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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Social media platforms like Facebook, Snapchat, Instagram, and others have seen a

sharp rise in usage in recent years. One-third of people in the world use social media. A series

of Internet-based apps known as social media are described as allowing the creation and

exchange of user-generated content" and "building on the conceptual and technological

foundations of the World Wide Web." Social media and user-generated content are without a

doubt a reality for millions of people and businesses. People disclose information about

themselves on social media (Kaplan, 2014).

The National Youth Policy (NYP) - 2014 has defined ‘youth’ as persons in the age

group of 15-29 years. Social media is used by young people and students for a variety of

things, including education, entertainment, and creativity. Social media has both beneficial

and harmful effects on young people's lives. According to research by Lusk (2016), social

media is essential for giving students access to education and employment prospects. Most

businesses now have an online method for hiring and selecting employees, but few have a

page or group where they can tell their staff about the company's viewpoint. The majority of

businesses use it to advertise their goods and services.

As a significant and expanding number of users began to use image-based social

networking platforms to connect with members of their social networks as well as visually

communicate with them through online photographs, the 2010 debut of Instagram marked the

beginning of a new chapter in the history of social media. Teenage people prefer image and

video-based social networking sites like Instagram and Snapchat above other Social

Networking Sites. According to survey respondents, 72% of teenagers use Instagram,

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compared to 51% of those between the ages of 13 and 17 who use Facebook (Anderson &

Jiang, 2018).

Instagram is a photo and video-sharing social networking site that has gained

significant popularity, particularly among young people. It allows users to capture, edit, and

share photos and videos with their followers. Instagram differentiates itself from platforms

like Facebook and Twitter by its primary focus on visual content. As of September 2021,

Instagram reported having over 1 billion monthly active users worldwide. The platform has

become a hub for sharing personal experiences, visual storytelling, and creative expression. It

provides users with a range of inbuilt filters and editing tools to enhance their photos before

posting them on their profiles. (Smith, 2021)

Over the last two decades, social media has become an integral facet of modern

society. Image-based social networking sites such as Instagram have become increasingly

popular among adolescents and young adults. Instagram is the most popular social media

platform which is frequently used by teenagers today (Mulyani, 2018). Instagram is

extensively used by teenagers due to its good interactivity with other applications and its

uncanny ability to provide an interesting source of reference for its users. Additionally,

Instagram is also a social media application equipped with the capability to share high-quality

pictures and information about the locations where the snapshots are taken. Interesting

features of Instagram can entice teenagers to continuously access it and lead them to

addiction (Mani-Konda et al., 2014).

Self-esteem is a self-valuation; it is how people perceive their value and how valuable

they think they are to others. Many researchers have discussed the relationship between self-

esteem and communiqué behaviours. People who have lower self-esteem are less likely to

engage in communication than those who have higher self-esteem because they think they
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may have less to contribute to the conversation and are likely to receive negative feedback

from others (Ummet, 2015).

Because users of social media frequently compare themselves to others, self-esteem is

a factor that frequently appears in teenage behaviour related to the usage of these platforms.

Self-esteem is the acceptance, evaluation, and regard that people have for themselves. Self-

esteem is a measurement of the difference or space between a person's ideal self and their

self-image, or how they see themselves. Teenagers who are less capable of evaluating

inequality so view Instagram as one of the social media platforms that allow users to

showcase their ideal selves through its features. In turn, this will push them to visit Instagram

frequently, which will cause those mentioned youngsters to develop Instagram addiction

behaviours (Putra, 2018).

Around 70% of US citizens were said to be using social media platforms in 2021,

according to the Pew Research Center (Auxier & Anderson, 2021). Instagram is one of the

most popular, being utilized by 40% of people worldwide and 76% of Americans between the

ages of 18 and 29. Similar to the United States, 74% of Spanish users of social media,

including 74% of Instagram users, are between the ages of 16 and 24 (Acebes & Montanera,

2021). This platform is not only widely used by the populace, but it is also expanding

quickly. Nearly 300 million more users were discovered on Instagram in February 2022 than

in February 2021 (Kemo, 2022).

1.1.1 Social Media and Self-Esteem

Individuals with lower self-esteem spend enlarged time using instant messaging

instead of face-to-face communication because they find communicating with others via

technology easier than face-to-face communication (Ehrenberg et al., 2008). Consequently,

individuals with lower self-esteem are less likely to take part in face-to-face communication.
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Research on addictive social media use has shown it to be correlated with self-esteem

(Andreassen et al., 2017). It has been also shown that those who spend more time on social

media express upward social comparison which can hurt youths (Lewallen & Behm-

Morawitz, 2016). However, research is unclear about how lower self-esteem individual’s

effort more effective online compared with those who have greater self-esteem. In addition,

some studies on the relationship between social media and self-esteem have shown that those

who spend more time on social media report lower levels of self-esteem (Vogel et al., 2015,

Hawi & Samaha, 2016).

1.1.2 Potential Risks of Social Media for Youth

Risk related to youth usage of social media may be social comparison. People

frequently choose to show themselves on social media, which leads to a stream of messages

and photographs that are frequently carefully prepared to show individuals in a favourable

light. Some young people may be influenced by this to make negative social comparisons

based on their achievements, skills, or attractiveness. Studies have revealed that more

appearance-specific comparisons on social media may increase the likelihood of disordered

eating and body image issues and that higher levels of online social comparison are linked to

depressive symptoms in young people (Vartanian, 2015).

It is generally known that good sleep hygiene is crucial for the mental health and

development of young people. However, prior research has consistently shown a connection

between using a mobile device before bed and several worse sleep outcomes, such as shorter

sleep duration, lower quality sleep, and daytime sleepiness. Notably, 36% of youths report

waking up at least once throughout the night to check their cell phones, and 40% report using

a mobile device within five minutes of going to bed. Therefore, the effect of social media on
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sleep quality continues to be a major risk factor for later mental health issues in young people

and is an essential subject for further research (Orben and Przybylski, 2019).

The development and maintenance of psychopathology are significantly influenced by

the peer experiences of youth. Peer interactions can happen more frequently, instantly, and

intensely in the social media context. Previous research has highlighted several specific

online peer experiences as potential risk factors for mental health issues. Cyber victimization,

or experiencing peer bullying online, has repeatedly been linked to greater rates of self-harm

and suicide conduct, as well as internalizing and externalizing difficulties. Other peer

experiences on social media, like social isolation and online conflict or drama, may

potentially endanger young people. Peer influence processes may also be heightened online,

where youth may access a wide range of their peers in addition to potentially risky content.

The likelihood that young people may engage in dangerous behaviours themselves may

increase if they are exposed to social media content that shows these behaviours (such as

drinking and other drug usage). Online resources that deal with suicide and self-harm may

also be easily accessible, which could increase the risk of suicide in young people who are

already at risk (Tormohlen, 2020).

1.2 Statement of Problem

Compared to studies undertaken in more developed countries, research on social

networking site usage in Nepal is limited. However, current research indicates that young

people in Nepal, particularly in urban areas, are active users of social media platforms, the

most popular of which is Facebook (Kuss, 2011).

Earlier studies in the field primarily focused on Facebook, with limited attention

given to other well-known social networking sites such as Instagram. Research performed by

Kalpidou et al., (2011) studied how Facebook use and attitudes relate to self-esteem in
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undergraduate students. Results exhibited that first-year students had a better emotional

connection and spent more time on Facebook but had fewer friends than older students.

Results also displayed that students who spent the most time on Facebook had lower self-

esteem (Kalpidou et al., 2011).

To learn more about how today's youth use Instagram and how they feel about

themselves, this study uses the Instagram platform. Through this study, we can learn more

about how young people use Instagram and how it influences their self-esteem.

Thus, this research tries to find the answers to the following questions.

 What is the self-esteem level of undergraduate students with different patterns of

Instagram use?

 What is the relationship between Instagram usage and self-esteem?

1.3 Significance of Study

The social networking phenomenon has emerged over the years. In that time, social

networking sites have grown from a niche to a mass online activity, in which tens of millions

of internet users are engaged, both in their leisure time and at work. So, to solve or eliminate

the problem of social networking sites it is very significant to study social networking sites

i.e. Instagram The importance of this research is to provide information for providing

programs, and policies to aware students as well people about the various problems that can

be raised by social networking sites like Instagram. The findings of this research can be used

as a solution to this emerging problem. The present study, on the one hand, will fulfil the

requirements of the researcher’s academic pursuit and on the other hand, the finding of the

study can aware people of how the social networking sites trend has made people backward

in productivity.
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1.4 Objectives of the Study

General Objective:

 To study Instagram use patterns and self-esteem among undergraduate students of

management faculty in the Old Baneshwor area.

Specific Objective:

 To find the self-esteem level of undergraduate students based on sex.

 To examine the intensity of Instagram among undergraduate students.

 To assess the relationship between Instagram use patterns and self-esteem among

undergraduate students.

1.5 Hypothesis

Research Hypothesis:

H1: There is no significant difference in self-esteem based on the sex of the respondents.

H2: There is no significant difference in Instagram intensity based on the sex of the

respondents.

H3: There is no significant relationship between Instagram use patterns and self-esteem

among undergraduate students of humanities and social science faculty in the Old Baneshwor

area.

1.6 Conceptual Framework

The processing graph for the whole research activity about finding out the

relationship between Instagram use patterns and the self-esteem of undergraduate humanities
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and social sciences faculty undergraduate students is given below. In the research, the

participants will be both male students and female students.

Socio-Demographic Variables
 Age
 Sex
 Caste
 Religion
 GPA

Instagram Use Patterns Self-Esteem

Figure1: Flowchart of Conceptual Framework

1.7 Operational Definition

Social Media:

Social media can be defined as "interactive technologies that facilitate the creation

and sharing of content, ideas, interests, and other forms of expression through virtual

communities and networks" (Smith, 2021).

Instagram:

Instagram is a social media platform focused on photo and video sharing, allowing

users to capture moments, apply filters, and share their visual stories with followers (Johnson,

2022).

Self-esteem:
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Self-esteem is a self-valuation; it is how people perceive their value and how valuable

they think they are to others. Self-esteem is the acceptance, evaluation, and regard that people

have for themselves (Ummet, 2015).

Mental Health:

Mental health is commonly defined as a state of well-being in which an individual

realizes their abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively, and

can make contributions to their community (WHO, 2014).

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The study on the relationship between Instagram use patterns and self-esteem among

undergraduate students of the humanities and social science faculty in the New Baneshwor

area may have several limitations. These could include:

 The study may not be representative of the entire undergraduate student population, as it

focuses specifically on students in the humanities and social science faculty in a specific

geographic area. This limits the generalizability of the findings to a broader population.

 The study likely relies on self-reported data, which can be subjective and influenced by

social desirability bias. Participants might not always provide accurate information about

their Instagram use or self-esteem.

 As the research will be conducted with a population of 18- 24 years of age, participants

outside the age of 18 to 24 years old will be excluded.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Review

Social networking sites are a major source of everyday communication, pleasure, and

information for college students (Ansari & Khan, 2020 & Lemay et al., 2020). Social

networking sites are used by college students for a variety of activities, such as opinion

sharing, information gathering, amusement, self-documentation, self-expression, and social

connections (Chawinga, 2017). The literature has also reported instances of social networking

sites being used for educational purposes, including accessing course information, setting up

group projects, receiving feedback, and communicating with professors (Smith, 2017).

Social networking sites were described by Ellison and Boyd (2013) as "a networked

communication platform where participants (1) have uniquely identifiable profiles that

consist of user-supplied content, content provided by other users, and/or system-level data;

(2) can publicly articulate connections that can be viewed and traversed by others; and (3)

can consume, produce, and/or interact with streams of user-generated content provided by

their connections on the site."

College students have been using social networking sites more and more often

globally over the past ten years. These young people now spend a large amount of time on

social networking sites. College students use social networking sites more frequently than
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any other demographic, mostly because they are drawn to new technology in general and the

opportunity it provides for building social networks in particular (Gemmill and Peterson,

2006).

Instagram is a mobile application where users can post photos and videos with

attached captions. In response to these posts, other users are encouraged to like, comment,

and engage with one another. As discussed, Instagram is one of the fastest-growing social

media platforms (Anderson & Jiang, 2018; NORC, 2017). However, since it is relatively

new, very little research has been conducted on the specific effects that this form of social

networking may have on users. As outlined by de Vries and Hamelik (2017), Instagram

differs greatly from other social networking sites, especially Facebook. The literature

indicates that the “centrality of images” on Instagram sets it apart from other forms of text-

based social media platforms, such as Facebook and Twitter. Further, as outlined by Johnson

and Knobloch-Westerwick (2016), image-based social media posts have demonstrably

different effects on users’ moods than text-based social media posts.

Unlike Facebook where most people mostly follow friends and family, Instagram

allows you to follow celebrities and other famous people to see what they post about their

day-to-day lives, whether it is selfies at their modelling photo shoots or pictures of their

luxurious vacations in foreign beautiful countries. With Facebook, your social comparison

group is mainly your friends and family. You compare yourself to others who are most likely

similar to you in many ways. With Instagram, your social comparison group can become

celebrities that have a lot more money and many more significant attributes valued by society

than most who follow them. Those individuals who use Instagram often, see what these

celebrities post every day. If celebrities become their social comparison group, it is possible

that this could have an even more negative effect on an individual’s self-report (Jones, 2019).
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More studies have been conducted with specific social platforms, predominantly

Facebook, and have shown significant effects on self-report and social comparisons.

However, other social media apps such as Instagram have been scarcely studied. Instagram

differs as a social media tool, unlike other platforms. Dissimilar to other social networking

sites like Facebook or Twitter, Instagram is solely for posting pictures (and short video clips).

People post pictures for their followers to view, “like” and comment on. Instagram helped

begin the selfie revolution, where users take pictures of themselves using a front-facing

camera. Instagram has filters and photo editing tools to edit your pictures before you post

them. Some people post fancy photographic pictures of scenery, pictures of food, etc., but

many people use this social platform to upload pictures of themselves (Smith, 2018).

As defined by Verduyn et al. (2017), active social media use occurs when participants

actively interact directly with other users’ content. These sorts of behaviours may include

uploading a picture onto Instagram, “liking” someone else’s content or commenting on

another’s status. Furthermore, the literature highlights positive outcomes that can result from

6 active engagements on social media. Notably, it demonstrates a significant, positive

relationship between positive social relationships and subjective well-being (Myers, 2000).

Self-esteem is an incredibly broad and dynamic concept in the field of

communication. To understand the important variable of self-esteem, it is important to also

acknowledge the complex components comprising how individuals ultimately perceive

themselves. According to the literature, self-esteem refers to “an individual’s overall positive

evaluation of the self” (Cast & Burke, 2002). Liu et al. (2016) outline two separate

components that comprise an individual’s self-esteem. According to the authors, self-esteem

refers to both an individual’s affective feeling towards themselves (how much they like

themselves) as well as their cognitive judgement of their self. Individuals with higher levels
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of self-esteem often have more positive views of themselves, whereas individuals who

experience low self-esteem may feel uncertain or negative about their self-worth.

Self-esteem is one of the most common paradigms studied regarding youth. Self-

esteem is often defined as how negatively or positively an individual perceives their self-

worth, one´s sense of pride, positive self-evaluation or self-respect (McLellan et al., 2011;

Meyer, 2008; Suzuki & Shunsuke, 2013). Self-esteem drives through many changes across

the entire lifespan and research suggests that it is high in childhood, decreases considerably

during adolescence, increases in adulthood and becomes steadier in middle adulthood and

then decays again in old age (Gruenenfelder-Steiger et al., 2016). Rosenberg (1965), one of

the pioneers in this phenomenon, argued that self-esteem refers to an individual overall

positive evaluation of the self. Further, He added, that high self-esteem consists of an

individual respecting himself and considering himself worthy. Similarly, Sedikides and Gress

(2003) stated that self-esteem refers to an individual’s perception or subjective appraisal of

one’s own -worth, one’s feelings of self-respect and self-confidence, and the extent to which

the individual holds positive or negative views about self.

According to Overup (2012), every Instagram user has different ways of presenting

themselves based on who is viewing their Instagram content. When presenting themselves to

strangers, users tend to self-enhance, when information is available and identifiable and when

information about themselves is indisputable. In different situations, users may use different

strategies in presenting themselves to strangers, such as to “suck up to” (such as through

flattery, giving conforming opinions, offering help, giving gifts), or offering prayers (for

instance, through emphasizing limitations, powerlessness and dependence). In general, every

person presents themselves to strangers in the way thought to be most advantageous to

themselves, especially when predicting future interactions with their social media audience.

2.2 Empirical Review

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The study by Chua and Chang (2016) investigated the use of Instagram by teenage

females in Singapore for peer comparison and self-presentation. Due to increased social

comparison, it was discovered that higher self-presentation on Instagram was linked to poorer

self-esteem.

Vogel et al. (2024) investigated the potential effects of social comparisons on self-

esteem on social media sites such as Facebook. They discovered that regular exposure to

positive social comparisons, i.e. perceiving others as better on social media was linked to

lower self-esteem.

Nesi and Prinstein (2015) investigated the social comparison and feedback-seeking

activities that teenagers engage in on social media. They discovered that these actions were

linked to more severe depression symptoms, especially in teenagers and females who were

less popular.

The study by Hawi and Samaha (2017) investigated the connections among college

students between social media addiction, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. It was discovered

that a higher level of social media addiction was linked to a poorer level of life satisfaction

and self-esteem, indicating a negative effect on psychological health.

In the study by Trifiro and Prena (2021), there was an assessment done on how the

intensity of social media use could impact the relationship between an active form of use and

two user outcomes, including self-esteem and well-being. The findings indicate that

participants who showed more active social media use were also those who used it more

intensely. They also accurately hypothesized a positive correlation between the two user

outcomes, self-esteem and well-being, and how actively the participants used Instagram, in

which intensity was found to be the mediating factor. Although, it was not a direct

relationship. A significant indirect effect of active Instagram use on self-esteem was found
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through the intensity of the use. Essentially, those who used Instagram more actively also

used it more intensely and showed higher self-esteem and well-being.

Studies examining the social media usage patterns of college students have found that

they frequently hop between numerous social networking sites, including Facebook, Twitter,

Instagram, YouTube, and Snapchat (Alhabash & Ma, 2017). As for the effects of Instagram

use on overall well-being, Sherlock and Wagstaff (2019) found that social comparison

mediates the correlation found between Instagram use and self-esteem, as well as symptoms

of depression, body dissatisfaction, and appearance anxiety. Like other research, this shows

that it could be a contributing factor in poor appearance-related self-perception and other

negative psychological effects. Regarding its effects on self-esteem, Rahma & Setiasih

(2021) found that the intensity of the participant’s Instagram use was positively correlated to

their self-esteem, meaning that the more intensely they used it, the higher their self-esteem.

Hwang (2019) studied Instagram’s potential negative effects by assessing the

relationship it has with depression. There were three main findings of which the most

relevant is that depression was positively associated with the individual’s tendency toward

upward social comparison and negatively associated with downward social comparison.

Upward social comparison is the tendency to compare oneself to another who is believed to

be superior, and downward social comparison is the tendency to compare oneself to someone

who is believed to be inferior. Moreover, it seems that social comparison is a mediating

factor in the effect Instagram use has on depression. Finally, it is suggested that although

Instagram was not found to directly worsen depression, it could give rise to it if the social

comparison occurring on the platform has been a trigger.

Research on addictive social media use has shown it to be correlated with self-esteem

(Andreassen et al., 2017). It has been also shown that those who spend more time on social
 16

media express upward social comparison which can hurt youths (Lewallen & Behm-

Morawitz, 2016). However, research is unclear about how lower self-esteem individual’s

effort more effective online compared with those who have greater self-esteem. In addition,

some studies on the relationship between social media and self-esteem have shown that those

who spend more time on social media report lower levels of self-esteem (Vogel et al., 2015,

Hawi & Samaha, 2016).

A study conducted by Buglass et al., (2016) found that the effects of using social

networking sites and the decrease in self-esteem were mediated by Fear of Missing Out

(FoMO). Fear of Missing Out is defined as the feeling of discomfort or even the feeling of

loss that results from knowing what one’s friends are doing, and feeling that those friends

have it better than them (Abel et al., 2016). The phenomenon of fear of missing out is a

situation that results from a lack of self-regulation and psychological satisfaction. Following

this line of thought, low levels of satisfaction towards basic needs may relate to Fear of

Missing Out.

One of the very few studies done on this social network site, titled “Instagram

#Instasad?: Exploring Associations Among Instagram Use, Depressive Symptoms, Negative

Social Comparison, and Strangers Followed”, explored the associations among Instagram use

and depressive symptoms through the mechanisms of negative social comparison, and

moderation by the number of strangers one followed (Lup, 2015). This study consisted of 117

participants between the ages of 18-29 years old. They completed online questionnaires

containing demographics, frequency of Instagram use, amount of strangers followed on

Instagram, the Center for Epidemiological Resources Scale for Depression, and the Social

Comparison Rating Scale. Results showed that Instagram use was marginally positively

associated with depressive symptoms and positive social comparison was significantly

associated with depressive symptoms. The number of strangers who followed moderated the
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association of Instagram use with social comparison. These results determined that more

frequent Instagram use has negative associations with people who follow more strangers, but

a positive association with people who follow fewer strangers, about social comparison and

depressive symptoms.

In their study, Lup et al. (2015) found that Instagram posts tend to be positively

biased, as users engage in positive forms of self-presentation and select positive aspects of

their lives to display. While the literature remains sparse, Lup et al. (2015) posit that

Instagram posts are generally more positively biased than Facebook posts. This is likely the

result of photo editing and enhancing features that create a culture of polishing and perfecting

among users. The current literature regarding Instagram use, while sparse, provides a

conceptual basis for understanding how image-based social media has the potential to impact

users’ levels of well-being and self-esteem.

McLean et al. (2015) analyzed the relationship between social media use, body

dissatisfaction and dietary restraint. Specifically, the authors surveyed one hundred seventh-

grade girls regarding their social media use and body-related and eating concerns. The

authors discovered that girls who regularly shared images of themselves on social media

reported significantly higher overestimation of their size and weight, a more internalized

concept of the thin ideal, increased levels of body dissatisfaction and increased dietary

restraint than respondents who did not utilize social media. Additionally, the authors found

that girls who regularly shared images of themselves were more likely to edit pictures of

themselves to look thinner and fit a more idealized body image. Overall, the literature

establishes a relationship between social media usage and negative body satisfaction-

highlighting the impact of social media use on perceptions of body image (McLean et al.,

2015).
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In a study of 63 undergraduate students, Gonzales and Hancock (2011) found that

even simply updating or reading one’s profile on a social networking platform correlated with

large boosts in respondents’ self-esteem levels. In essence, people use social media as a tool

to project their best characteristics. This concept provides part of the fundamental basis for

the present study. Because social media allows individuals to present the best version of

themselves online, this calls into question what effect these portrayals may have on the

emotions and esteem of both posters as well as readers.

A study on social networking sites looks at how various university students use social

media by examining three user groups (college students, graduates, and faculty). According

to the analysis, each of the three user categories uniquely used social networking sites.

According to the survey, community service was more frequently performed by graduates

than by students, who preferred profile service. However, the majority of the professors

weren't frequent users. (Park, 2010) Studies on social networking sites have correctly noted

that today's college students utilize a variety of social networking sites to connect with old

friends, make new ones, and share user-generated content like blogs, videos, and images

(Won and Sang-WonLee, 2009).

The intensity of use comes from a study conducted by Ellison and colleagues (2007)

on the intensity at which people use Facebook. Here, intensity is introduced as the amount of

social connectedness that the individual has to the platform, as well as how integrated it is in

their life. The Facebook Intensity Scale used in that study was adapted by Trifiro and Prena

(2021) into an Instagram Intensity Scale. According to another study conducted on physical

education students, smartphone addiction had a significant positive correlation with the

intensity of Instagram use (Romero-Rodríguez, 2020).

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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

To achieve the objective of this study, the analytical cross-sectional research design is

used. In analytical cross-sectional studies, researchers investigate an association between two

parameters. Analytical research usually concerns itself with cause-effect relationships

(Simkus, 2023). Thus, the study is emphasizing analytical cross-sectional research design.

3.2 Universe of the Study

The universe of this study comprises undergraduate students of humanities and social

science faculty studying in a few colleges which are located in the Old Baneshwor area.

3.3 Sampling and Sample Size

The research is carried out by a purposive sampling technique. A total of 385

populations were selected to participate. The researcher distributed questionnaires and

collected accurate data by visiting a few colleges in the New Baneshwor area. The study's

findings are dependent on the honesty and fairness of the participants' responses.
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3.4 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Inclusion Criteria:

 Participants must be between 18 to 24 years old.

 Participants must provide informed consent to voluntarily participate in the study.

Exclusion Criteria:

 Participants outside the age of 18 to 24 years old will be excluded.

3.5 Data Collection Tools

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) is a widely used psychological instrument

designed to measure an individual's level of self-esteem. Developed by Morris Rosenberg in

1965, it consists of ten statements that assess how a person generally feels about themselves.

The scale includes both positively and negatively worded statements. Respondents rate their

agreement with each statement on a four-point scale, usually ranging from "Strongly Agree"

to "Strongly Disagree." The scoring is then used to determine the individual's overall self-

esteem.

Scores are calculated as follows:

For items 1, 2, 4, 6, and 7:

 Strongly agree = 3

 Agree = 2

 Disagree = 1

 Strongly disagree = 0

For items 3, 5, 8, 9, and 10 (which are reversed in valence):

 Strongly agree = 0

 Agree = 1

 Disagree = 2
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 Strongly disagree = 3

For the positively worded items (1, 2, 4, 6, 7), higher scores indicate higher levels of

self-esteem. For the negatively worded items (3, 5, 8, 9, 10), the scoring is reversed, meaning

higher scores reflect lower self-esteem.

The scale ranges from 0-30. Scores between 15 and 25 are within the normal range;

scores below 15 suggest low self-esteem.

The Instagram intensity scale was adapted from a study by Ellison et al. (2007), who

originally used the measure to gauge the intensity and frequency of Facebook use among

respondents. The measure includes self-reported assessments of Instagram behaviours

through Likert-scale attitudinal questions designed to measure the extent to which

respondents have emotionally connected to Instagram as well as the extent to which

Instagram is integrated into their everyday activities. As outlined by Ellison et al. (2007), the

Intensity Scale is designed to measure how emotionally connected users are with SNS. This

attachment is measured through specific items, such as “Instagram is part of my everyday

activity,” “I am proud to tell people I'm on Instagram,” and “I feel out of touch when I

haven't logged onto Instagram for a while. Response categories range from:

 1: Strongly Disagree

 2: Disagree

 3: Neutral

 4: Agree

 5: Strongly Agree

The Instagram Intensity score is computed by calculating the mean of all of the items

in the scale.
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3.6 Data Collection Procedure

In the process of data collection, questionnaires were distributed online as well as in

their respective classrooms. Informal communication was done with the participants so that

they could feel comfortable filling out the questionnaire. Then, participants were given

information about the purpose of doing the study. They were also informed about their role in

the study. After that, they were given a questionnaire to respond to their answers. They were

informed that their answer would be kept confidential so they would express their answer

without any hesitation. Also, they were informed that there would be no time limit for their

response, so they are expected to respond honestly.

3.7 Data Analysis Technique

The collected data from the field are tabulated in a systematic form. The data are

tabulated and processed by editing, classifying, and tabulating effectively. Collected data are

presented in the table and figure form. Excel and SPSS tools are used for assessing the data.

The data are further analyzed by using descriptive analysis finding mean and standard

deviation.

3.8 Ethical consideration

Ethical considerations are important for conducting the study responsibly while

protecting the rights and welfare of the participants. A no-harm strategy was taken, with the

prevention of physical or emotional injury being prioritized. Participant’s personal

information is protected by maintaining confidentiality. Detailed information about the

study’s scope and the role of participants were provided to the concerned college authorities.

Informed consent was obtained from the participants. All participants were informed that

their participation in the study is voluntary and they can withdraw from the research at any

time. Throughout the study, objectivity was maintained to avoid bias and to ensure accurate

and unbiased results.

 23

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

In this chapter the demographic information of the respondents, self-esteem based on

sex and Instagram intensity of the study and the relation between self-esteem and Instagram

intensity are present.

4.1 Demographic Information of Respondents

In the study, the majority (54.3%) of the respondents were female and 45.7 % were

male (Table 1 and Figure 2).

Figure 2

Sex of Respondents
 24

Male, 176 (45.7%)

Female, 209 (54.3%)

Source: Field Survey, 2024

The data in the table shows that higher (22.6%) of the respondents were the age of 23

years, 19.5 % are currently at the age of 21 years, 19% of the respondents were the age of 20

years, 17.9 % of the respondents were the age of 22 years and 10.9 % of the respondents were

the age of 24 years.

Table 1

Demographic Information of Respondents

Sex of respondents Numbers Percent (%)

Female 209 54.3
Male 176 45.7
Age of respondents
18 8 2.1
19 31 8.1
20 73 19.0
21 75 19.5
22 69 17.9
23 87 22.6
24 42 10.9
Ethnicity
Brahmin 123 31.9
 25

Janajati 129 33.5

Chhetri 113 29.4
Dalit 20 5.2
Marital Status
Unmarried (single) 353 91.7
Married 32 7.8
Religion
Hindu 297 71.1
Buddhist 45 11.7
Christian 35 9.2
Muslim 4 1.0
Sanatan 4 1.0
Source: Field Survey, 2024

The data in Table 1 and Figure 3 shows that the majority (91.7 %) of the respondents

were unmarried and 7.8 % were married.

Figure 3

Marital Status of Respondents

Married; 32

Unmarried; 353

Source
: Field Survey, 2024
The data in Table 1 shows that 31.9% of the respondents were Brahmin followed by

29.4 % and 33.5% were from the Chhetri and Janajati communities which was also shown in

Figure 4 below:
 26

Figure 4

Ethnicity of Respondents

Dalit; 20

Brahmin; 123
Chhetri; 113

Janajati; 129

Source: Field Survey, 2024

The data in Table 1 also shows that 71.1% of the respondents were Hindu followed by

11.7 % and 9.2 % of the respondents are from Buddhist and Christian respectively which was

also shown in Figure 5 below:

Figure 5

Religion of the Respondents

Muslim; 4 Sanatan; 4
Christian; 35

Buddhist; 45

Hindu; 297

Source: Field Survey, 2024

 27

4.2 Self-Esteem

In this part the self-esteem of the respondent is present and the analysis is based on
their

sex is present.

Table 2

Self-esteem of Respondents

Self-esteem Female Male Total

No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent
Low 32 15.3 27 15.3 59 15.3
Normal 166 79.4 137 77.8 303 78.7
High 11 5.3 12 6.8 23 6.0
Total 209 100 176 100 385 100
Source: Field Survey, 2024

The data in Table 2 shows that the majority (78.7%) of the respondents had normal

self-esteem followed by 15.3% and 6% of the respondents had lower and high self-esteem

with the mean and standard deviation of 18.3 and 4.5 respectively (table 3). Similarly, among

the female respondents, the majority (79.4%) had normal self-esteem followed by 15.3% and

5.3% of the respondents had lower and high self-esteem with mean and standard deviation of

18.4 and 4.55 respectively (table 3).

Figure 6

Self-esteem based on Sex

 28

180 166
160
137
140
120
100
Number

80
60
40 32 27
20 11 12
0
Low Normal High
Self-esteem

Female Male

Source: Field Survey, 2024

Likewise, the majority (77.8%) of the respondents had normal self-esteem followed

by 15.3% and 6.8% of the respondents had lower and high self-esteem with mean and

standard deviation of 18.3 and 4.45 respectively (table 3).

Table 3

Descriptive Statistics Self-esteem of Respondents of Sex

Statistics Female Male Total

Mean 18.4 18.3 18.3
Standard deviation 4.55 4.45 4.50
Median 18 18 18
Source: Field Survey, 2024

Table 4 shows that the t-value of self-esteem between sex of the respondents was

0.1777 with a p-value of 0.859 indicating that there was no significant different between self-

esteem based on the sex of respondents. The data in table shows that the study hypothesis

(H3) of there was no significant difference between self-esteem of respondents based on sex

is accepted.

Table 4

t-test of Self-esteem based on Sex

 29

t-test value p-value Result

0.1777 0.859 Insignificant

Source: Field Survey, 2024

4.3 Instagram Intensity among Students

Don't be fooled by Instagram's filtered perfection. It's a highlight reel, not reality,

showcasing curated moments that fuel comparison and pressure. High Instagram intensity

means you're deeply invested, spending lots of time and feeling emotionally connected. This

can lead to comparing yourself to others' curated lives, impacting self-esteem.

Table 5

Instagram Intensity among Students

Statement related to Instagram Intensity Mean St. CV

Deviation
1 Instagram is part of my everyday activity 3.24 1.24 38.27
2 I am proud to tell people I’m on Instagram 2.95 1.12 37.97
3 Instagram has become part of my daily routine 3.29 1.18 35.87
4 I feel out of touch when I haven't logged onto 3.00 1.23 41.00
Instagram for a while.
5 I feel I am part of the Instagram community 3.06 1.16 37.91
6 I would be sorry if Instagram shut down 3.11 1.23 39.55
7 Approximately how many total Instagram followers do 6.38 2.19 34.33
you have?
8 In the past week, on average, approximately how much 4.31 0.96 22.27
time per day have you spent actively using Instagram?
Overall 3.67 0.91 24.90
Source: Field Survey, 2024

For the data from Table 5 shows that the mean and standard deviation of the statement

“Instagram is part of my everyday activity” were 3.24 and 1.24 with a coefficient of variance

of 38.27%. Similarly, the mean and standard deviation of the statement “I am proud to tell

people I'm on Instagram” were 2.95 and 1.12 with a coefficient of variance of 37.97%.

Likewise, the mean and standard deviation of the statement “Instagram has become part of

my daily routine” were 3.29 and 1.18 with the coefficient of variance of 35.87%.
 30

The mean and standard deviation of the statement “I feel out of touch when I haven't

logged onto Instagram for a while” were 3.00 and 1.23 with a coefficient of variance of

41.00%. Similarly, the mean and standard deviation of the statement “I feel I am part of the

Instagram community” were 3.06 and 1.16 with a coefficient of variance of 37.91%.

Likewise, the mean and standard deviation of the statement “I would be sorry if Instagram

shut down” were 3.11 and 1.23 with a coefficient of variance of 39.55%.

The data in Table 5 shows that according to respondents the mean and standard

deviation of “Approximately how many total Instagram followers do you have?” were 6.38

and 2.19 respectively with a coefficient of variance of 34.33. Similarly, according to

respondents the mean and standard deviation of “In the past week, on average, approximately

how much time per day have you spent actively using Instagram?” were 4.31 and 0.96

respectively with a coefficient of variance of 22.27. Overall, the mean and standard deviation

of Instagram intensity were 3.67 and 0.91 respectively with a coefficient of variance of 24.90.

Table 6

Instagram Intensity Between Male and Female Respondents

Instagram Intensity Male Female t- Sig Result

Mean SD Mean SD value
Instagram is part of my 3.13 1.23 3.34 1.25 1.728 0.085 Insignificant
everyday activity
I am proud to tell people 2.89 1.15 3.00 1.09 0.987 0.325 Insignificant
I’m on Instagram
Instagram has become part 3.20 1.21 3.36 1.15 1.321 0.187 Insignificant
 31

of my daily routine
I feel out of touch when I 2.98 1.24 3.02 1.22 0.287 0.774 Insignificant
haven't logged onto
Instagram for a while.
I feel I am part of the 2.93 1.21 3.18 1.12 2.07 0.039 Significant
Instagram community
I would be sorry if 3.03 1.16 3.80 1.29 1.177 0.240 Insignificant
Instagram shut down
Approximately how many 6.39 2.14 6.38 2.24 -0.062 0.950 Insignificant
total Instagram followers
do you have?
In the past week, on 4.31 0.95 4.32 0.96 0.037 0.973 Insignificant
average, approximately
how much time per day
have you spent actively
using Instagram?
Overall 3.63 0.92 3.88 0.91 1.218 0.224 Insignificant
Source: Field Survey, 2024

The data from Table 6 shows that the mean and standard deviation of the statement

“Instagram is part of my everyday activity” were 3.13 and 1.23 respectively of male

respondents and the mean and standard deviation of the statement “Instagram is part of my

everyday activity” were 3.34 and 1.25 respectively for female respondents. Similarly, the

mean and standard deviation of the statement “I am proud to tell people I'm on Instagram”

were 2.85 and 1.15 respectively for male respondents and the mean and standard deviation of

the statement “I am proud to tell people I'm on Instagram” were 3.00 and 1.09 respectively

for female respondents. Likewise, the mean and standard deviation of the statement

“Instagram has become part of my daily routine” were 3.20 and 1.21 respectively for male

respondents and the mean and standard deviation of the statement “Instagram has become

part of my daily routine” were 3.36 and 1.15 respectively for female respondents.

The mean and standard deviation of the statement “I feel out of touch when I haven't

logged onto Instagram for a while” were 2.98 and 1.24 respectively for male respondents and

the mean and standard deviation of the statement “I feel out of touch when I haven't logged

onto Instagram for a while” were 3.02 and 1.22 respectively for female respondents.
 32

Similarly, the mean and standard deviation of the statement “I feel I am part of the Instagram

community” were 2.93 and 1.21 respectively for males and the mean and standard deviation

of the statement “I feel I am part of the Instagram community” were 3.18 and 1.12

respectively for female. Likewise, the mean and standard deviation of the statement “I would

be sorry if Instagram shut down” were 3.03 and 1.17 respectively for males and the mean and

standard deviation of the statement “I would be sorry if Instagram shut down” were 3.80 and

1.29 respectively for females.

The data in Table 6 also shows that according to male respondents the mean and

standard deviation of “Approximately how many total Instagram followers do you have?”

were 6.39 and 2.14 respectively and the mean and standard deviation of “Approximately how

many total Instagram followers do you have?” were 6.38 and 2.24 respectively for female.

Similarly, according to male respondents the mean and standard deviation of “In the past

week, on average, approximately how much time per day have you spent actively using

Instagram?” were 4.31 and 0.95 respectively and the mean and standard deviation of “In the

past week, on average, approximately how much time per day have you spent actively using

Instagram?” were 4.32 and 0.96 respectively for female. Overall, the mean and standard

deviation of Instagram intensity were 3.63 and 0.92 respectively for males and 3.88 and 0.911

for females.

The t-test statistics show that there were no significant differences between the mean

of males and females except for the statement “I feel I am part of the Instagram community”

4.4 Relation between Self-esteem and Instagram Intensity

In this part, the correlation between self-esteem and Instagram intensity of the

respondents is present in the following Table 7:

Table 7

Correlation between Self-esteem and Instagram Intensity

 33

Variable Correlation Sig. Result

Value

Self-esteem and Instagram Intensity 0.116 0.023 Significant correlation

Source: Field Survey, 2024

The data in Table 7 shows that the correlation between self-esteem and Instagram

intensity was 0.116 with a p-value of 0.023. Since the p-value is less than 0.05 showing that

the correlation between them was significant.

Chapter 5

Discussion and Conclusion

This chapter includes a discussion of the findings derived from the study and its link

with the different scholars' findings. Similarly, the conclusion derived from the findings is

present according to the study findings.

5.1 Discussion
 34

The first objective of the study is to find out the self-esteem of the respondents based

on sex. The study found that the majority (75.7%) of the respondents have normal self-esteem

levels and 6% have high, indicating that there is a low percentage of the respondents having

high self-esteem. In the case of the female respondents, the majority (79.4%) of the

respondents have normal self-esteem levels 5.3% have high self-esteem and the majority

(77.8%) of the respondents have normal self-esteem levels and 6.8% have high self-esteem.

Thus, data shows that more female respondents have normal self-esteem, but more male

respondents have high self-esteem. The mean and standard deviation of both male and female

respondents are also most ideal showing that there are no differences in self-esteem among

the respondents and the p-value of the independent t-test also shows that there are no

differences between the mean of self-esteem of male and female respondents. These findings

are like Buglass et al. (2016) but some more diverse than the findings from McLean et al.

(2011) which may be because of the analysis of social sites rather than particularly focusing

on one social site.

The second objective of the study is to examine the Instagram intensity among the

respondents. The mean for the statement “Instagram is part of my everyday activity” of

females is more than male respondents indicating that females perceive Instagram as a

slightly more integral part of their daily lives compared to males. However, the standard

deviations are quite similar, suggesting a comparable level of variability in responses

between genders and the t-test also shows that there is no significant difference between

males and females. The mean of male respondents is lower on the statement “I am proud to

tell people I'm on Instagram” with females showing slightly higher pride in their Instagram

presence but the test shows no difference between them. The lower standard deviation for

females indicates less variation in their responses compared to males. When considering the

statement “Instagram has become part of my daily routine,” males reported a mean of 3.20
 35

which is still less than females (3.36) suggests that females are more likely to see Instagram

as part of their daily routine, with slightly less variability in their responses compared to

males but the test shows no differences. For the statement “I feel out of touch when I haven't

logged onto Instagram for a while,” both genders showed similar feelings of disconnection

when not using Instagram, with very close means and standard deviations.

The mean on statement “I feel I am part of the Instagram community” of females is

more than males showing that females felt a stronger sense of community on Instagram than

males, and this difference was statistically significant, highlighting a notable gender

difference in this aspect. Similarly, regarding the statement “I would be sorry if Instagram

shut down” females would be more regretful if Instagram ceased to exist, with greater

variability in their responses. Likewise, for the question “Approximately how many total

Instagram followers do you have?” males have more friends than females, but the t-test

shows no significant difference in the number of followers. Similarly, for the question “In the

past week, on average, approximately how much time per day have you spent actively using

Instagram?” males spend less time than females indicating comparable usage times between

genders, but the t-test does not reflect it.

The overall Instagram intensity of female respondents is more than male suggesting

that females generally have a slightly higher intensity of Instagram usage compared to males,

but the t-test shows that the differences are not significant. These findings are diverse from

the findings of the scholars, Ellison & Colleagues (2007), Hwang (2019), Rahma & Setiasih

(2021), and Lup (2015) because they link intensity with smartphone addiction, the negative

effect of social sites intensity.

The third objective of the study is to examine the relationship between self-esteem

and Instagram intensity. The study found that the relation is positive and poor which is the
 36

similar finding of the study by Rahma and Setiasih (2021), and Ellison & colleagues (2007)

but the opposite of Buglass et al. (2016).

5.2 Conclusion

The study found that most respondents had normal self-esteem levels, while a smaller

percentage had high self-esteem, indicating a generally low prevalence of high self-esteem.

Specifically, among female respondents, the majority had normal self-esteem, with fewer

having high self-esteem. Among male respondents, most also had normal self-esteem, with a

slightly higher percentage having high self-esteem compared to females. Overall, the data

suggest that more females have normal self-esteem, but a higher percentage of males have

high self-esteem but no significant differences in self-esteem levels between the sexes.

The findings revealed that females perceive Instagram intensity as a slightly more

integral part of their daily lives compared to males, but these differences are not significant

between males and females reflecting that males and females have equal Instagram intensity.

The study also found that positive but weak relationships and consistent relations indicate

that there is a poor influence of Instagram intensity on the self-esteem of people.

5.3 Implication

The findings of the study have several implications. The study suggests the need to

explore other variables that may influence self-esteem, given the minimal differences found

between genders. Future research could investigate broader social and psychological factors

affecting self-esteem and social media usage. Similarly, the results indicate that self-esteem

interventions might not need to be gender-specific but should consider individual differences

in social media behaviour and its impact on mental health. Additionally, social media

platforms could use these insights to create more supportive online environments,

recognizing that the intensity of Instagram use has a nuanced relationship with self-esteem.
 37

Mental health professionals can also leverage these findings to better understand their clients'

social media habits and tailor interventions, accordingly, promoting healthier online

engagement and self-perception.

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ANNEX

Self-Esteem Scale
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Instruction:

Answer each of the following questions honestly. Next to each question, tick in a blank box

depending on which answer best describes you.

1. Strongly Agree

2. Agree

3. Disagree

4. Strongly Disagree

Statement 1 2 3 4

1 I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane

with others.

2 I feel that I have a number of good qualities.

3 All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.

4 I am able to do things as well as most other people.

5 I feel I do not have much to be proud of.

6 I take a positive attitude toward myself.

7 On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.

8 I wish I could have more respect for myself.

9 I certainly feel useless at times.

1 At times I think I am no good at all.

Instagram Intensity Scale

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The Instagram Intensity scale is used to measure Instagram usage beyond simple measures of

frequency and duration, incorporating emotional connectedness to the site and its integration

into individuals’ daily activities.

Instructions:

Answer each of the following questions honestly. Next to each question, tick a box depending

on which answer best describes you.

1. Strongly Disagree

2. Disagree

3. Neutral

4. Agree

5. Strongly Agree

Scale Items

Statement 1 2 3 4 5

1 Instagram is part of my everyday activity

2 I am proud to tell people I'm on Instagram

3 Instagram has become part of my daily routine

4 I feel out of touch when I haven't logged onto Instagram

for a while

5 I feel I am part of the Instagram community

6 I would be sorry if Instagram shut down

7 Approximately how many total Instagram followers do you have?

8. In the past week, on average, approximately how much time per day have you spent

actively using Instagram?