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Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK): The Development

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DOI: 10.1080/15391523.2009.10782544

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Technological Pedagogical
Content Knowledge (TPACK)
a a
Denise A. Schmidt , Evrim Baran , Ann D.
a b b
Thompson , Punya Mishra , Matthew J. Koehler &
b
Tae S. Shin
a
Iowa State University
b
Michigan State University
Published online: 21 Feb 2014.

To cite this article: Denise A. Schmidt, Evrim Baran, Ann D. Thompson, Punya
Mishra, Matthew J. Koehler & Tae S. Shin (2009) Technological Pedagogical Content
Knowledge (TPACK), Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42:2, 123-149,
DOI: 10.1080/15391523.2009.10782544

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 ]RTE, 42(2), 123-149

Technological Pedagogical Content

ICno~ledge(TPAC~:
The Development and Validation of an
Assessment Instrument for Preservice
Teachers
Denise A. Schmidt
Evrim Baran
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Ann D. Thompson
Iowa State University

Punya Mishra
Matthew J. Koehler
Tae S. Shin
Michigan State University

Abstract
Based in Shulman's idea of Pedagogical Content Knowledge, Technological Pedagogicd Content
Knowledge (TPACK) has emerged as a useful frame for describing and understanding the goals for
technology use in preservice teacher education. 7his paper addresses the needfor a survey bzstrument
designed to assess TPACKfor preservice teachers. 7he paper describes survey development Jrocess and
results from a pilot study on 124 preservice teachers. Data analysis procedures included C:ronbach's
alpha statistics on the TPACK knowledge domains and factor analysis for each domain. Results
suggest that, with the modification and/or deletion of 18 ofthe survey items, the survey is a reliable
and valid instrument that will help educators design longitudinal studies to assess preserz;ice teach-
ers' development of TPACK (Keywords: TPACK, instrument development, preservice teachers)

The purpose of this study was to develop and validate an i::lstrument designed
to measure preservice teachers' self-assessment of their Technologica~ Pedagogi-
cal Content Knowledge (TPACK) and related knowledge domains included in
the framework. TPACK is a term used increasingly to describe what teachers
need to know to effectively integrate technology into their teaching practices.
In this article, we detail the steps used to develop and validat:e an imtrument to
measure preservice teachers' development ofTPACK.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) was introduced to
the educational research field as a theoretical framework for understanding
teacher knowledge required for effective technology integration (Mishra & Koe-
hler, 2006). The TPCK framework acronym was renamed TPACK (pronounced
"tee-pack") for the purpose of making it easier to remember and to form a more
integrated whole for the three kinds of knowledge addressed: technology; peda-
gogy, and content (Thompson & Mishra, 2007-2008). The TPACK framework
builds on Shulman's construct of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) to

Journal ofResearch on Technology in Education 123

 Technological
Pedagogical Content
Knowledge
(TPACK)
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Figure 1: The components ofthe TPACKframework (graphic from .http:!I

tpack.org).

include technology knowledge as situated within content and pedagogical

knowledge.
Although the term is new, the idea ofTPACK has been around for a while. A
precursor to the TPCK idea was a brief mention of the triad of content, theory
(as opposed to pedagogy), and technology in Mishra (1998), though within
the context of educational software design. Pierson (1999, 2001), Kec.ting and
Evans (2001), and Zhao (2003) similarly describe the relationships 3e:tween
technology, content, and pedagogy. Other researchers have addressed similar
ideas, though often under different labeling schemes, including integration lit-
eracy (Gunter & Bumbach, 2004); information and communication JCT)-re-
lated PCK (e.g., Angeli & Valanides, 2005); Technological Content Knowledge
(Slough & Connell, 2006); and electronic PCK or e-PCK (e.g., Franklin, 2004;
Irving, 2006). Others who have demonstrated a sensitivity to the relationships
between content, pedagogy, and technology include Hughes (2004); McCrory
(2004); Margerum-Leys and Marx (2002); Niess (2005); and Slough & Con-
nell (2006).
TPACK is a framework that introduces the relationships and the complexities
between all three basic components of knowledge (technology, pedagogy, and

124 Winter 2009-10: Volume 42 Number 2

 content) (Koehler & Mishra, 2008; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). At the intersec-
tion of these three knowledge types is an intuitive understanding of teaching
content with appropriate pedagogical methods and technologies. Seven compo-
nents (see Figure 1) are included in the TPACK framework. They are defined as:

1. Technology knowledge (TK): Technology knowledge refers to the knowl-

edge about various technologies, ranging from low-tech technologies such
as pencil and paper to digital technologies such as the Internet, digital
video, interactive whiteboards, and software programs.
2. Content knowledge (CK): Content knowledge is the "knowledge about
actual subject matter that is to be learned or taught" (Mishra & Koehler,
2006, p. 1026). Teachers must know about the content they are going to
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teach and how the nature of knowledge is different for various content
areas.
3. Pedagogical knowledge (PK): Pedagogical knowledge refers to the
methods and processes of teaching and includes knowledge in classroom
management, assessment, lesson plan development, and student learning.
4. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK): Pedagogical content knowledge
refers to the content knowledge that deals with the teaching process
(Shulman, 1986). Pedagogical content knowledge is different for various
content areas, as it blends both content and pedagogy with the goal being
to develop better teaching practices in the content areas.
5. Technological content knowledge (TCK): Technological content knowl-
edge refers to the knowledge of how technology can create new represen-
tations for specific content. It suggests that teachers understand that, by
using a specific technology, they can change the way learners practice and
understand concepts in a specific content area.
6. Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK): Technological pedagogi-
cal knowledge refers to the knowledge of how various technologies can
be used in teaching, and to understanding that using technology may
change the way teachers teach.
7. Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK): Technologicc.l
pedagogical content knowledge refers to the knowledge required by teach-
ers for integrating technology into their teaching in any content area.
Teachers have an intuitive understanding of the complex interplay be-
tween the three basic components of knowledge (CK, PK, TK) by teach-
ing content using appropriate pedagogical methods and technologies.

The framework focuses on designing and evaluating teacher knowledge that

is concentrated on effective student learning in various content areas (AACTE
Committee on Innovation and Technology, 2008). Thus, TPACK is a use-
ful frame for thinking about what knowledge teachers must have to integrate
technology into teaching and how they might develop this knowledge. Using
TPACK as a framework for measuring teaching knowledge could potentially
have an impact on the type of training and professional development experi-
ences that are designed for both preservice and inservice teachers. Hence, there

Journal ofResearch on Technology in Education 125

 Table 1: Scientifically Based Instruments Used to Evaluate Teachers' Use of
Technology and Related Factors (Davis & Thompson, 2005)
Instrument Factors Evaluated Reference
Technology Proficiency Teachers' use of e-mail, Web, inte- Knezek & Christiansen
Self-Assessment grated applications, and technology (2004), created in 1999
integration
Concerns-Based Adoption Teachers' CBAM stage of concern Knezek & Christiansen
Model Stages of Concern with technology integration as an (2004), created in 1999
(CBAM SoC) innovation
Concerns-Based Teacher's CBAM Level of Use of Knezek & Christiansen
Adoption Model Levels of Technology (2004), created in 1999
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Use (CBAM LoU)

Level ofTechnology Teachers' technology skills, technol- Keller, Bonk, &
Implementation (LoTi) ogy integration, stage of instruc- Hew (2005) adapted
Questionnaire * (http:/ I tional development, strategies for Moersch's (1995) LoTi
www.lotilounge.com) technology-related professional (both pre-/post- and
development, access to technology intervention/ control
groups)
Integrated Studies of Teachers' technology integration, SRI International
Educational Technology related professional development (2002) created survey,
(ISET) national survey of implementation and outcomes complemented with case
U.S. teachers, technology studies
coordinators, principals
Teaching, Learning, and Teachers' technology integration, Becker & Riel (2000)
Computing Survey (TLC) in broader context with approach created in 1998,
to teaching, professional engage- complemented with case
ment, and school-based access to studies
technology
National survey in Teachers' technology integration, Preston (2004), comple-
England of teachers quality of professional development mented with case studies
and technology-related model and its implementation,
professional development school's engagement with profes-
providers sional development, teacher access to
technology

is a continual need to rethink our preparation practices in the teacher educa-

tion field and propose new strategies that better prepare teachers to effectively
integrate technology into their teaching.
Although educators have expressed enthusiasm for the TPACK frame for
teacher knowledge (Angeli & Valanides, 2009; Special Interest Group for
Teacher Education [SIGTE] Leadership and National Technology Leadership
Summit (NTLS) Program Committee, 2008; Wetzel, Foulger & Williams,
2008-2009), work is just beginning on assessing teachers' understanding of
TPACK. Researchers have noted the need to develop reliable assessment ap-
proaches for measuring TPACK and its components to better understand which

126 Winter 2009-10: Volume 42 Number 2

 professional development approaches do (or do not) change teachers' knowl-
edge, as well as deepening the collective sensitivity to the contexts in which
these approaches work (or do not work) (Koehler & Mishra, 2005; Mishra &
Koehler, 2006).
Buildbg on a history of using survey methods to assess teachers' levels of
technology integration, researchers have started work on creating survey instru-
ments that assess preservice teachers' and teachers' levels ofTPACK. Existing
surveys tend to focus on teachers' self-assessment of their levels of technology
use (e.g., Keller, Bonk, & Hew, 2005; Knezek & Christic.nsen, 2004), and
Table 1 provides a summary of the most widely used of these surveys. Following
the development of the TPACK framework, researchers began to work on the
problem of assessing both preservice and inservice teachers' levels ofTPACK.
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These surveys emphasize teachers' self-assessed levels of k::10wledge in each of

the TPACK domains.
Previous attempts to measure TPACK include Koehler a:1d Mishra (2005),
who used a survey to track changes in teachers' perception of their understand-
ing of content, pedagogy, and technology over the course of an instructional
sequence emphasizing design of educational technolog-y. Although they were
able to establish and document changes in teachers' perception about their
understc..nding, this approach relied on a survey specific to those unique course
experiences, and thus is not generalizable to other contexts, content areas, or ap-
proaches to professional development. Koehler, Mishra, and Yahya (2007) also
have used an approach based on discourse analysis to track the development of
TPACK. Analyzing the conversations of teachers working in design teams, they
have tracked the development of each of the seven compo::ments ofTPACK over
the course of a semester. This approach, however, is especially time consuming
and is methodologically specific to the unique context in which it was used (i.e.,
semester-long design experiences).
AngeL and Valanides (2009) have explored the use of de;;ign-based perfor-
mance assessments embedded into course sequences. The researchers used
self-assessment, peer assessment, and expert assessment of these design-based
performances as formative and summative assessments of teachers' understand-
ing. Specifically, the expert assessment has raters judge the extent to which
teachers do each of the following during their design activ~ty: (a) identify
suitable topics to be taught with technology, (b) identifY appropriate representa-
tions to transform content, (c) identify teaching strategies that are difficult to
implement by traditional means, (d) select appropriate tools and pedagogical
uses, and (e) identify appropriate integration strategies. These ratings are com-
bined to produce an overall rating of each teacher's "ICT-TPCK" competency.
Again, this approach is time consuming and context specific to the extent that
the design activities fit a particular content area and course content.
Archambault and Crippen (2009) have developed a survey-based approach
to measuringTPACK based upon a sample of596 K-12 online teachers. They
used 24 survey questions asking teachers to rate their own understanding of
various instructional and conceptual issues. Using prior research, definitions of
the conceptual terms, and correlational analyses, the authors group questions to

Journal ofResearch on Technology in Education 127

 measure each of the seven components ofTPACK. The present study proceeds
in the same vein as the Koehler and Mishra (2005) study and the Archambault
and Crippen (2009) study in that its purpose is to develop a fast, reliable, teach-
er-rated survey that measures teachers' understanding of each component of
the TPACK framework. It extends the work of the Koehler and Mishra (2005)
effort by developing a more robust survey that extends to general contexts,
multiple content areas, and multiple approaches of professional development.
It extends the work of A...rchambault and Crippen (2009) by offering triangula-
tion on survey approaches that work, based upon a different methodological
approach (factor-analysis), developed with a different population (preservice
teachers), and premised '..Ipon an approach that measures teachers' understand-
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ing within several different content areas.

The belief that effective technology integration depends on contect and
pedagogy suggests that reachers' experiences with technology must be specific
to different content areas. Using the TPACK framework to guide ocr research
design, we conducted a study to develop an instrument with the purpose of
measuring preservice teachers' self-assessment of the seven knowledge domains
included within TPACK.

METHODOLOGY
This research team is interested in examining how preservice teachers develop
and apply technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) tiroughout
their teacher preparation program and in PK-6 classrooms during practicum
and student teaching experiences. As part of this research plan, we constructed
the Survey of Preservice Teachers' Knowledge of Teaching and Technology
to collect data on preserdce teachers' self-assessment of the seven knowledge
domains within the TPACK framework. These knowledge domains include:
technology knowledge (TK), content knowledge (CK), pedagogical knowledge
(PK), pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), technological content knowledge
(TCK), technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK), and finally, technological
pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). The researchers specifically designed
the instrument for preservice teachers majoring in elementary or early child-
hood education, and it focused on the content areas (i.e., literacy, mathemat-
ics, science, social studie.E) that these preservice teachers would be pr~paring to
teach.

Instrument Development
The first step in developing the TPACK survey involved reviewing relevant
literature that cited numerous instruments that were already being used for
assessing technology us~ ::n educational settings. Most of these instruments
focused on the constructs of technology skills and proficiencies, teachers' beliefs
and attitudes, technology· support given, and barriers encountered. ~7hile
developing this instrument, the purpose remained clear that the items included
would measure preservice teachers' self-assessments of the TPACK domains, not
their attitudes toward TPACK. Existing surveys provided information on the
survey style and approach as we generated items designed to measure preservice

128 Winter 2009-10: Volume 42 Number 2

 teachers' self-assessed development ofTPACK (Christensen & Knezek, 1996;
Knezek & Christensen, 1998; Knezek, Christensen, Miyashita, & Ropp, 2000;
Koehler & Mishra, 2005). The research group revised all items in an iterative
process and then sent them out for expert content validity analysis.
Three nationally known researchers with expertise in TPACK were given the
initial pool of 44 items to evaluate for content validity (Lawshe, 1975). Each
expert was asked to rate to what extent each question measured one of the seven
TPACK knowledge domains using a 10-point scale (with 1 being to the least
extent and 10 being to the greatest extent). The experts were also encouraged
to provide comments and suggestions for each question and, in some cases,
offered their own lists of possible questions for each domain. The mean ratings
for items in the seven knowledge domains were 5.14 (TK), 3.67 (PK), 8.50
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(CK), 8.33 (TPK), 9.00 (PCK), and 7.88 (TPACK). The research team then
collaborated to review the ratings and suggestions, and made revisions to several
items. For example, the content-validity experts offered recommendations to
revise survey items that ranged from changing the location of a word in a ques-
tion to turning one question into several related questions. Areas with low mean
ratings, such as TK, were determined to include items that did not adequately
measure preservice teachers' knowledge about that particular construct. The
research team then worked closely with two of the experts to rewrite items for
all seven TPACK subscales.
Consequently, the instrument constructed contained 75 items for measuring
preservice teachers' self-assessments of the seven TPACK domains: 8 TK items,
17 CK items, 10 PK items, 8 PCK items, 8 TCK items, 15 TPK items, and 9
TPACK items. For these 75 items, participants answered each question using
the following five-level Likert scale:

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neither agree nor disagree
4. Agree
5. Strongly agree

The instrument also included items addressing demographic information and

faculty and PK-6 teacher models ofTPACK. The Survey of Preservice Teach-
ers' Knowledge ofTeaching and Technology was then administered online after
students completed a required 3-credit introductory technology course designed
specifically for PK-6 preservice teachers.

Research Context and Participants

The research team collected data for this survey development project from
124 students who were enrolled in a 3-credit introduction to instructional tech-
nology course at a large Midwestern university. This 15-week course focused on
using technology in PK-6 classrooms and learning environments with an em-
phasis on integrating technology into all content areas. The preservice teachers
were required to attend two 1-hour lectures and one 2-hour laboratory session
per week. One member of this research group manages the course and teaches

journal ofResearch on Technology in Education 129

 the two lectures offered each week. Typically, graduate teaching assistants teach
the hands-on, laboratory sections that meet for 2 hours every week.
One researcher recently redesigned this introductory instructional technology
course using TPACK as an organizing framework for course content and activi-
ties. Although developing preservice teachers' technology knowledge was still a
primary focus of the course, there was an increased emphasis placed on develop-
ing their content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge as well. The design of
course projects and assignments required preservice teachers to constantly make
connections between content, pedagogy, and technology in relationship to the
instructional goals. For example, one project required each preservice teacher
to design a comprehensive lesson plan that integrated technology. In addition
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to selecting the technology, preservice teachers were also required to list specific
content area standards addressed and to describe the pedagogical methods used
for the lesson.
The researchers created the TPACK survey using an online survey develop-
ment tool and posted it on the course WebCT site for participants to access.
When the preservice teachers accessed the survey online the first time, they
were presented with an informed consent document that described the study's
purpose and were told that their participation in the study was voluntary. All
participants completed the survey in their laboratory session during the last
week of the semester. The survey took approximately 15-20 minutes for partici-
pants to complete.
The majority of responses (79.0%) were from students majoring in elemen-
tary education, whereas 14.5% of the responses were from early childhood
education majors and 6.5% of the respondents were enrolled in another major.
Of the 124 students who completed the survey, 116 (93.5%) were female and
8 (6.5%) were male. Just over half (50.8%) of the respondents were freshmen,
29.8% were sophomores, 16.1 o/o were juniors, and 3.2% were seniors. At the
time the survey was administered, the majority of the respondents (85.5%)
had not yet completed a practicum or student teaching experience in a PK-6
classroom.

Data Analysis
The research team used quantitative research methods to establish the extent
of the validity and reliability of the instrument. Researchers assessed each
TPACK knowledge domain subscale for internal consistency using Cronbach's
alpha reliability technique. We then investigated construct validity for each
knowledge domain subscale using principal components factor analysis with va-
rimax rotation within each knowledge domain and Kaiser normalization. Given
that the instrument included 75 items when it was administered for the first
time, it was clear that our sample size was too small to perform a factor analysis
on the entire instrument.

RESULTS
Factor analysis involves a series of analyses used to develop a rigorous instru-
ment. For this analysis, the first step involved running a factor analysis on the
items within each subscale to ascertain the covariation among the items and

130 Winter 2009-10: Volume 42 Number 2

 Table 2: Factor Matrix for Technology Knowledge (TK)
Factor Internal
Loadings Consistency
(alpha)
Technology Knowledge .82
I know how to solve my own technical problems. .76
I can learn technology easily. .75
I keep up w_th important new technologies. .73
I frequently play around with the technology. .70
I know about a lot of different technologies. .66
I have the technical skills I need to use technology. .66
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I have had sufficient opportunities to work with different

.65
technologies.

whether the patterns fit well into the TPACK constructs. The researchers used
the Kaiser-Guttman rule (which states that factors with Eigenvalues greater
than 1 should be accepted) to identifY a number of facto::-s and their constitution
based on the data analysis. In addition, we calculated reLability statistics for
items in each subscale to identifY problematic items. \Xle examined questionable
items for each TPACK domain subscale and eliminateC.. :hose that reduced the
reliability coefficient for the subscales. We also eliminate:! those items because
it seemed they were not measuring the preservice teachers' knowledge of the
related construct. Thus, we dropped the individual item~ that affected the reli-
ability and construct validity of each knowledge domain subscale. As a result,
28 items were deleted from the survey, including one TK item, 5 CK items, 3
PK items, 4 PCK items, 4 TCK items, 10 TPK items, and 1 TPACK item (see
Appendix A, pages 142-143).
After eliminating problematic items, we ran a second factor analysis on the
remaining survey items within each of the seven subscales, and those results are
presented i::1 this section. The resulting TPACK instrument exhibited strong
internal consistency reliability and included 47 items (se~ Appendix B). Reli-
ability statistics were then repeated on the remaining items within each knowl-
edge doma~n. The internal consistency reliability (coefficient alpha) ranged from
.75 to .92 for the seven TPACK subscales. According to George and Mallery
(2001), this range is considered to be acceptable to excellent. The alpha reliabil-
ity coefficients are reported in Tables 2-8 for each TPACK subscale presented.
We report the final items for the TPACK subscales, alons with their reliabilities,
in the sections that follow.

Technology Knowledge (TK)

The first knowledge domain, technology knowledge (TK), refers to under-
standing how to use various technologies. One factor, a~ounting for 49.36%
of the totd variance, was present using the seven items that captured students'
self-assessment of their technology knowledge (see Table 2). Cronbach's alpha
for this set of items was .82.

Journal ofResearch on Technology in Education 131

 Table 3: Factor Matrix for Content Knowledge (CK)
Content Knowledge Factor Internal
Loadings Consistency
(alpha)
Mathematics .85
I have sufficient knowledge about mathematics. .89
I can use a mathematical way of thinking. .89
I have various ways and strategies of developing my understanding
.86
of mathematics.
Social Studies .84
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I have various ways and strategies of developing my understanding

.92
of social studies.
I have sufficient knowledge about social studies. .87
I can use a historical way of thinking. .83
Science .82
I have various ways and strategies of developing my understanding
.89
of science.
I can use a scientific way of thinking. .86
I have sufficient knowledge about science. .82
Literacy .75
I have various ways and strategies of developing my understanding
.89
of literacy.
I can use a literary way of thinking. .79
I have sufficient knowledge abcut literacy. .79

Content Knowledge (CK)

The second knowledge domain, content knowledge (CK), refers to the knowl-
edge teachers must know about for the content they are going to teach and how
the nature of that knowledge is different for various content areas. The factor
analysis of the twelve items on this subscale extracted four factors (see Table
3). Each of the four factors extracted included items classified from the major
subjects typically taught in an elementary classroom: mathematics with 77.32%
variance, social studies with 77.06% variance, science with 73.25% variance,
and literacy with 67.36':Yo variance. Cronbach's alpha for mathematics was .85,
social studies was .84, science was .82, and literacy was .75.

Pedagogical Knowledge (PK)

Pedagogical knowledge (PK), the third subdomain, refers to the methods and
processes of teaching and would include fundamental knowledge in areas such
as classroom management, assessment, lesson plan development, and student
learning. After completing the factor analysis on the seven items representing
PK, the results produced a single-factor structure having a 52.39% variance (see
Table 4). Cronbach's alpha for this set of items was .84.

132 Winter 2009-10: Volume 42 Number 2

 Table 4: Factor Matrix for Pedagogical Knowledge (PK)
Factor Internal
Loadings Consistency
(alpha)
Pedagogical Knowledge .84
I know how to assess student performance in a classroom. .79
I can adapt my teaching based upon what students currently under-
.78
stand or do not understand.
I can adapt my teaching style to different learners. .77
I can assess student learning in multiple ways. .77
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I can use a wide range of teaching approaches in a classroom set-

.68
ting.
I am familiar with common student understandings and miscon-
.68
ceptions.
I know how to organize and maintain classroom management. .59

Table 5: Factor Matrix for Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)

Factor Internal
Loadings Consistency
(alpha)
Pedagogical Content Knowledge .85
I know how to select effective teaching approaches to guide stu-
.87
dent thinking and learning in literacy.
I know how to select effective teaching approaches to guide stu-
.84
dent thinking and learning in science.
I know how to select effective teaching approaches to guide stu-
.81
dent thinking and learning in mathematics.
I know how to select effective teaching approaches to guide stu-
.79
dent thinking and learning in social studies.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)

The fourth knowledge domain, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), refers
to the content knowledge that deals with the teaching process. After completing
the factor analysis on the seven items representing PCK, the results produced a
single-factor structure having a 68.73% variance (see Table 5). Cronbach's alpha
for this knowledge domain was .85.

Technological Content Knowledge (TCK)

The fifth knowledge domain, technological content knowledge (TCK), refers
to teachers' understanding of how using a specific technology can change the
way learners understand and practice concepts in a specific content area. The
factor analysis produced one factor from the four items on the subscale and ac-
counted for 64.95% of the item variance (see Table 6, page 134). For this set of
items, the Cronbach's alpha was .80.

Journal ofResearch on Technology in Education 133

 Table 6: Factor Matrix for Technological Content Knowledge (TCK)
Factor Internal
Loadings Consistency
(alpha)
Technological Content Knowledge .80
I know about technologies that I can use for understanding and
.87
doing literacy.
I know about technologies that I can use for understanding and
.86
doing social studies.
I know about technologies that I can use for understanding and
.80
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doing science.
I know about technologies that I can use for understanding and
.69
doing mathematics.

Table 7: Factor Matrix for Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK)

Factor Internal
Loadings Consistency
(alpha)
Technological Pedagogical Knowledge .86
I can choose technologies that enhance the teaching approaches for
.91
a lesson.
I can choose technologies that enhance students' learning for a
.89
lesson.
My teacher education program has caused me to think more deeply
about how technology could influence the teaching approaches I .78
use in my classroom.
I am thinking critically about how to use technology in my
.75
classroom.
I can adapt the use of the technologies that I am learning about to
.69
different teaching activities.

Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK)

Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) refers to teachers' knowledge of
how various technologies can be used in teaching and understanding that using
technology may change the way an individual teaches. For the sixth knowledge
domain one factor emerged from the seven items included on the TPK subscale
(see Table 7). The total variance reported for the TPK domain was 65.32%. The
Cronbach's alpha for the TPK knowledge domain was .86.

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)

The seventh and final knowledge domain, technological pedagogical content
knowledge (TPACK), refers to the knowledge teachers require for integrat-
ing technology into their teaching-the total package. Teachers must have

134 Winter 2009-10: Volume 42 Number 2

 Table 8: Factor Matrix for Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
(TPCK)
Factor Internal
Loadings Consistency
(alpha)
Technologiccl Pedagogical Content Knowledge .92
I can teach lessons that appropriately combine literacy, technolo-
.87
gies, and teaching approaches.
I can use strategies that combine content, technologies, and
teaching approaches that I learned about in my coursework in my .85
classroom.
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I can choose technologies that enhance the content for a lesson. .85
I can select technologies to use in my classroom that enhance what
.82
I teach, how I teach, and what students learn.
I can teach lessons that appropriately combine science, technolo-
.82
gies, and teaching approaches.
I can teach lessons that appropriately combine social studies,
.80
technologies, and teaching approaches.
I can provide leadership in helping others to coordinate the use of
content, technologies, and teaching approaches at my school and/ .74
or district.
I can teach lessons that appropriately combine mathematics,
.67
technologies, and teaching approaches.

an intuitive understanding of the complex interplay between the three basic

components of knowledge (CK, PK, TK) by teaching content using appropri-
ate pedagogical methods and technologies. A factor analysis of the eight items
representing TPACK included one factor accounting for 64.63% of the item
variance. Cronbach's alpha for this set of items was .92 (see Table 8).
Correlations among TPACK Subscales
A final set of analyses examined the relationship between TPACK subscales
using Pearson product-moment correlations. With respect to correlations
between subscales, coefficients varied from .02 (social studies and math content
knowledge) to .71 (TPK and TPACK). TPACK was significantly correlated
with eight subscales at the .001level and with social studies content knowledge
(SSCK) at the .05 level. The highest correlations were between TPACK and
TPK (r=.71), TPACK and TCK (r=.49), and TPACK and PCK (r=.49) (see
Table 9, page 136).

DISCUSSION
These results indicate that this is a promising instrument for measuring pre-
service teachers' self-assessment of the TPACK knowledge domains. Although
the sample size was small, we have good indications that the survey, as revised,
is a reliable measure ofTPACK and its related knowledge domains. Future
work will include further refinement of the instrument through obtaining a

journal ofResearch on Technology in Education 135

 Downloaded by [Michigan State University] at 07:53 31 August 2015

1-'
(,J.) Table 9: Correlations between TPACK Subscales
0'\
TPACK Subscale TK SSCK MCK SCK LCK PK PCK TPK TCK TPACK

Technology Knowledge (TK)

.07 .41" .3T .19" .21' .17 .40" .54" .43"

Social Studies Content Knowledge (SSCK)

.02 .35" .43'" .18" .35" .16 .22" .18"

Math Content Knowledge (MCK)

.39" .15 .14 )
.2"'" .23' .21' .26"

Science Content Knowledge (SCK)

- .33'" .30" .33" .26"" .36" .3T

Literacy Content Knowledge (LCK)

.42" .32" .35" .23"" .31''

Pedagogical Knowledge (PK)

.56" .51" .23'" .53'"
~
::
.....
...,('D Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) .20" .49""
.32"
N
0
0 Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK)
\0 .46" .71"
I
1-'
~ Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) .49"
~
~ Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
~
~ (TPACK)
~ Mean 3.67
3.80 3.70 3.65 4.03 3.97 3.63 4.15 3.84 3.97
~
~
~ Standard Deviation .55
~ .70 .78 .73 .48 .45 .65 .44 .53 .52
t-v
 larger sample size so a factor analysis can be performed on the entire instru-
ment, and then further validation of the instrument using classroom observa-
tion procedures.
This survey instrument was designed with a specific purpose in mind: exam-
ining preservice teachers' development ofTPACK. Over the years, several
instruments have been developed for measuring constructs like teachers'
technology skills, technology integration, access to technology, and teachers'
attitudes about technology (Becker & Riel, 2000; Keller, Bonk, & Hew, 2005;
Knezek & Christiansen, 2004). Although advances were made in developing
valid and reliable instruments for these purposes, this instrument is differ-
ent from others in that it measures preservice teachers' self-assessment of their
development ofTPACK rather than teachers' attitudes or teachers' technology
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use and integration. It extends the work of Mishra and Kohler (2005) and Ar-
chambault and Crippen (2009) with the creation of another robust survey that
specifically targets preservice teachers and thoroughly examines their knowledge
development in each of the seven TPACK domains.
Readers are reminded that this survey was specifically designed for preservice
teachers who are preparing to become elementary (PK-6) or early childhood
education teachers (PK-3). Thus, the content knowledge domain includes sepa-
rate factors for the content areas of math, science, social studies, and literacy.
Because PK-6 teachers generally teach all of these subjects in their classrooms,
having separate factors for each content area seems most appropriate and
supports the idea that the TPACK framework is content dependent (AACTE
Committee on Innovation and Technology, 2008; Mishra & Kohler, 2006).
Future work in this area will benefit from efforts that specifically address mea-
suring secondary teachers' self-assessment in the content areas of mathematics,
science, social studies, and English. Taking into account the results from this
study, it seems realistic that there would be an instrument designed specifically
for each secondary content area.
It should be noted that two of the subscales (PCK and TCK) included only
four items, and each item in the subscale was connected to a content area. For
example, a PCK item stated: I know how to select effective teaching approaches
to guide student thinking and learning in mathematics. The remaining three
items addressed literacy, science, and social studies respectively. Given the
results on this instrument, writing additional items for these subscales might
strengthen the instrument's reliability and validity in these areas. Research plans
include continual revision and refinement of the instrument, including the ad-
dition of more items to some of the TPACK subscales.

CONCLUSIONS
The instrument developed for this study provides a promising starting point
for work designed to examine and support preservice teachers' development
ofTPACK. The authors plan on conducting a longitudinal study with the
preservice teachers who participated in this study to examine the development
ofTPACK after completing content area methodology courses and student
teaching. Research plans also involve following these preservice teachers during

Journal ofResearch on Technology in Education 137

 their induction years of teaching. Perhaps most important, we plan to conduct
classroom observations of student teachers and induction year teachers to evalu-
ate the level ofTPACK demonstrated in their classrooms and then investigate
how scores on the TPACK instrument predict classroom behaviors. In addition,
the authors plan studies designed to further validate and revise the instrument.
We are also in the process of completing a study of pre- and posttest scores
using the instrument with preservice teachers currently enrolled in the same
introductory instructional course to determine what effect the class has on the
early development ofTPACK (Schmidt, et al., 2009). We have also used the
instrument to investigate how inservice teachers' beliefs about teaching and
technology changed during a set of educational courses offered both face to face
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and online (Shin et al., 2009). Use and modification of this instrument should
encourage a line of research on measuring the development ofTPACK in pre-
service teachers and ultimately help preservice teacher education programs de-
sign and implement approaches that will encourage this development. We plan
to administer the survey periodically throughout teacher education programs,
using the results to inform researchers of specific times or events when each
knowledge domain is developed. This information will provide valuable insight
into the development ofTPACK and provide program feedback on effective
approaches in encouraging this development.

Contributors
Denise A. Schmidt is an assistant professor in the Department of Curriculum
and Instruction and the Center for Technology in Learning and Teaching at
Iowa State University. Her teaching and research interests link K-12 teacher,
university faculty, and preservice teacher efforts that support the diffusion of
technology innovations in schools. She is also a co-editor for the Journal of
Computing in Teacher Education. (Address: N031B Lagomarcino Hall, Center
for Technology in Learning and Teaching, Iowa State University, Ames, IA
50011; Phone: +1.515.294.9141; E-mail: dschmidt@iastate.edu)
Evrim Baran is a doctoral candidate in Curriculum and Instructional Tech-
nology and Human Computer Interaction programs at Iowa State University.
Her research focuses on teachers' development of technological pedagogical
content knowledge (TPACK) and the design of online collaborative learn-
ing environments. (Address: N 106 Lagomarcino Hall, Center for Technology
in Learning and Teaching, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011; Phone:
+ 1.515.294.5287; E-mail: evrimb@iastate.edu)
Ann D. Thompson is a professor at Iowa State University and the founding
director of the Center for Technology in Learning and Teaching. Her research
has focused on technology in teacher education, and she is a co-editor for the
Journal of Computing in Teacher Education. (Address: N108 Lagomarcino
Hall, Center for Technology in Learning and Teaching, Iowa State University,
Ames, IA 50011; Phone: +1.515.294.5287; E-mail: eat@iastate.edu)
Punya Mishra is an associate professor of educational technology at Michigan
State University, where he also directs the Master of Arts in Educational Tech-
nology program. He is nationally and internationally recognized for his work
on the theoretical, cognitive, and social aspects related to the design and use of

138 Winter 2009-10: Volume 42 Number 2

 computer-based learning environments. He has worked extensively in the area
of technology integration in teacher education, which led to the development of
the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework. (Ad-
dress: 509A Erickson Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824;
Phone:+l.517.353.7211; E-mail: punya@msu.edu)
MattheY\' J. Koehler is an associate professor of educational technology in the
College of Education at Michigan State University. His research and teaching
focus is en understanding the affordances and constraints of new technolo-
gies; the design of technology-rich, innovative learning environments; and the
professional development of teachers. He has worked extensively in the area of
technology integration in teacher education, which led to the development of
the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework. (Ad-
Downloaded by [Michigan State University] at 07:53 31 August 2015

dress: 509B Erickson Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824;
Phone:+ 1.517.353.9287 ; E-mail: mkoehler@msu.edu)
Tae Seob Shin is a doctoral candidate in the Educational Psychology and Edu-
cational Technology program at Michigan State University. His research focuses
on understanding and promoting students' motivation to learn in online learn-
ing environments. (Address: 145 Erickson Hall, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, 1v1I 48824; Phone:+ 1.517.353.9272 ; E-mail: shintae@msu.edu)

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APPENDIX A: SURVEY ITEMS DELETED

Technology Knowledge (TK)

When I encounter a problem using technology, I seek outside help.

Content Knowledge (CK)

I have a deep and wide understanding of the subjects I plan to teach.
I know about various examples of how mathematics applies in the real
world.
I know about various examples of how literacy applies in the real
world.
I know about various examples of how science applies in the real
world.
I know about various examples of how social studies applies in the
real world.

Pedagogical Knowledge (PK)

I know when it is appropriate to use a variety of teaching approaches
in a classroom setting (collaborative learning, direct instruction, in-
quiry learning, problem/project-based learning, etc.)
I have an understanding of how students learn.
I can structure a lesson to promote student learning.

142 Winter 2009-10: Volume 42 Number 2

 Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)
I know that different mathematical concepts do not require different
teaching approaches.
I know that different literacy concepts do not require different teach-
ing approaches.
I know that different science concepts do not require different teaching
approaches.
I know that different social studies concepts do not require different
teaching approaches.
Technological Content Knowledge (TCK)
• Using technology can fundamentally change the way people understand
mathematics concepts.
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Using technology can fundamentally change the way people understand

literacy concepts.
Using taechnology can fundamentally change the way people under-
stand science concepts.
Using technology can fundamentally change the way people understand
social studies concepts.

Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK)

Different teaching approaches do not require different technologies.
I have the technical skills I need to use technology appropriately in
teaching.
I have the classroom management skills I need to use technology ap-
propriately in teaching.
I know how to use technology in problem/project-based learning.
I know how to use technology in inquiry learning.
I know how to use technology in collaborative learning.
I know how to use technology in direct instruction.
My teaching approaches change when I use technologies in a class-
room.
Knowing how to use a certain technology means that I can use it for
teaching.
Different technologies require different teaching approaches.

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)

Integrating technology in teaching content (i.e. mathematics, literacy,
science, social studies) will be easy and straightforward for me.

Journal ofResearch on Technology in Education 143

 APPENDIX B: SURVEY OF PRESERVICE TEACHERS' KNOWLEDGE
OF TEACHING AND TECHNOLOGY
1hank you for taking time to complete this questionnaire. Please answer each question to the best
ofyour knowledge. Your thoughifulness and candid responses will be greatly appreciated Your in-
dividual name or identificatior; number will not at any time be associated with your respons-
es. Your responses will be kept completely confidential and will not influence your course g:-ade.

Demographic Information

1. Your e-mail address

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2. Gender
a. Female
b. Male

3. Age range
a. 18-22
b. 23-26
c. 27-32
d. 32+

4. Major
a. Early Childhood Education (ECE)
b. Elementary Education (ELED)
c. Other

5. Area of Specialization
a. Art
b. Early Childhood Education Unified with
Special Education
c. English and Language Arts
d. Foreign Language
e. Health
f. History
g. Instructional Strategist: Mild/Moderate (K8)
Endorsement
h. Mathematics
1. Music
J. Science-Basic
k. Social Studies
l. Speec~v'Theater
m. Other

144 Winter 2009-10: Volume 42 Number 2

 6. Year in College
a. Freshman
b. Sophomore
c. Junior
d. Senior

7. Are you completing an educational computing

minor?
a. Yes
b. No
8. Are you currently enrolled or have you completed a
practicum experience in a PK-6 classroom?
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a. Yes
b. No

9. What semester and year (e.g., spring 2008) do you plan to take the
following? If you are currently enrolled in or have already taken one
of these literacy block, please list semester and year completed.

Literacy Block-I (C I 377, 448, 468A, 468C)

Literacy Block-II (C I 378, 449, 468B, 468D)
Student teaching

Technology is a broad concept that can mean a lot of different things. For the pur-
pose of this questionnaire, technology is referring to digital technology/technologies-
that is, the digital tools we use such as computers, laptops, iPods, handhelds, interac-
tive whiteboards, software programs, etc. Please answer all of the questions, and if you are
uncertain of or neutral about your response, you may always select ''Neither agree nor disagree. "

Technology Knowledge (TK)

Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA

1. I know how to solve my own technical problems. SD D N A SA

2. I can learn technology easily. SD D N A SA
3. I keep up with important new technologies. SD D N A SA
4. I frequently play around with the technology. SD D N A SA
5. I know about a lot of different technologies. SD D N A SA
6. I have the technical skills I need to use technology. SD D N A SA
7. I have had sufficient opportunities to work with differ- SD D N A SA
ent technologies.

Journal ofResearch on Technology in Education 145

 Content Knowledge (CK)

Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA

Mathematics
8. I have sufficient knowledge about mathematics. SD D N A SA
9. I can use a mathematical way of thinking. SD D N A SA
10. I have various ways and strategies of developing my SD D N A SA
understanding of mathematics.
Social Studies
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11. I have sufficient knowledge about social studies. SD D N A SA

12. I can use a historical way of thinking. SD D N A SA
13. I have various ways and strategies of developing my SD D N A SA
understanding of social studies.
Science
14. I have sufficient knowledge about science. SD D N A SA
15. I can use a scientific way of thinking. SD D N A SA
16. I have various ways and strategies of developing my SD D N A SA
understanding of science.
Literacy
17. I have sufficient knowledge about literacy. SD D N A SA
18. I can use a literary way of thinking. SD D N A SA
19. I have various ways and strategies of developing my SD D N A SA
understanding of literacy.

Pedagogical Knowledge (PK)

Strongly Disagree= SD Disagree= D Neither Agree/Disagree= N Agree= A Strongly Agree= SA

20. I know how to assess student performance in a class- SD D N A SA

room.
21. I can adapt my teaching based upon what students cur- SD D N A SA
rently understand or do not understand.
22. I can adapt my teaching style to different learners. SD D N A SA
23. I can assess student learning in multiple ways. SD D N A SA
24. I can use a wide range of teaching approaches in a SD D N A SA
classroom setting.
25. I am familiar with common student understandings SD D N A SA
and misconceptions.
26. I know how to organize and maintain classroom SD D N A SA
management.

146 Winter 2009-10: Volume 42 Number 2

 Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)

Strong(y Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agreq = A Strongly Agree = SA

27. I can select effective teaching approaches to guide SD D N A SA

student thinking and learning in mathematics.
28. I can select effective teaching approaches to guide SD D N A SA
student thinking and learning in literacy.
29. I can select effective teaching approaches to guide SD D N A SA
student thinking and learning in science.
30. I can select effective teaching approaches to guide SD D N A SA
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student thinking and learning in social studies.

Technological Content Knowledge (PCK)

Strongly Disag1ee = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA

31. I know about technologies that I can use for under- SD D N A SA

standing and doing mathematics.
32. I know about technologies that I can use for under- SD D N A SA
standing and doing literacy.
33. I know about technologies that I can use for under- SD D N A SA
standing anC. doing science.
34. I know about technologies that I can use for under- SD D N A SA
standing anC. doing social studies.

Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK)

Srrongly Disat,n-ee = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA

35. I can choose technologies that enhance the teaching SD D N A SA

approaches for a lesson.
36. I can choose technologies that enhance students' learn- SD D N A SA
ing for a le~son.
37. My teacher education program has caused me to think SD D N A SA
more deeply 1bout how technology could influence the
teaching app::oaches I use in my classroom.
38. I am thi:::king critically about how to use technology in SD D N A SA
my classroom.
39. I can adapt the use of the technologies that I am learn- SD D N A SA
ing about to different teaching activities.

journal ofResearch on Technology in Education 147

 Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)

Strongly Disagree = SD Disagree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA

40. I can teach lessons that appropriately combine math- SD D N A SA

ematics, technologies, and teaching approaches.
41. I can teach lessons that appropriately combine SD D N A SA
literacy, technologies, and teaciing approaches.
42. I can teach lessons that appropriately combine sci- SD D N A SA
ence, technologies, and teaching approaches.
43. I can teach lessons that appropriately combine social SD D N A SA
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studies, technologies, and reaching approaches.

44. I can select technologies w use in my classroom that SD D N A SA
enhance what I teach, how I teach, and what students
learn.
45. I can use strategies that combine content, technolo- SD D N A SA
gies, and teaching approaches that I learned about in my
coursework in my classroom.
46. I can provide leadershi? in helping others to coor- SD D N A SA
dinate the use of content, technologies, and teaching
approaches at my school and/ or district.
47. I can choose technologies that enhance the content SD D N A SA
for a lesson.

Models of TPACK (Facu1ty, PK-6 Teachers)

Strongly Disagree = SD Di!agree = D Neither Agree/Disagree = N Agree = A Strongly Agree = SA

1. My mathematics education professors appropri- SD D N A SA

ately model combining cor_tent, technologies, and
teaching approaches in their teaching.
2. My literacy education professors appropriately SD D N A SA
model combining content, technologies, and teach-
ing approaches in their teaching.
3. My science education pr:>fessors appropriately SD D N A SA
model combining content, ted:nologies, and teach-
ing approaches in their teaching.
4. My social studies education professors appropri- SD D N A SA
ately model combining content, technologies, and
teaching approaches in their teaching.
5. My instructional technology professors appropri- SD D N A SA
ately model combining content, technologies, and
teaching approaches in their teaching.

148 Winter 2009-10: Volume 42 1Vurnber 2

 6. My educational foundation professors appropri- SD D N A SA
ately model combining content, technologies, and
teaching approaches in their teaching.
7. My professors outside of education appropriately SD D N A SA
model combining content, technologies, and teach-
ing approaches in their teaching.
8. My PK-6 cooperating teachers appropriately SD D N A SA
model combining content, technologies, and teach-
ing approaches in their teaching.
25% 26% 51%- 76%-
or -50% 75% 100%
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less
9. In general, approximately what percentage of
your teacher education professors have provided an
effective model of combining content, technologies,
and teaching approaches in their teaching?
10. In general, approximately what percentage of
your professors outside of teacher education have
provided an effective model of combining content,
technologies, and teaching approaches in their
teaching?
11. In general, approximately what percentage of
the PK-6 cooperating teachers have provided an
effective model of combining content, technologies,
and teaching approaches in their teaching?

Please complete this section by writing your responses.

1. Describe a specific episode where a professor or an instructor effectively

demonstrated or modeled combining content, technologies, and teaching
approaches in a classroom lesson. Please include in your description what
content was being taught, what technology was used, and what teaching
approach(es) was implemented.

2. Describe a specific episode where one of your PK-6 cooperating teachers

effectively demonstrated or modeled combining content, technologies,
and teaching approaches in a classroom lesson. Please include in your de-
scription what content was being taught, what technology was used, and
what teaching approach(es) was implemented. If you have not observed a
teacher modeling this, please indicate that you have not.

3. Describe a specific episode where you effectively demonstrated or mod-

eled combining content, technologies, and teaching approaches in a
classroom lesson. Please include in your description what content you
taught, what technology you used, and what teaching approach(es) you
implemented. If you have not had the opportunity to teach a lesson,
please indicate that you have not.

Journal ofResearch on Technology in Education 149

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