PRELIMS

What is Political Theory?

➔ Helps us to set about answering such questions logically and to criticize the answers by
dealing with political matters at an abstract level.
➔ It frees us to think critically, normatively, speculatively, or idealistically instead of being
trapped into describing what exists as if it could never be changed.
➔ It is a critical approach that allows us to escape from the existent.
➔ It is defined as the discipline that aims to explain, justify, or criticize the disposition of
power in society. It delineates the balance of power between states, groups, and
individuals.
➔ One of its tasks is to dispel popular delusions and expose misleading ideas.

The Different Approaches

❖ Idealist – means that ideas or ❖ Materialist – believes in the view

theories precede factual that our concepts derive from our
observation. observation of physical or material
reality. This is anchored on:
A. Empiricism – observing
reality first before arriving
at a conclusion based on
evidence and facts.

❖ Positivism – insists that only those ❖ Rationalist – starts with a theory.

that are verifiable by reference to This approach contrasts
the real world are the only empiricism.
meaningful statements.

Real-Life Applications of Political Theory

A. Is violence ever justified?
➔ Political theory asks if justification might not be advanced according to
circumstance. Does not an oppressed minority, denied the freedom to state its
case, have a justification for using violence? Does it not depend on what kind of
violence was used, against whom it was directed, or its extremity?
B. Should workers participate in management?
 ➔ Political theory asks about the order of priorities.
➔ The advocates for workers’ management deem participation as a positive good
as it increases the number of viewpoints considered, gives workers a sense of
control, and increases the acceptability of decisions.
➔ The opposition argues that participation requires expertise, intellect and skill. In
the context of the argument, workers are said to be focused on physical work
(labor). Therefore, they are unfit to make strategic industrial choices.
➔ The debate is grounded on the issue of expertise or efficiency. To resolve this,
political theory suggests that an ordering of values must be followed.

What is Political Philosophy?

➔ It provides generally acceptable definitions of central political terms. Doing this implies
that even value-laden concepts can have a constant and definite meaning.

The Greek Understanding of Reason

➔ Greek thought is predominantly rational and secular in orientation.
➔ There is no bible, no book of authority that sums up the essence of Greek thought.
➔ It started in the 6th century B.C. and ended in the second century of the Christian era.
➔ Greek thought was marked in its progress by diversity, contradictions, and lack of
definitiveness.

Where and How Did Greek Thought Originate?

➔ The birth of Western science and philosophy was not in mainland Greece but in Ionian
settlements on the west of Asia Minor and on the islands off the coast.
➔ Though tribal beliefs were strong in mainland Greece, migrants in the Ionian settlements
were composed of people from various parts of Greece. This freed them from tribal
taboos and beliefs, allowing them to look at the words differently.
➔ The most important Ionian city was Miletus, the first bourgeois civilization in the west,
and the birthplace of Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes (the first great Greek
thinkers and the founders of the Milesian school.)
➔ The birth of science was induced by the power of reason. People started questioning
day and night.

What Was the Main Interest of Ionian Thinkers?

➔ It was the rational exploration of nature (physics).
➔ The very concept of ‘nature’ is itself a Greek intellectual discovery and invention.
➔ Pre-Greek did not have universal laws and ideas backed up by reason. This led to the
formation of an animistic world. Their worldview was irrational and dominated by
supernatural beliefs.
➔ The Greek discovery of nature led them to understand reason.
➔ From the idea that nature can be understood, Greek thinkers concluded that everything
was part of nature and subject to its laws that can not be interfered with by human
beings. There was a system of universal laws that are graspable by human reason
(ability to think).This discovery led them to deny the existence of the supernatural.
 Distinctions Between the Judeo-Christian and Greek Views

Judeo-Christian Greek

- Views God above nature, changing its - Sees divinity in nature

regularities when He sees fit. - The laws of nature express the divine
reason

- Miracles express the divine will. - Believes that the greatest miracle of
- Miracles occur when divine all is the orderly regularity in which
intervention changes the regularities natural events occur.
of nature.

Criticisms of Traditional Greek Religious Beliefs

➔ The first to attack was Xenophanes.
➔ He believed that ‘man creates God in his own image’ (rather than vice versa).
➔ He criticized the Greek poets Homer and Hesiod for attributing to the gods all things that
are shameful and disgraceful among men (theft, adultery, deception).
➔ Also ridiculed the current images of the gods as being created by birth like humans
(wearing garments, possessing voices and bodies like humans).

Humanism
➔ Known as ‘the belief in man.’
➔ Accepts the limitations as well as the potentialities of human intelligence and creativity.
➔ In the humanistic view, man was neither a worm with no values nor a demigod.

The Emergence of Democracy

➔ The philosophical origins of democracy in ancient Greece are based on Humanism, such
that they recognized the imperfection of human intelligence and knowledge.
➔ They concluded that all men are in the same boat of doubt and uncertainty.
➔ There is no aristocracy of those who know. So, if there is no absolute standard of right
and wrong, the opinions of the majority are to decide.
➔ Political democracy draws the line between anarchy and authoritarianism or
totalitarianism.

The Prominence of Sophists

Difference Between the Term's Meaning Then and Now
 Then Now

- ‘Sophist’ originally meant in Greek a - Sophistry is now considered a method

skilled craftsman or, generally, a wise of reasoning that perverts truth by
and prudent man. captious and cunning logic, bordering
on dishonesty.

➔ The Sophists were first to undertake the education of the whole man, particularly the
political man – man as a citizen and, above all, a political leader.
➔ ‘The Art of Politics’ - managing one's own affairs prudently and speaking and acting for
the best in the affairs of the state.
➔ What was the revolutionary teaching of Sophists? As opposed to aristocratic
societies where character and political ability were acquired through blood or
connections, Sophists put forward the idea that everybody held the ability to participate
in public affairs. This circulated in democratic city-states, such as Athens.
➔ The teachings of sophists shocked many because they introduced ‘what society really is’
rather than what it should be.
➔ They also held that social and political institutions are not products of superhuman forces
endowed with reason. Laws and institutions are nothing other than social conventions
agreed upon by men for utilitarian reasons (the social contract).
➔ The social contract led to the liberal and democratic conception of ‘government by
consent.’ This posits that obedience to government could be based only on consent
since no one would freely consent to an oppressive or harmful government if it were not
divinely established.
➔ Since democracy induced rivalries, the art of persuasion was practiced, which was said
to prioritize selling politics.
➔ Because of this, Sophists were attacked as teachers of political propaganda and
salesmanship rather than political character and high-manded statesmanship.

Influential Greek Thinkers: Socrates

A. General Background
➔ Plato’s teacher
➔ In the past, his interest revolved around the understanding of the outside world. But it
shifted to the understanding of the inner world of man. What was important was the
understanding and mastery of the inner life of individuals and their relations with others.

B. Socrates as a teacher
➔ What was Socrates’ method of teaching? He proceeded with question and answer.
Socrates believed that it was his responsibility to fulfill the purpose of an intellectual
midwife, assisting in the birth of ideas already conceived in people's minds.
➔ His questions were about the meanings of justice, courage, beauty, and the good. He
was able to help his students arrive at a general definition.
➔ He believed that humanity is saved not by outside divine grace but by inner rational and
moral forces.
 C. His Death
➔ Socrates was tried in 399 B.C. on the charge of corrupting the minds of the young and
believing in deities of his own invention.
➔ Socrates was known to be the spiritual guide and mentor of the anti-democratic leader,
Critias, who ruled due to the Greeks’ defeat against Sparta in the Peloponnesian War.
➔ Another reason was the fear of independent, unorthodox thinking.

On Statecraft and Soulcraft

Differences Between The Two

Statecraft Soulcraft

- It is the way in which the state - It is the cultivation of virtue in the

conducts its affairs and enacts its citizenry by the design of political,
responsibilities. social, and economic institutions.
- Promoted by Niccolo Machiavelli - Promoted by Plato and Aristotle

Differences Between The Proponents

Machiavelli Plato

- His ideal ruler is strategic, using - He is idealistic and appeals to “the

whatever tactics required to secure good” and the soul.
power. - He believes that justice should be
- His belief centers on fulfilling taught to citizens to improve their lives
individual interests rather than
preaching goodness.
- He believes that statecraft should be
strategic, not catering to morality.
Because in doing this, rulers are
shaping a better society.
- Also believes that it is better for a ruler
to be feared.

➔ Is statecraft soulcraft?
“Statecraft,” Aristotle instructed his pupils, “is soulcraft.” What he meant is that the state
or government, by its policies, procedures and actions, places moral ideas in the social
and legal fabric, and these ideas shape the quality of its citizens’ character.