CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO SIWES

Training is a key factor in enhancing the efficiency and expertise of a work force.
Logistics are set in motion for students to participate in Industrial work experience in fields
related to their studies, so as to bridge the gap existing between theory acquired in the school
and actual practices. Also, it is persistent for students to be exposed to equipment and
professional work ethics and industrial safety.
In the earlier stage of science and technology education in Nigeria, students were
graduating from their respective institutions without any technical knowledge or working
experience. It was in view of this that students undergoing science and technology related
courses were mandated, for students in different institution in view of widening their
horizons so as to enable them have the technical knowledge and working experience before
graduating from their various institutions. It is in this vein that the Students Industrial Work
Experience Scheme (SIWES) was initiated.
The student industrial work experience scheme (S.I.W.E.S) is a program designed and
coordinated by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF), a Federal government establishment in
conjunction with institution of higher learning in Nigeria.
SIWES was established by ITF in 1973 to solve the problem of inadequate practical
skills preparatory for employment in industries by Nigerian graduates of tertiary institutions.
The aim of the program is to expose student to practical aspects of their various fields of
discipline and the industrial work situation they are likely to encounter in pursuit of their
careers during this period. Students come across new equipment different from the ones
they are familiar with, they also get accustomed with new techniques of handling the
equipment which enable them to apply the various theoretical class works to the practical
aspect of the job in order to enhance the understand of their discipline.
The Scheme exposes students to industry based skills necessary for a smooth transition
from the classroom to the world of work. It affords students of tertiary institutions the
opportunity of being familiarized and exposed to the needed experience in handling
machinery and equipment which are usually not available in educational institutions.
Participation in Industrial Training is a well-known educational strategy. Classroom studies
are integrated with learning through hands-on work experiences in a field related to the
student’s academic major and career goals. Successful internships foster an experiential
learning process that not only promotes career preparation but provides opportunities for
learners to develop skills necessary to become leaders in their chosen professions.
One of the primary goals of the SIWES is to help students integrate leadership
development into the experiential learning process. Students are expected to learn and
develop basic non- profit leadership skills through a mentoring relationship with innovative
non-profit leaders.
By integrating leadership development activities into the Industrial Training
experience, they hope to encourage students to actively engage in non-profit management as
a professional career objective. However, the effectiveness of the SIWES experience will
have varying outcomes based upon the individual student, the work assignment, and the
supervisor/mentor requirements. It is vital that each internship position description includes
specific, written learning objectives to ensure leadership skill development is incorporated.
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1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES
The key objectives of the scheme include:
i. To make the labour force more vibrant and simultaneously making the economic
sector more buoyant.
ii. To prepare students to be accustomed to work and other administrative
assignments, and also, to cultivate the spirit of punctuality when employed in the
future.
iii. To assess the interest of the student and the suitability for the occupation he/she has
chosen.
iv. To provide students with an opportunity to apply his/her knowledge in real work
situation thereby bridging the gap between academic work and actual set up.
v. To expose the student to work methods not taught in the institution and to provide
access to production equipment.

1.2 PARTICIPANTS IN SIWES

The major participants in the SIWES are below listed.
i. The Federal Government
ii. The Industrial Training Fund
iii. The Coordinating Agency (NUC)
iv. The Institutions (Universities)
v. The Students
vi. The Employers

1.3 THE ROLES OF AN IT STUDENT

1. Comply with the employers’ rules and regulations.
2. Arrange their living accommodation during the period of attachment.
3. Be regular and punctual at respective place of attachment.
4. Be inquisitive and willing to learn new skills.
5. Ensure full participation in all work and projects available at place of attachment.
6. Report the work done daily at respective place of attachment in the log book provided
by the institutions of learning.
7. Where applicable, provide an end-of-IT report to the department in the institution

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 CHAPTER TWO
COMPANY’S PROFILE
2.1. PROFILE OF FEM ASSOCIATES NIGERIA LIMITED
FEM Associates Nigeria Limited is a hydrographic, land and geotechnical survey
company established in 1993 based in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. The company undertake site
surveys, rig positioning support services for pipe laying badges, sophisticated differential
GPS services and miscellaneous survey services to the civil and oil industry. These
operations are executed by employing high tech and modern equipment and methods which
meet the international Hydrographic Organization Standard.
FEM Associates keeps a full suite of hydrographic, geophysical, geotechnical and
underwater survey equipment for prompt mobilization.
The company directors are experienced with over 20 years working experience in
offshore oil and gas industry. FEM employ both national and international trained
hydrographers, underwater engineer, safety officers and geoscientists to carry out her
operations ensuring quality and safety.
2.2. COMPANYS OBJECTIVES, GOALS AND STRATEGIC PLANS
The provision of first-class survey services to the world offshore oil and gas industries at an
affordable rate is a primary commitment of FEM Associates Nigeria Limited. Companies in
the oil sector must be aware of the increased possibilities presented by our company which
brings specialized knowledge to the development of offshore oil and gas projects.
The desired objectives in the provision of hydrographic, geotechnical and geophysical survey
services to cater for the needs of the offshore oil, gas, construction, marine and civil
engineering industries.
They strive to:
a. Maintain a Safety Management System (S.M.S), which guide how all health, safety
and environmental (H.S.E) matters are organized, planned, communicated, managed,
documented, audited, reviewed and improved.
b. Provide state of the art and cost-effective positioning, navigation and survey services
to companies in the oil, gas and construction sectors.
c. Introduce a more client-friendly service and atmosphere into the industry and hence
better quality assured and controlled services to oil industry.
d. Provide better quality assured and controlled services to the oil industry.
e. Bring the leading edge of survey technologies to the threshold of the Nigerian
hydrographic profession.
f. Develop Nigerian offshore manpower resources up to an international standard with
benefits of reduced mobilization costs on the part of the client. This is achieved
without compromising the quality of survey services provided by employment of

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 trained, tested and proven Nigerian workers together with expatriates around the
world if the need be.
g. Comply with all local laws, regulations and FEM Associates standards.

2.3. PRODUCTS AND SERVICES

FEM Associates strives to produce relevant quality plants, which meet the client
requirements. The products and services offered by the company are undertaken using
leading edge technology and competent professional staff.
2.4. HEALTH AND SAFETY
FEM Associates is committed to health, safety and environmental initiatives
throughout its operations. The company recognize the hazardous nature of its business and
requires all its employees to observe safe working practices. Operations are always planned
and undertaken in the manner best calculated to minimize any adverse environmental effect.
2.5. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE:

Board of Directors

Managing Director/
NCD

Security/Admin
Surveyor/ Quality Cashes
Business Dev. Mgr. Coordinator
Manager
Geo - Scientist
Base Engineer Underwater Engineer

Online Navigator Technologists (Surveyors,

Geophysicist, Engineers)

Technicians

Safety Officer

Others

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5
CHAPTER THREE
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING AND ITS APPLICATIONS
The major focus of my Industrial Training was on hydrographic surveying including its
undeniable role in solving scientific problems. Hydrographic survey is simply the
geosciences of measurement and description of features which has to do with areas of
maritime navigation, marine construction, dredging, offshore oil exploration/offshore oil
drilling, marine security and other related activities on water bodies. The term hydrography is
used to describe maritime cartography, whereby the final stages of the hydrographic process
use the raw data collected through hydrographic survey into information usable by the client
or user. It is also the acquisition, analysis, visualization, processing, and management of
spatial information concerning all marine features processed and presented in four-dimension
space (XYZ, space and time), these include scientific study of lakes, rivers, oceans, sea and
other water bodies. There are numerous applications of hydrographic surveying, and I will
explain a few of them particularly those which I was opportune to participate in during the
course of my Industrial training.
3.1. APPLICATIONS OF HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING
a. Maritime navigation.
b. Dredging.
c. Geophysical survey.
d. Geotechnical survey.
e. Rig/barge move and positioning.
f. Coastal engineering and coastal zone management.
g. Harbor engineering.
h. Irrigation.
i. Marine construction
j. Marine security etc.

3.1.1 DREDGING: This is the operation carried out to excavate sand deposits, estuaries,
and other materials from a water body, for the purpose of improving existing water
features, navigation purpose, marine construction, establishment of controls for
shorelines, explore, exploit and recover valuable mineral deposits or marine life which
has economic value. The excavation is carried out by a dredger. Dredging is carried out in
many different locations and for different purposes, but the main purpose is to recover
material of value or use, or to create a greater depth of water. It keeps waterways and
ports navigable.

3.1.2 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY: geophysical surveys provide crucial information on

the geology of the sub bottom strata, which is required for any engineering, construction,
drilling, production or mining activity. Hydrographic surveys provide seabed mapping
and geophysical survey services for the oil and gas industry. It provides rig and platform
site surveys, 2D high resolution data acquisition and interpretation, pipeline laying cable
and route surveys, hydrographic and geophysical survey vessel charters etc. In
geophysical survey, Seismic operation deals with the process of investigating
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 subterranean structure, particularly as related to exploration for petroleum, natural gas
and mineral deposits. The technique is based on determining the time interval that elapses
between the initiation of a seismic waves at a selected shot point and the arrival of
reflected or refracted impulses at one or more seismic detectors. Seabed mapping also
called seabed imaging, is the measurement of water depth of a given body of water.

3.1.3 NAVIGATION: This has to do with the production of a comprehensive marine

document, map or chart which gives information about the nature of the seabed, water
surface, fairways and ports in other to aid safe navigation. Information provided includes
nautical charts, real time data, spatial framework and marine debris. A nautical chart is
one of the fundamental tools available to the mariner and the marine industry. This
information is obtained using SONAR, LIDAR, and aerial photographs. Just like road
maps, nautical charts provide basic navigation information such as water depths various
locations of marine hazards etc.

3.1.4 GEOTECHNICAL SURVEY: Geotechnical survey is the first step in the

construction or consolidation of a marine site. It contains information about soil
consistency, structure, ground water level and recommendations for technical projects.
Following the drilling, the samples collected from the ground are taken to the lab for
analysis and processing. The results obtained are interpreted by a geotechnical engineer,
geologist and surveyors to obtain information on the physical properties of soil
earthworks and structures caused by sub surface conditions.

3.1.5 RIG/BARGE MOVE AND POSITIONING: Offshore installation is most

commonly engaged in drilling actions located in continental shelf of a country and form a
major part of the petroleum industry’s upstream sector. An offshore facility handling and
towing operation consists in moving and positioning an offshore installation from a
position to another. Drilling rigs and barges are moved from one place to another on a
regular basis. Locating the rig perfectly in the right spot is the role of the hydrographic
surveyor. There are four different types of movable offshore platforms, namely drilling
ship, semi-submersible, submersible and Jack up rigs or barges.

3.2. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING EQUIPMENT

Hydrographic surveying is a very technical and important arm of surveying that serves a
variety of purposes and industries. From offshore oil and gas exploration to sea navigation for
containership and LNG carriers, etc. These industries are very critical; and as such, little or
no room for error is allowed. To achieve the required level of accuracy, a host of
sophisticated equipment are employed. A wide range of the equipment works with acoustic
signals. Some of the equipment used in the field of hydrography are;
a. Magnetometer.
b. The side scan sonar.
c. The echo sounder (single beam, multibeam and TriTech multibeam echo sounder).
d. The fluxgate.
e. The sector scanner.
f. The telemetry system.
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 g. Underwater camera
h. Remote operated vehicle (ROV).
i. Navigation software such as Quincy, EIVA, Hydropro, Hypack etc.
j. Survey vessels (boats and ships).
k. The sub bottom profiler.
l. GPS.
m. MRU (motion reference unit).
n. The ultra-short baseline and electronic beacons (USBL).
o. The current meter.
p. The sound velocity profiler SVP
q. The gyrocompass.

Many of these hydrographic instruments listed above uses acoustic signals (sound waves).
Sound waves suffer less refraction in water than they do in air. This is one of the main
reasons why survey operations done on land uses electromagnetic waves such as light and
radio waves. Light waves cannot be used for bathymetry because it requires a reflective
surface to throw light back to the source for it to record data which can be very expensive or
impossible to accomplish. Hence light waves are employed on surface surveys while acoustic
waves are used in underwater surveys.
3.2.1 SIDE SCAN SONARS
A side scan sonar uses high-frequency sound pulses that are bounced off the sea floor to
create an image of the sea floor morphology shape) and show differences in seabed texture
and substrate types. Typically, side scan sonar consists of two transducers mounted in a
towed body or 'fish'. Transducers can also be mounted on either side of a ship, on a remotely
operated vehicle (ROV) or on an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV). Each transducer
generates a fan-shaped sound pulse perpendicular to the vessel track. When the sound pulse
hits the sea floor, some of the sound is reflected back to the transducer and some is reflected
away. The returned sound is known as backscatter. Strong return (high backscatter) typically
occurs when the sound is reflected off hard and rocky surfaces, while weak return (low
backscatter) occurs if reflected off softer sediments (e.g., sand). Because of the geometry of
the sound pulse sent toward the sea floor, an obstacle rising above the seabed, such as
shipwreck or steep hill can cast shadows (no return) in the sonar image. The size of the
shadow can be used to determine the size of the feature.
Components of the JW fishers side scan sonar used in Fem associates Nigeria limited;
a. Tow fish.
b. Side scan sonar processor (top side).
c. Cable drum. (Houses the side scan sonar cable and from which the fish is connected
and launched)
d. The laptop which has the JW fishers sonar view application software installed in it.

Side scan sonar power setup procedure:

a. Attach the cable that connects the tow fish to the sonar processor.

8
 b. Connect either the 12vdc battery power cable or the 120vac to 12vdc power supply to
12vdc input jack on the sonar processor panel.
c. If available connect the data cable from the GPS to the GPS input jack on the sonar
processor panel.
d. Boot the pc into windows, wait until windows is fully loaded before continuing.
e. Switch the sonar processor power on.
f. Attach the USB interface cable that connects the sonar processor to the pc.
g. Launch the JW wishers sonar view application software.

Side scan data:

a. Water column: it provides the information about the side scan tow fish height above
the sea bed.
b. Target: features off the sea floor produce shadow.
c. Bottom sediment: signals differ based on the return angle of incidence and seabed
absorption.

Importance of shadow in side scan sonar data interpretation: as the tow fish gets closer
to the sea floor the shadow size increases, when trying to identify an object the shadow can
be more helpful than the shape of the object. A side scan can be used in variety of hydro
surveying operations which are search and recovery, identifying geological features, pre and
post dredge surveys, target verification and location, correlating and verifying bathymetric
data.
SIDE SCAN OPERATIONS
The side scan is either towed or mounted on the hull of the ship. These two ways of
deploying sensors of this kind has some downsides as well as upsides, they are;
Towed: sonar is close to bottom and has minimal motion (ideal for deep water), the
disadvantage is that the position of the tow fish may not be known.
Hull mounted: This is characterized by accurate position won't hit bottom (ideal for shallow
water), the disadvantages are it's unsuitable for deep water and vessel motion will show in
data. Hull mounted systems with better position are only suitable for shallow water.

Side scan sonar and its accessories

9
3.2.2. SINGLE BEAM ECHOSOUNDER (SBES)
This type of echo sounder determines depth from the reflected sound from the seabed.
It produces one ping at a time, each ping returns data containing information used to deduce
the depth from the water surface to that point in the transducer draft. As beam width
increases, the footprint on the seabed increases as well. The sounding is the strongest return
in that area. The width of the beam can severely affect the accuracy of a reported sounding.
Examples of this kind of echo sounders are Odom CV series (100, 300) and Odom hydrotrac

and echotrac. It measures travel time from the sonar to the reflected seabed. The SBES can
only take one measurement at a time, hence the single beam. The single beam echo sounders
typically pings several times per second. Speed of Sound *Time=Distance.

Single beam echo sounder and a transducer during a dry test

3.2.3 MAGNETOMETERS
A magnetometer is used to detect variations of the Earth magnetic field. Usually, the
increased magnetization is caused by the presence of ferrous (unoxidized iron) on or under
the seafloor. Although the available magnetometers vary in design, the main functionality
remains the same. The Earth magnetic field in a localized, this assumed homogenous area is
measured and any variation recorded. By measuring not only absolute values but also
changes in field strength and rate of such changes and applying a complex mathematical
model to this data, one can calculate horizontal and vertical position of detected anomalies as
well as size of the assumed objects. Magnetometer surveys are used in a variety of fields, and
are particularly well suited to the detection and mapping of all sizes of ferrous objects
including anchors, chains, cables, pipelines, ballast and other scattered shipwreck debris,
munitions (UXO), aircraft, engines and any other magnetic objects.

MARINE MAGNETOMETER WORKING PRINCIPLES:

10
Magnetometers can be scalar, measuring the strength of the magnetic field, or vector
resolving the magnetic field into the vectors of strength, inclination and declination (angle the
magnetic field makes with the geographic north). Marine magnetometers contain a chamber
filled with liquid rich in hydrogen atoms like kerosene and methanol. Electrons dissolved in
the liquid are excited by a radio frequency (RF) power source and pass their energy to the
hydrogen atoms nuclei protons, altering their spin states. It is important to understand how
the range to the object affects the expected gamma reading. When searching for a known
object target interrogation begins with an understanding of the expected gamma. A
magnetometer finds buried metallic objects. The recorded variations can be used with the
Hypack recorded files to clean the interference out of the survey.

COMPONENTS OF A MAGNETOMETER
i. Dongle/key
ii. Processor
iii. Power cable
iv. Data cable
v. Fish/Magnetometer/Maggi

CONNECTION AND OPERATION OF MAGNETOMETER USING BOB

SOFTWARE (SEA-SPY MAGNETOMETER)
During my industrial training at Fem associates Nigeria limited, I learnt how to set up the sea
spy magnetometer and use the Bob software. The steps are;
i. Insert the key into any port on the system.
ii. Connect the maggi to the onboard in the processor.
iii. Input the data cable to the processor and connect the other end to the system.
iv. Connect the power cable.
v. Launch the Bob software.
vi. Click on “start new survey”—fill in the survey name, location of survey, and any
note.
vii. Click on “connect GPS”—fill in the serial port (com port) number assigned to the
GPS USB to serial e.g.,“com 8”, then fill in the baud rate for the GPS e.g., “4800”
baud rate.
viii. Click on “connect Magnetometer” fill in the serial port number assigned to the
magnetometer USB to Serial e.g., “com 15”, then fill in the baud rate of the
magnetometer e.g., “9600” baud rate.
ix. Click on “sync and confirm” -- it is the review of all your setting (adjust your layback,
offset, time, depth reading should be zero, then click done.
x. Interface has popped up-- click on backup the file from survey icon to ensure data
isn't lost in case of emergency. Click on new folder. Create a folder, edit it then save
xi. Click on sampling (layer), highlight all the icons in the full scale. Click on the spike.

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xii. Click on survey and then on export file to see your recorded file.

Magnetometer and its cables tied to a buoy

3.2.4. SUB-BOTTOM PROFILERS

Sub-bottom profilers (SBP) systems are single channel instrument used for shallow
reflection seismic profiling. SBP operate at different transmit frequencies. The interpreted
data from these SBP systems include the thickness and qualitative sediment characteristics.
Uses include engineering and geotechnical site surveys, dredging studies, mineral
exploration, habitat mapping, renewable energy surveys

WORKING PRINCIPLES OF SUB-BOTTOM PROFILING:

SBP operation is divided into two principles namely; energy source and receiver
combined as in a transducer and separate sound source and receiver (hydrophone array).
These principles are basically a function of the sequence of arrangement of the component of
the equipment. The sound energy transmitted
into the water is reflected from the seabed
and the subsurface sediment layers. The
reflected energy intensity depends on the
different density of the sediments. The types
of sub-bottom profiling systems; chirp,
parametric SBP, Pinger bubble pulsar,
boomer, sparker, mini-air gun. These
systems differ from each other based on
operating frequency, source and
receive array, typical resolution, typical depth of penetration, mount configuration. Mounting
a sub-bottom profiler and towing the source and hydrophone array correctly are critical to
acquiring a noise free dataset, there are two ways to mount a SBP on a vessel which are the
vessel mounted systems
(transducers are mounted away
from the areas of potential noise or
turbulence and surface towed
systems (the source and the receive
array are separated by aerated
propeller wash).

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 A Sub bottom profiler

3.2.5 THE GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS, is a satellite-based radio
navigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States
Space Force. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provides geo-
location and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is
an unobstructed line of sight to four or more
GPS satellites.[4] Obstacles such as mountains
and buildings block the relatively weak GPS
signals. The GPS uses 24 satellites that orbit the
earth every 12 hours. A navigation software
needs to see 4 satellites to get a position fix,
but more is better. GPS works on the
WGS84 datum and spheroid. Dynamic GPS
positioning accuracy ranges from 10-20m
to 0.05-0.02m depending on the method employed.

GPS POSITION DETERMINATION:

The time of travel is used to compute distance. This computes a pseudo range ideally,
three pseudo ranges should cross at the position of the GPS, based on range the position is
somewhere along the circle. In fact, four satellites are required to determine the unknown
values. Where X- latitude, Y- longitude, Z- height, T- time based error. The spread of
satellites determines the quality of the position. Satellites too low on the horizon or too close
together can provide errors. Ionospheric and tropospheric effects are the same at the reference
station and user GPS. Reference station and user GPS see the same satellites.

DOs AND DON’Ts OF GPS

i. Never power up the receiver without physically connecting the antenna. The firm
way version can become obsolete or the system will blow off.
ii. Do not step on the antenna cable.
iii. Ensure that the antenna is placed on a clear horizon.

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 GPS and its accessories

3.2.6. SURVEY VESSEL (BOAT)

Vessel is used in hydrographic survey operations. A survey boat or vessel is any type
of ship or boat that is used for mapping and survey offshore activities. It is a type of research
vessel which carries the survey crew when executing survey offshore jobs. The sensors,
equipment, and hardware used in such operation are also placed onboard the same boat or
ship. Moreover, in some offshore operations such as rig move, and TUG management, more
than one vessel is required because of its huge and wide range of activity it requires.

Survey boat and survey team. Schematic diagram of a boat

The diagram above labels the parts of a survey boat including some pictures. Our
main interest is in the port side (left hand side), starboard side (right hand side), stern (back or
rear), and the bow (front).
The stern and bow are also called the aft and fore respectively. The bow refers to the
tip or front of the boat, while the stern refers to the rear or back of the boat. The starboard is
the right side of the boat while the portside is the left side of the boat. The center point of the
boat is called the mid-stern.
During a survey operation, the party chief who
is the leader of the survey crew, directs the captain
(boat or ship driver) on how to steer the vessel
towards the side on the vessel where a sensor is being
towed in a survey run line. This is to avoid
entanglement of the tow cable with the vessel’s
propellers which can damage the sensor or detach the
cable from the sensor resulting in the loss of the sensor.
The point on the vessel where the sensor is fastened to
the boat is called the track point. The position (X,Y,Z) of each track point must be noted and

14
its offset taken to be configured into the navigation software in use on the vessel for the
purpose of tracking the sensor positions at each point in time. The length of the cable used to
launch the fish or sensor into the water is known as the cable-out and must be configured
into the navigation software in use.
Once the offset, cable-out, and the depth of the fish in water is known, the layback
can be computed. The layback is used to precisely compute the position (X,Y,Z) of the sensor
or fish being towed in the water. This is because, without this position data as computed, it is
impossible to tell the point on the earth associated with the depth, sonar images, and magnetic
anomalies a sensor is reading at a point in time.
Vessel shape and offset: the shape of the vessel must be measured using a measuring tape.
This measurement should show the exact size and shape of the vessel outline. The data is
then entered into the navigation software which displays a real time shape of the vessel in use
on the screen of the survey crew and the captain inside the boat.
This can only be possible through the real time position data update from the GPS antenna
which is placed at the highest point on the vessel to avoid obstructions, it is also known as the
common reference point (CRP). As the data enters into the navigation software, it updates in
real time thereby revealing the vessel movement on the screen. The GPS receiver gives the
vessel position in real time.
Offsets tells the point on the boat where a sensor or a fish is attached or fastened thereby
becoming a very important parameter. Every sensor on the boat such as the GPS,
Gyrocompass, Side scan sonar, MRU, etc. have an offset which is entered into the navigation
software to show the location of each sensor on the boat.
Sounding (survey) lines: a survey line is a line which has a known coordinate within the
area of survey and the corresponding geodetic parameters inside the navigation software. It
serves as a guide for the boat captain who tries to run along these predefined sounding lines.
Due to the fact that the operation is done on water, it is very hard for one to accurately tell the
exact points or lines within the scope of the operation. This is solved through the navigation
software which makes it indispensable in every offshore survey operation.
Layback: a layback is simply the distance from the GPS which is the common reference
point (CRP), to the stern (back) of the boat, and to the cable fastened to the fish. Recall that
the main purpose of the GPS and sensor offsets is to track in real time the position of the
vessel and the fish or sensor, which displays it through the navigation software screen. The
sensors are always fastened at the stern of the boat and as a result, the offset of that track
point is exactly at the stern of the boat as shown on the navigation software screen,
meanwhile the fish or sensor is being towed far away from the stern. This can result in huge
error because the position of the sensor or fish, received by the navigation system is false.
Therefore, a layback is calculated to accurately fix on the navigation software screen, the
sensor position and depth in water at each point in time. This layback displays the sensor
position at the exact point which is actually far off from the stern. Sensors are towed far from
the vessel stern to avoid tracking anomalies or signals within the vessel outline.

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3.3 THE PROCESSES OF HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING
In any hydrographic survey operation, procedures are followed in view to execute a good job
to the satisfaction of the client. This procedure includes:
a. Site reconnaissance: a brief but concise site reconnaissance is initiated in order to
understand the terrain of interest, environmental risks attached to site, personnel
strength, type of vessel to hire, tides, currents, and acting wave force within the site
scope. This is to enable for a proper office planning of the job. It is the very first step
in every survey activity.
b. Office reconnaissance: after the site reconnaissance must have been carried out, an
office reconnaissance is then initiated. This is carried out in the office and includes all
personnel involved. Here, the personnel are briefed on the details of the job,
equipment to be deployed, area of interest, type of vessel to be used and any other
relevant information concerning the survey operation. Ideas are put forward on how
best, efficient, and the fastest method will be employed in executing the job. This is
one of the most important stage in the hydrographic surveying operation.
c. Instrument testing and certification: after the office reconnaissance is concluded,
the instrument and equipment to be used must have to undergo dry tests. This is to
make sure that the instrument is in good workable condition so as to produce a
satisfactory job for the client. It is also carried out to forestall any disappointment that
may arise from inefficient instrument on site. Although each instrument usually goes
in pairs especially in large jobs, but no matter the number of instruments, they must
be tested and certified okay.
d. Induction and mobilization: after the instrument to be used must have been tested
and certified, an induction commences afterwards. The induction is an exercise done
whereby all personnel involved in the job assembles including the equipment, safety
gears and any other important material to be used offshore. The instrument will also
be tested once again by the various personnel involved. The party chief is then
appointed, and the various personnel are assigned to their various jobs departments.
Afterwards, the instrument and other necessary materials are then transited to the
jetty or boat yard where the hired vessel must have been inducted and certified okay
and ready. On the boat or ship, mobilization commences. Mobilization simply means
getting ready all necessary instrument, hardware, materials etc. and setting them up on
the vessel. It is carried out to make sure that nothing is left out because it will cost a
lot of fortune if there is a record of such. Afterwards, the vessel takes off to the site as
directed by the navigator and party chief, the surveys are carried out. When the job is
completed, the vessel heads back to the jetty where demobilization is carried out to
make sure nothing is left out on the vessel.
The survey crew is should consist of a;
a. The surveyors
b. The survey engineers
c. The technicians
d. The geos (geologist or geophysicist)

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 CHAPTER FOUR
TOTAL STATION
A total station is an optical instrument commonly used in construction, surveying and
civil engineering. It is useful for measuring horizontal angles, vertical angles and distance. It
performs this by analyzing the slope between itself and a specific point. A high-quality total
station camera combines surveying, imaging and high-speed 3D scanning into one precise
and reliable instrument. It blends the latest field technologies with advanced technical
features to create a tool that is trusty and dependable in demanding field situations while
producing accurate results for analysis and engineering.
4.1.0. OPERATION MODE OF THE TOTAL STATION

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Coordinate measurement: The coordinates of an unknown point relative to a known
coordinate can be determined using the total station as long as a direct line of sight can be
established between the two points. Angles and distances are measured from the total station
to points under survey, and the coordinates (X, Y, and Z; or easting, northing, and elevation)
of surveyed points relative to the total station position are calculated using trigonometry and
triangulation to determine an absolute location, a total station requires line of sight
observations and can be set up over a known point or with line of sight to 2 or more points
with known location, called free stationing or resection. For this reason, some total stations
also have a Global Navigation Satellite System receiver and do not require a direct line of
sight to determine coordinates. However, GNSS measurements may require longer
occupation periods and offer relatively poor accuracy in the vertical axis.

Angle measurement: Most total station instruments measure angles by means of electro-
optical scanning of extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotating glass cylinders or
discs within the instrument. The best quality total stations are capable of measuring angles to
0.5 arc-second. Inexpensive "construction grade" total stations can generally measure angles
to 5 or 10 arc-seconds.
Distance measurement: Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated infrared
carrier signal, generated by a small solid-state emitter within the instrument's optical path,
and reflected by a prism reflector or the object under survey. The modulation pattern in the
returning signal is read and interpreted by the computer in the total station. The distance is
determined by emitting and receiving multiple frequencies, and determining the integer
number of wavelengths to the target for each frequency. Most total stations use purpose-built
glass prism (surveying) reflectors for the EDM signal. A typical total station can measure
distances up to 1,500 meters (4,900 feat) with an accuracy of about 1.5 millimeters (0.059 in)
± 2 parts per million. Reflector less total stations can measure distances to any object that is
reasonably light in color, up to a few hundred meters.
Data processing: Some models include internal electronic data storage to record distance,
horizontal angle, and vertical angle measured, while other models are equipped to write these
measurements to an external data collector, such as a hand-held computer. When data is
downloaded from a total station onto a computer, application software can be used to
compute results and generate a map of the surveyed area. The newest generation of total
stations can also show the map on the touch-screen of the instrument immediately after
measuring the points.
4.2.0. TOTAL STATION WORKING PRINCIPLE
Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave or infrared
carrier signal, generated by a small solid-state emitter within the instrument’s optical path,
and reflected by a prism reflector or the object under survey. The modulation pattern in the
returning signal is read and interpreted by the onboard computer in the total station. The
distance is determined by emitting and receiving multiple frequencies, and determining the
integer number of wavelengths to the target for each frequency. Most total stations use
purpose-built glass Porto prism reflectors for the EDM signal, and can measure distances to a
18
few kilometers. Reflector less total stations can measure distances to any object that is
reasonably light in color, to a few hundred meters. Given the co-ordinate of the instrument
position and bearing of a backward
station the co-ordinates of any
4.2.1. HOW TO USE A TOTAL
Setting Up for a Total Station
Survey: The process for setting up
a. Gather Your Equipment:
First, you will need to have
your equipment ready. In
b. Establish and Mark a Point of Reference: Establish a point of reference for your
project. This often needs to be measured using conventional means. Mark this point
with a stake or nail.
c. Set up the Tripod at the Reference Point: Open the tripod and set it over the point of
reference. Try to position the center of the tripod roughly over the stake.
d. Attach the Tribrach and Course Level: Attach the tribrach to the tripod and course
level to the tripod.
e. Adjust as Necessary: Using these initial, course instrument, get the tripod as close as
possible to be totally level and directly over the point of reference.
f. Place the Total Station on the Tripod: Attach the device to the tripod being careful
not to move it off-center.
g. Connect Cables: Connect the battery pack and controller to the total station using the
appropriate cables.
h. Power On and Start Controller: Turn the device on and open the fine-level
functionality using the controller.
i. Make Fine Adjustments: Adjust the device using the fine level to get to directly over
the survey marker on the stake. Also, ensure that it is perfectly level.
j. You’re Ready: You are now ready to begin taking sightings. Using a total station, you
can easily capture important measurements for land surveying, construction and many
other projects.

Parts of a total station: It consists of an EDM, Theodolite, Microprocessor combined into

one. It also has a memory card to store the data. It also consists of battery socket which
houses the battery. A fully charged battery works for about 3 to 5 hours continuously.
Accessories for Total Station: With approximately more than 40 different models are
available to choose, they are currently the dominant instrument in surveying.

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 Accessories for total station

4.2.2. CARE FOR A TOTAL STATION

During use:
a. Do not use the instrument in areas exposed to large
amounts of dust and ash.
b. To prevent the battery from shorting, while it is
stored, put duct tape or something similar on the
terminals.
c. Before closing the case check that its interior is dry
as the same instrument, otherwise it could become moldy.
d. Never set the SET directly on the floor. Sand or dust could damage the screw holes or
centering screw on the base.
e. Do not point the telescope towards the sun, it can damage the interior of the
instrument.
f. When not using the instrument, it should be covered with a vinyl cover.
g. Never carry the SET on the tripod.
h. Turn off the instrument before removing the battery.
i. When you place the SET in your suitcase to store it for more than one day, remove the
battery first.

4.2.3 MAINTENANCE:
a. Regularly check that there are no particles of moisture or dust coming in contact with
the inside of the battery cover, the terminals or the connectors.
b. Always clean the instrument before storing it in the case. First brush the lens with
your brush to remove the dust, then cause a slight condensation by fuming the lens,
rub it with a soft cloth.
c. Do not use organic solvents to clean the screen, the keyboard or the case.
d. If the instrument spends a lot of idle time, perform maintenance every 3 months at
least.
e. The suitcase should always be closed, even if it is empty to avoid moisture.

4.2.4. SECURITY:
a. Acquire insurance that protects your investment, this preferably covers theft and
accident damages.
b. Do not leave the equipment alone, preferably hire a technician who acts as a
watchman and, if possible, purchase security services.
c. Do not move the equipment by public transport.
d. Avoid storing equipment and accessories in hotels or sites that do not guarantee your
responsibility.
e. The lids are not a good combination with the prism.

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4.3.0. LEVELLING:
Levelling in surveying is the process of determining the difference in elevation
between two or more points on the earth’s surface. It is used to establish the elevation of a
point relative to a datum, or to establish a point at a given elevation relative to a datum. The
basic principle of leveling is to determine the horizontal line of sight with respect to which
the vertical distances of the points below or above the line of sight are determined.

4.3.1 OBJECTIVES OF LEVELLING:

a. To determine the elevation of the given points with the respect to the given / assumed
reference line or datum.
b. To establish the points at a provided elevation or at various elevations with respect to
a given or assumed datum
Types of level includes:
a. Dumpy levels
b. Tilting levels
c. Automatic levels
Other equipment used in leveling includes:
a. Leveling staff
b. Tripod stand

Care should be taken of staffs as well as levels as they are prone to damage. They should be
inspected regularly for signs of wear. The staff should be read vertical. The best way to
eliminate error include;
i. A small spirit level should be attached
ii. While standing upright, the staff should be held in front with both hands down the
side of the staff.

21
 iii. The verticality of the staff should be checked against the vertical line by standing
to the to the side of the staff and checking it is aligned.
4.3.2. APPLICATIONS OF LEVELLING IN SURVEYING
a. It is necessary for the estimation and planning of various civil engineering works such
as roads, bridges, canals etc.
b. It is used to calculate the quantities of cut and fill as well as for balancing the
earthworks.

4.3.3. BOOKING AND REDUCING LEVELS:

The two methods of booking and reducing includes:
a. height of the instrument method
b. rise and fall method
Neither method can be said to be more accurate than the other. Rise and fall does have an
additional check on the arithmetical reduction of the observations which makes it more
popular on the levelling. The HI method is used for setting out because one always needs to
know the height of the instrument.

CHAPTER FIVE

UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE (DRONE)

Essentially, a drone is a flying robot that can be remotely controlled or fly
autonomously through software-controlled flight plans in their embedded systems, working
in conjunction with onboard sensors and GPS.

22
 The two basic functions of a drone are flight and navigation.
To achieve flight, drones consist of a power source, such as battery or fuel, rotors, propellers
and a frame. We have the drone and the controller. The drone serves as the receiver station.
The controller serves as the base station, which is used remotely by an operator to launch,
navigate and land it. Controllers communicate with the drone using radio waves.
5.1.0. PARTS OF A DRONE
i. Motor
ii. Propeller
iii. Gimbles
iv. Camera
v. Battery

5.2.0. TYPES OF DRONE

Rotors: Rotor drones are either single-rotor or multi-rotor. And multi-rotor are sub-classified
as tricopters, quadcopters, hexacopters and octocoptors.
Fixed wings: Fixed-wing drones are either catapulted to fly or takes off on a designated
runway. But hybrid fixed-wings uses VTOL (vertical take-off and landing) techniques to
acquire flight.

5.3.0 QUADCOPTER (Dji Phantom 4pro)

A quadcopter is an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or drone with four rotors, each
with a motor and propeller. A quadcopter can be manually controlled or can be autonomous.
It's also called quadrotor helicopter or quadrotor.

5.3.1. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A QUADCOPTER

The main principle behind the flight of a quadcopter is Newton's Third Law of
motion, which states that for every action there's an equal and opposite reaction. A
quadcopter's propellers push air downwards. This causes an opposite reaction called thrust
that pushes the quadcopter upwards against gravity. Air movement comes from Bernoulli's
Principle, with larger propeller blades and faster rotation creating more thrust.
When the propellers rotate (for example clockwise), the quadcopter will tend to rotate
anti-clockwise. Rotational force is called torque. Helicopters solve this by using a tail rotor.
Quadcopters solve this by driving two diagonal propellers clockwise and the other two anti-
clockwise. Thus, torque from one pair cancels that of the other.
When each diagonal pair of propellers rotate in opposite directions, their thrusts will
be in opposite directions. The quadcopter will not be able to lift up or fly. This is solved by
having the blades of each diagonal pair of propellers shaped as mirror images of the other
pair. Effectively, all propellers will push air downwards regardless of the direction of
rotation.

5.3.2. COMPONENTS OF A QUADCOPTER

i. A quadcopter has four motors that drive four propellers. Propeller blades are
shaped to create maximum possible thrust. These are attached to the ends of a
frame made of aluminium, carbon fibre or balsa wood.

23
 ii. Four Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs) drive the motors. ESCs are typically
placed along the four arms of the quadcopter. They drive the motors by
supplying specific voltage and current. Typically, an ESC must be rated at 1.2-
1.5 times the maximum current rating of the motor.
iii. Flight Controller (FC) may be considered the "brain" of the quadcopter. It
commands the ESCs autonomously or in response to remote commands. It
may process inputs from many on-board sensors. For remote control, a
quadcopter is equipped with a wireless transceiver.
iv. The power to drive the motors and all electronics comes from a battery via a
Power Distribution Board (PDB). Flight time can be estimated from battery
capacity and maximum current drawn by all motors.
v. Other parts include jumper cables, bullet connectors, LEDs and a buzzer.
Quadcopters may have a GPS receiver, a camera and many other sensors as
required by specific applications.
5.3.3. DIRECTIONS OF MOVEMENT OF A QUADCOPTER
i. Yaw: rotates the drone around its center either clockwise or counter wise.
ii. Throttle: controls how much lift your drone is creating, which allows it to ascend and
descend.
iii. Pitch: controls the forward and backward movement of the drone.
iv. Roll: controls the left and right movement of the drone.

Directions of movement of a quadcopter

The movements are achieved by controlling the rotational speeds of the four motors.
This is shown in the figure. For example, with pitch, when back propellers rotate faster than
the front ones, the nose dips down and the quadcopter moves forward. With yaw, when two
propellers rotate clockwise faster than the other two, the quadcopter turns anti-clockwise.

5.3.4 APPLICATIONS OF QUADCOPTERS

Aerial Photography: Used in filming action sequences and sci-fi scenarios, which makes
cinematography a lot simpler.
24
Shipping & Delivery: Drone delivery is supported by major corporations including Amazon,
UPS, and DHL. Used to transport tiny parcels, groceries, medications, and other items across
short distances.
Geographic Mapping: In difficult-to-reach places like coasts, mountaintops, and islands,
quadcopters can collect very high-resolution data and download pictures.
Disaster Management: After a natural or man-made disaster, quadcopters can quickly
negotiate debris and gather information in search of injured patients.
Precision Agriculture: Quadcopters' infrared sensors may be calibrated to assess the health
of crops, allowing farmers to react and enhance agricultural conditions locally with fertilizers
or pesticides.
Weather Forecasting: Quadcopters are being developed to track hazardous and
unpredictably changing weather. They can be cost-effectively deployed in storms and
tornadoes.
Wildlife Monitoring: Elephants, rhinos, and big cats were photographed using quadcopters.
Drones can function at night thanks to their infrared cameras and sensors.
Entertainment: In fights and cage matches, quadcopters are utilized to collect recordings
and images.
5.3.5. DRONE MAINTENANCE
i. Clean chassis of mud and dirt
ii. Check for loose screws
iii. Check propellers for damage
iv. Check motors for debris and obstructions
v. Check unit camera is clean
vi. Check landing gear condition
vii. Inspect antennae
viii. Inspect battery packs for bulges or leakage
ix. Update drone firmware
5.3.6. BASIC DRONE FLIGHT GUIDELINES
i. Fly at or below 400 feet above the ground
ii. Always fly within line-of-sight, if you can’t see it, bring it in.
iii. Stay away from airports
iv. Stay away from airplanes – they have the right of way in the air
v. Do not fly over people
vi. Do not fly near emergency situations such as car crashes or building fires

5.4.0. HOW TO FLY A DRONE USING DRONE DEPLOY APPLICATION

25
Drone Deploy works by allowing users to pre-program an automated flight path for their
drone, and then turning the images captured from the flight into a high-resolution 2D map
and 3D model.
The steps include:
a. Create an account with Drone Deploy.
b. Click the “Plan – Add a Flight” button, and Drone Deploy will zoom in on your
location with a highlighted box. The blue box represents the area you wish to map,
while the green lines represent the flight path of the drone. You can use the search
tool find the location you want to map, or if you are already at the location you can
simply use the grabbers on the corners and sides of the box to resize it. Drone Deploy
will give you information about your planned flight, including flight time, total area,
resolution, and the number of batteries required.
c. You can also customize the altitude and direction of your flight. Once you’re satisfied
with your settings, tap the blue save icon in the bottom right-hand corner of the map.
d. At this point you have successfully pre-programmed a flight path for your drone to
follow. Now it’s time to fly.
e. Grab your drone and head out to your mapping location. Start the drone normally, but
instead of launching the DJI Go App, launch the Drone Deploy application.
f. Your drone should automatically connect, and the blue save button will turn into a
blue fly button. After you tap the fly button, Drone Deploy will do a system check to
make sure everything is a go, and once that is done you can tap the blue check button
to send your drone on a fully automated flight.
g. The Drone Deploy app will let you monitor everything about the flight in real time,
including your drone’s position, battery percentage, the number of photos it has taken,
its altitude, its speed, the distance from the Return to Home point, and the elapsed
time. Upon completing the flight, your drone will automatically return home.
The images gotten from Drone Deploy is processed with Pix4Dmapper. It is a
photogrammetry software for drone mapping. It provides tools for creating digital maps and
models and taking measurements based on them.

CHAPTER SIX

26
6.1.0. HIGHLIGHTS OF PROJECTS
During my Industrial training at Fem associates Nigeria limited, I worked as a junior
hydrographic Surveyor. I was Part of a major project, namely;
IBETO search survey: On this job, I was inducted into the survey crew as an Intern
Surveyor. Before the operation, I dry tested the side scan sonar, echo sounder and
magnetometer and certified it okay, I wrote the way bill of the equipment mobilized, and
transported the inducted equipment and every Material needed for the survey operation to
IBETO Nigeria limited with the company vehicle. The next day I went with the other
members of the survey crew to IBETO marine base where we boarded a passport 19 boat and
started mobilization. The HYDROpro (Navigation software), was in use and we carried out
inspection.

6.2.0 SCOPE OF WORK FOR DEBRIS SEARCH SURVEY AT IBETO JETTY

a. To determine recces using a sea bed site search
b. Identify debris and potential hazards which poses obstructions around pipelines.
c. To identify what is under the sea bed
d. To produce survey report.

6.3.0 OBJECTIVE OF WORK FOR SEARCH SURVEY FOR IBETO

a. Proper planning for jetty construction
b. For dredging purpose

To achieve the following aims, the following survey equipment and materials were
employed;
a. CNAV position system (GPS).
b. Navigation system and accessories (HydroPro).
c. JW fishers Side Scan Sonar and accessories.
d. G882 magnetometer
e. Safety gears
f. Marine cables, winch, tie wrap, dug tape.
g. Single beam echo sounder

The following personnel made up the survey crew;

1. Engr. Victor Toro-Bong (Survey Engineer and Party Chief).
2. Surv. Urua (Navigator)
3. Engr. Eric (Underwater Survey Engineer).
4. victor Iyang(Survey Intern, UniUYO)
5. Ihekoronye Uchechi (Survey Intern, FUTO)
6. Umelo Vcitory (Survey Intern, FUTO)

IBETO Nigeria limited representatives;

1. Engr. charles
2. Surv. Ahmed

27
 I worked in all departments but particularly on the launching and retrieval of the
side scan sonar.
NB: Due to an NDA (Non-Disclosure Agreement) usually, entered by the survey contractor
and the client, I am refrained from offering in-depth information about any of the project.
However, in the following pages, I will show some pictures to buttress my point.
In addition, we carried out a geophysical job in partnership with Survicom Nig. Ltd.
However, I was not on site due to logistics bothering BOSIET, a safety certificate for
offshore workers. Therefore, I had to provide support from the office. Simply I was part of
the remote mission control unit.

SOME INDUSTRIAL TRAINING PHOTOS TAKEN AT IBETO JETTY

28
 CHAPTER SEVEN

7.1.0. SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES

Participating fully in the Industrial Training (I.T) as a Surveying Student exposed
me to a lot of information and opportunities in the professional field of surveying and
geoinformatics; particularly, in hydrographic surveying. I was opportune to make use of
several equipment for the professional field work and office work. I count myself privileged
to have worked with Professionals in different fields, whom with their combined efforts
towards achieved accuracy and precision in all our projects. During my training, I learnt
professional Surveying ethics, and acquired entrepreneurial skills required to practice in the
field, not to talk about the real life-working experiences and what the labor market looks like
after graduation. I was also able to learn team work and human networking as a very
important value system in the ladder of success. Finally, my industrial training was one I can
never forget because of its impact in my life as a Student. I was fully involved in all the
practical, and asked a lot of questions that got convincing answers. I make bold to say that I
made a lot of contributions and worked hard to earn the love and respect I enjoyed during the
period of my attachment.

7.2.0 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

My program was absolutely hitch free. I had no issues securing the place. I was paid
both office and site allowance, and I was fully integrated into the company as a staff.
However, I was allowed on site just once due to security reasons and for the fact that ladies
are seen as not fit to go offshore.

7.3.0. RECOMMENDATION
SIWES is an excellent program. It is no doubt that SIWES affords students the
opportunity to develop necessary skills related to the field of study. My recommendations
however, which I believe will improve the scheme are as follows;
i. The scheme should make it mandatory for all establishments to make provision for
payment to be made to industrial training students in order to encourage the student
participate actively at their placements.
ii. The ITF officials and the institution should take the supervisory role seriously as it
encourages the students during the attachment.
iii. Students should be encouraged to take their class work, the theoretical aspect
seriously because it is the backbone of the practical aspect of the industrial training.
iv. I urge future participate to endeavor to be respectful and be of good conduct in their
places of attachment.

7.4.0. CONCLUSION
The SIWES programme positioned me to identify and explore areas of opportunity
in the real World especially in Surveying and Geoinformatics. My being exposed to standard
procedures, principles and methods employed in Surveying, has expanded my knowledge and
shaped me to be a bold professional. The experiences I gained has sharpened my mind,

29
developed my awareness of the work place and improved my communication skills. Greatly,
I appreciate the organizers of SIWES and support its continuity.
REFERENCES

1. Hypack manual by Uche Obimma 2019

2. Rig move & transportation procedure by Akil S Bolar, Qaiser Haroon, Girgis
Mazahger
and Mohammed Jarallah
3. Charles. D. Ghiliani and Paul R. Wolf (2008) Elementary Surveying 12th edition
4. https://wwu.wikipedia.com
5. Surveyor R. E Njoku Surveyor DR-Kingsley Orisakwe (2010) Survey field practical
Federal University of Technology Owerri.
6. Oxford learner’s dictionary 8th edition
7. R. Agor (2011) textbook of advanced surveying.

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