm themselves. Great Britain responded by ordering its armed forces into action, and the war broke out in 1775. The colonists
proclaimed the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America on 4 July 1776. Great Britain finally recognised the
independence of the new nation in 1783. This was a significant triumph for the Enlightenment. The United States Constitution was
written in 1787. It established a federal republic based on popular sovereignty and the separation of powers. It also recognised
the legal equality of all citizens, although most states suffrage was limited. This meant that only male citizens W certain level of
wealth and property could vote in elections.

4. CHANGES IN SPAIN

4.1. A change of dynasty: the rise of the Bourbons

Carlos II was the last king of the Hapsburg dynasty. He had no children and when he died in 1700, there was a dispute that resulted
in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). The rivals for the throne were: Philip of Anjou, the official heir, who was
supported by France and the Crown of Castilla Archduke Charles of Austria, who was supported by Austria, Great Britain and the
Crown of Aragón. The war finally ended with the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt. Philip became King of Spain as Felipe v, the first
monarch of the Bourbon dynasty. At the same time, the treaties gave some of Spain's territories to Austria, while Great Britain
received Gibraltar and Menorca.

4.2. Centralisation under the Bourbons

The Spanish Bourbons, inspired by French centralised government, established administrative uniformity in their territories.
Central government: ministries were created and the various cortes on the Iberian Peninsula were consolidated into one for the
whole kingdom. Castilla's laws were imposed on Aragón as punishment for not supporting Felipe V during the War of the
Succession. Regional government: Spain was divided into provinces and the figure of the intendant was maintained. Local
government: the figure of the corregidor was imposed on the municipalities of Aragón.

5. ECONOMIC CHANGES

During the 18th century, the European and Spanish economies changed significantly. These changes were the result of reforms
introduced by enlightened monarchs.

• Agriculture: harvests improved because of better machinery and new techniques like crop rotation. Uninhabited areas
were repopulated and new crops, like potatoes and corn, were introduced.
• Skilled craftsmanship: an increase in population resulted in greater demand for consumer goods. In rural areas, the
domestic system of production became more important, especially in textiles. Royal manufacturers also produced
various luxury goods.
• Commerce: poor transport had limited domestic trade in Europe, so transport systems were modernised. There was also
an increase in trade between Europe and the American colonies.

5.1. Economic reforms in Spain

The Spanish economy experienced enormous growth in the 18th century as a result of reforms introduced by Felipe V and Carlos
III.

• Agriculture: canals were built to facilitate irrigation and uninhabited areas were colonised.
• Industry: royal manufacturers were established for silk, porcelain and other luxury goods.
• Trade: Cádiz lost its monopoly on transatlantic trade. Internal duties were also eliminated, allowing free trade.

6. 18TH-CENTURY SOCIETY

6.1. Population

During the 18th century, the population of Europe increased steadily. Between 1700 and 1800, it grew from about 95 million
people to about 146 million. This was due to scientific advances, improvements in nutrition and hygiene, and a reduction in the
number of epidemics.

6.2. The estates of the realm

European society continued to be based on the estates system, but Enlightenment thinkers wanted to introduce reforms.

• Enlightenment thinkers criticised the social and economic influence of the nobility and the clergy. However, these groups
resisted changes that would reduce their dominance.
• Enlightened despots passed laws to limit the influence of the nobility and, above all, the clergy. Some Church lands and
buildings were confiscated and the number of convents was reduced.
• The wealthy middle class, or bourgeoisie, was inspired by Enlightenment ideas, such as the value of work and progress.
They also protested against the nobility and clergy's privileges.
• The peasants' living conditions did not improve, even after agricultural reforms. However, the domestic system enabled
some peasants to earn additional money.

7. DAILY LIFE

The Enlightenment brought about changes in customs that affected families and their everyday lives

Family life

Enlightenment thinkers were in favour of closer relationships in families, as well as improved childcare and education.
They also criticised some traditions related to marriage and family life, such as arranged marriages.

Women

Women continued to be dependent on their fathers, brothers and husbands, but there were some differences between
social classes.

• In wealthier families, women usually learned to read and write. They also supervised household chores and cared for
the family.
• Female artisans and peasants were usually illiterate. They divided their time between household chores and other
work in agriculture, workshops or the domestic system.
8. SOCIAL REFORMS IN SPAIN

The Bourbon kings implemented social reforms, such as the law passed by Carlos Ill that eliminated the legal dishonour of labour.
This meant that members of the nobility could now work for a living.

The Bourbons also adopted measures relating to other social groups. In order to eliminate the power which they had over
education, the Jesuits were expelled from Spain in 1767. Other regulations also attempted to control marginalised social groups,
such as the Roma and homeless people.

Ordinary people did not always accept reforms because they preferred their traditional way of life. In some cases, there were
popular protests.

9. ART DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT: ROCOCO AND NEOCLASSICISM

The influence of the Enlightenment made the 18th century a period of great cultural change.

• Art became more than a decorative element for palaces. New museums enabled ordinary people to enjoy it as wel.
• Two distinctive new styles emerged: Rococo and Neoclassicism.

9.1. Rococo

The Rococo style was popular in Europe between the 1730s and the 1760s. It reflected the tastes of the nobility, who wanted
homes and decorations that represented the joys of life.

• Architecture: Rococo interiors were elaborately decorated, especially with curves, seashells and floral elements.
• Sculpture: Rococo sculptures were often small, and represented joyful and mythological themes.
• Painting: pastel colours were used to depict mythological themes, rural festivals and domestic scenes. The most
important Rococo painters were Boucher and Fragonard.

9.2. Neoclassicism

Neoclassicism is an artistic style that was popular in Europe between the 1760s and 1830s. It imitated classical art and reacted
against the excessive decoration of Rococo. Instead, Neoclassicism reflected the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers.

Enlightenment monarchs remodelled their cities in order to modernise and beautify them, as well as to improve their subjects'
quality of life. New boulevards and public squares were built, while fountains, sewage systems and street lights were also installed.

The main characteristics of Neoclassicism were:

• Architecture: Buildings were well-proportioned and featured classical elements, such as round arches, columns and
domes.
• Sculpture: Neoclassical sculptures were usually made of marble and depicted mythological themes or famous people.
• Painting: Neoclassical painters were inspired by classical sculptures. Their themes were often mythological or historical,
with idealised images of famous people. Amongst other important Neoclassical painters were Jacques-Louis David and
Angelica Kauffmann.

Neoclassicism in Spain

Carlos III chose Neoclassical architects and artists for important projects that modernised the city of Madrid.

• Sabatini designed the Puerta de Alcalá.

• Villanueva designed the Gabinete de Ciencias Naturales, which is now the Prado Museum.
• Ventura Rodríguez designed the Cibeles Fountain.