INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

QUALIFYING EXAM: REVIEWER SARAZA, JEREMIE IVAN J. | BSP 1-4

oThis is a phenomenon, which aids the individual to become
flexible with his response to the environment.
B. OPERANT OR INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING 1. SERIAL-ANTICIPATION LEARNING
• The learner is allowed to discover how his behavior response o Where the first item in a list serves as a stimulus to the second
affects the environment and vice-versa serves as a stimulus to the next. Thus, the first and last items
• Skinner, B.F. extensively experimented. in the list are better remembered than the middle item. This
is called the serial position effect.
PARAMETERS
2. FREE RECALL LEARNING
1. SHAPING o Involves the organization of the verbal materials like
o Refers to a series of responses wherein each response leads groupings of vegetables and fruits. Items when grouped
to the next response. according to categories are easier to learn and in free recall,
the learned items can be reproduced in any order.
2. EXTINCTION
o It is a progress weakening of instrumental learning due to the 3. PAIRED-ASSOCIATE LEARNING
withdrawal of reinforcement. However, the degree to which o This kind of learning involves establishing a relationship
an organism resists extinction is indicative of the strength of between the two elements, where one element serves as a
the conditioned response. If the learned response is strong stimulus to the other which is the response
enough, the more difficult it is to extinguish it. rive
VI. COGNITIVE LEARNING
3. STIMULUS GENERALIZATION • Learning is not just the result of external forces, it is also
o Refers to the tendency of a stimulus, which is similar to the internal. A process that we cannot observe and see is taking
one used in training to elicit the same response. place. This involves cognitive learning like perceiving current
happenings, recalling previous experiences, thinking,
4. DISCRIMINATION LEARNING reasoning, evaluating, and abstracting. All mental processes
o In here, the response made in one stimulus is not made in are categorized here (e.g. problem-solving, sign learning, and
one stimulus and is not made possible for the others. concept learning).

5. PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT MEMORY

o There is a possibility of maintaining operant response in a • Defined as the extent to which original and previously learned
schedule of intermittent or partial reinforcement wherein the information persists.
responses made by an individual are reinforced only part of • Methods to measure memory:
the time.
RECALL
6. SECONDARY REINFORCEMENT o The process of reproducing past learning/experience without
o These reinforcers are learned, they are referred to a stimulus any clue.
that has gained a reinforcing property by having been paired
with a primary reinforcer like money, grades, and praises. RECOGNITION
o Denotes the ability to identify learned items that are familiar
Primary reinforcers are biological: they do not need any previous
training to strengthen a response. REINTEGRATION
o Involves the recollection of past learning/experience with the
III. SOCIAL LEARNING/ MODELLING LEARNING presence of cues.

Albert Bandura RELEARNING

• The most prominent social learning theorist in the United o Simplify refers to reviewing previous learning, the easiest
States, who has engaged in many experiments involving method.
learning by observing which is otherwise known as vicarious
learning or modelling, because a model is being imitated. 4 BASIC STEPS OF MEMORY
• Four Steps in the Process of Modelling Learning:
1. PERCEPTION
1. ATTENTION o This step may be involuntary, for instance, when we hear a
o Sensing and perceiving the important aspects of the behavior sound or we see something which makes an impression on
to be imitated. us. Or it may need a voluntary effort for us to focus our
attention on keener perception.
2. RETENTION
o Remembering the behavior either through mental images or 2. ENCODING/ACQUISITION
languages. o Process of classifying information. For information to be
ready for storage, we have to organize it first in a meaningful
3. MOTORIC REPRODUCTION manner.
o Converting the recalled observation into action.
3. STORAGE
4. REINFORCEMENT o Process of holding the memory of an encoded material or
o Being encouraged and motivated to adopt the behavior. information for future use.

IV. SKILL LEARNING 4. RETRIEVAL

• Skill refers to the proficiency and competency in a certain kind o This final step is crucial. It involves getting the remembered
of performance. Some forms of skills are verbal, reading, and information out of storage. We have to bring back to the
writing. Others are mechanical and athletic. A well-integrated conscious level a stored memory of information.
sequence of perceptual-motor activities is involved in all of
these. The three stages in learning a skill are cognition,
fixation, and automation.

V. VERBAL LEARNING
• This kind of learning is distinctly human. It involves the use of
words, either as stimuli or responses. Some forms of linguistic
abilities like speaking, reading, writing, and reciting are
involved in verbal learning.

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THEORIES OF MEMORY How to Study Effectively

o Try to combine verbal and

o Make it meaningful to
visual images for as long as
your personality
possible
o Try to concentrate or o Remove all forms of
concentrating interference
o Absorb the material in
o Study first the difficult topics or
as large a chunk as
make them last
possible
o Pick out only some keywords,
o Reconstruct the notes
don’t try to memorize every
in your own words
detail
o Practice and rehearse o Give more time to study
what you learn difficult subjects
o Employs some mnemonic
o Formulate some cues
devices that can help you
for retrieving
remember information

FORGETTING
• Failure to retain what was previously learned.
1. SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM) • It is the event extent to which learned information is lost
• This is our working memory and our active memory
containing the information that we are presently using. THEORIES OF FORGETTING
• This kind of memory may last up to 20 seconds.
• Also called sensory memory (S.M.) in which information INTERFERENCE THEORY
usually stays less than a second. • Conflict among information learned earlier or later.
• This memory can be converted into a LTM through
elaborative rehearsal. DECAY THEORY
• Lapse of time.
2. LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM)
• It remains for the rest of our lives. RETRIEVAL-BASED FORGETTING
• Pieces of information stored in the brain for many years that • Cue-dependent forgetting
could be retrieved when we need them without any rehearsal.
STORAGE-BASED FORGETTING
THREE TYPES OF LTM • Distortion of learned information in the long-term memory
2.1. SEMANTIC MEMORY MOTIVATED FORGETTING
o Memories of rules and concepts. This also involves
• Form of suppression, purposeful or voluntary Process
mental modules of our environment.
• Conscious forgetting
o Examples: golden rule and the law of gravity
INTELLIGENCE
2.2. PROCEDURAL MEMORY
o Most simple and basic form of LTM. • The intelligence level of an individual can affect his behavioral
o Examples: rudimentary types of behavior and responses, his manner of adjustment, and even his state of
procedures like self-dressing and self-feeding mental well-being”

2.3. EPISODIC MEMORY MEANING OF INTELLIGENCE

o It refers to records of personal experiences which are of • No universally agreed meaning
great significance like your first love, debut party, first
dance, and anniversaries. BUT ACCORDING TO:
o Memorable events in your life.
Lewis Terman (1921)
EXCEPTIONAL FORMS OF MEMORIES o Developed the Stanford-Binet intelligence scale
o “Ability to think abstractly”
1. MEMORISTS
David Weschler (1944)
• Refer to individuals with exceptional memory.
o Developed the widely-used intelligence test for varying
ages.
2. EIDETIKERS
o “Ability to act purposely, to think rationally, and to deal
• These are individuals who possess eidetic imagery power.
effectively with environment”
3. MEMORY DISORDER
Jean Piaget
• Like in the case of amnesia where the memory breaks down.
o Swiss developmental psychologist
o Develop the theory of cognitive development “one’s
FORMS OF AMNESIA ability to adapt to one’s surroundings”
1. ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
• The inability of the individual to form new permanent
memories 1. THE SPEARMAN’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
• G factor (General Intelligence)
2. RETROGRADE AMNESIA
o An inherited intellectual capacity that influenced all-
• The inability to reproduce and recall pieces of information around performance
learned before amnesia
• S factor (Specific Abilities)
3. PSYCHOGENIC AMNESIA
o Task-specific intelligence
• A rare form of amnesia which is a memory disorder brought
about by emotionally disturbing events

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B. INFERRING – Drawing a relationship between the
pieces of facts and information.
2. THURSTONE’S PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES C. MAPPING – Finding the relationship between a past
situation and a present one.
A. WORD FLUENCY
o The ability of an individual to think of words rapidly. D. APPLICATION – Applies the relationship between one
situation with the
B. VERBAL COMPREHENSION
o Which is the ability to understand and define words. E. JUSTIFICATION – Justify or provide some supporting
evidence to your answer.
C. REASONING
o The ability to find rules and conventions to justify and F. RESPONSE – Identifying the best solution or answer
solve issues (logical thought). which depends on accurate thinking at each stage.

D. MEMORY • Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful

o The ability to recall and associate previously learned intelligence,' which is comprised of three different factors:
items.
ANALYTICAL INTELLIGENCE
E. PERCEPTUAL SPEED o This component refers to problem-solving abilities.
o The ability to detect similarities and differences between
designs and objects. CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE
o This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to
F. SPACE deal with new situations using past experiences
o The ability to draw a design from memory to recognize and current skills.
a figure whose position in the space has been distorted.
PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE
G. NUMBER o This element refers to the ability to adapt to a
o The ability to deal with numbers speedily and accurately changing environment.
either theoretically or practically.
6. HOWARD GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
3. J.P. GUILFORD’S STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT • Howard Gardner (1989) defined intelligence as the ability to
• In Guilford's Structure of Intellect (SI) theory, intelligence is solve problems and create valued products within cultural
viewed as comprising operations (the ways one thinks), settings, based on a set of criteria or "signs" supported by
contents (what one thinks about), and products (results of the evidence of:
application of an operation to a certain content, or our kind of o Potential isolation by brain damage:
thinking towards a certain subject). o The existence of idiot savants, prodigies, and other
exceptional individuals:
o An identifiable core operation or set of operations:
o A distinctive development history, along with a definable
set of "end-state" performances:
o An evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility: *
Support from experimental psychological tests:
o Support from psychometric findings: and
o Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system

• Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences posits that the

seven intelligences work together to solve problems and
develop skills.
• Gardner (1999) asserts two key points in backing his theory
of multiple intelligences: that it offers a comprehensive view
of human cognition, redefining human nature in cognitive
terms, and that humans inherently possess a set of basic
intelligence.
• Gardner argues that people have a unique blend of
intelligence, which can be used constructively or
destructively. He identified seven intelligences, including two
educational, three arts-related, and two personal
intelligences.

1. LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE
o Is the ability to use language effectively either poetically or
4. CATTELL AND HORN’S CONCEPTS OF FLUID AND rhetorically. Example: writers, lawyers, and poet
CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE
2. LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE
• Fluid Intelligence o Involves sensitivity in analyzing problems and solving
o Ability to reason quickly and to think abstractly mathematical operations as well as investigating issues
scientifically. This entails the ability to detect patterns, reason
• Crystallized Intelligence deductively, and think logically. Example: mathematicians
o Knowledge and skills that are accumulated over a and scientists
lifetime.
3. MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE
5. STERNBERG’S INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH o Refers to the skills in performance, composition, and
• In 1979, Robert Sternberg developed a theory of intelligence appreciation of patterns in the music. Example: singers and
focused on problem-solving approaches rather than problem- composers
solving ability. The theory outlines steps for using information
to solve problems effectively. 4. BODILY-KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE
• These steps are: o Entails the potential to use mental abilities to coordinate
bodily movements. GARDNER perceives the relationship
A. ENCODING – Trying to identify some important facts between mental and physical activity.
and to retrieve from one long-term memory (LTM)
whatever available information is important. 5. SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE

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o Encompasses the potential to visualize and use patterns of
wide space and also confined areas.

6. INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE IQ TEST FORMULA

o The ability to understand other's motives, desires, and goals.
I.Q. = M.A. / C.A. x 100
7. INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE
o Concerned with the ability to understand oneself, to WHERE
appreciate one's motives, desires, feelings, and an effective • M.A = degree of intelligence exhibited by a person compared
working model of oneself. to others of his age.
• C.A. = Chronological age or Age
OTHER INTELLIGENCES – Gardner and colleagues have suggested
and explored spiritual, existential, and moral intelligence. However, EXAMPLE
Gardner excluded spiritual intelligence because he believed it could not • A six-year-old child (C.A. = 6) Whose test score yields 7 (M.A.
meet the criteria of the other intelligence. = 7) Has an I.Q. of 116 (above average)
A. EXISTENTIAL INTELLIGENCE is the capacity to raise and reflect IQ TEST DISTRIBUTION
on philosophical questions about life, death, and ultimate realities.
It meets most of the criteria except identifiable areas of the brain I.Q Level Verbal Description Classification
that specialize for this faculty.
140 and Up Potential Genius
Mentally
B. MORAL capacities were excluded because they are normative 130 – 139 Very Superior
Gifted
rather than descriptive. 120- 129 Superior
110 – 119 Bright Normal / Above Average
SUMMARY
• His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based 90 - 109 Normal/Average
Average
on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures. 80 – 89 Dull Normal / Below Average
• The eight intelligences Gardner described are: 70 – 79 Borderline Defective
1. Visual-spatial Intelligence
50 – 69 Moron
2. Verbal-linguistic Intelligence Mentally
3. Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence 20 – 49 Imbecile
retarded
4. Logical-mathematical Intelligence 0 – 19 Idiot
5. Interpersonal Intelligence
6. Musical Intelligence CLASSIFICATION OF “INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY”
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence
8. Naturalistic Intelligence Morons Imbeciles Idiots
The mental capacity The mental capacity The mental capacity
ROBERT STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE
of 8 -12 years old of 3-8 years old of 0-3 years old
• Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as
"mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, Moderate
Mild Intellectual Severe/profound
selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to Intellectual
Disability Intellectual Disability
one’s life" Disability
• While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much
broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested • Individuals with intellectual disabilities have limited cognitive
some of Gardner's intelligence is better viewed as individual abilities and require vigilant supervision, guidance, and
talents. support. Those on the extremes of the intelligence spectrum,
• Robert Sternberg and Richard Wagner (1987-1993) endorse such as mentally gifted or mentally challenged children,
Gardner's multiple intelligences theory but developed the typically receive specialized education and training.
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, emphasizing three facets of
intelligence. TYPES OF TEST

1. COMPONENTIAL INTELLIGENCE INDIVIDUAL TEST

o Which pertains to the meta components, performance • This is usually given to one person at a time by experts.
components, and knowledge acquisition components or Though time-consuming and more effort is used, the result is
simply one's academic problem-solving skills measured by highly reliable in terms of procedure.
intelligence tests.
GROUP TEST
2. EXPERIENTIAL INTELLIGENCE • Oftentimes administered to several persons at a time by
o This pertains to the ability to deal with novelty and to anybody who can follow directions. It is the effort and time
automatize processing or the practical intelligence needed for saving but the result is less reliable if not given under close
routine/daily tasks. supervision

3. CONTEXTUAL INTELLIGENCE VERBAL TEST

o Which pertains to practical and social intelligence or one's • In this type of test, oral communication or language is
creative intelligence like reacting to new situations. predominant. It is given to a literate who understands the
language used in which the test is written.
HISTORY OF INTELLIGENCE TESTING
NON-VERBAL TEST OR PERFORMANCE TEST
Alfred Binet (1905) • Measures the intelligence of a person without the use of
• Invented the first IQ test language and is usually given to illiterates, pre-schoolers, and
• The Binet’s Test foreigners who do not have a command of the language used
• Classify the normal and abnormal learners. in the verbal test. This is a tool-manipulated type of test.

Theophile Simon POWER TEST

• Devised a variation of Binet’s test • Measures the amount of work done regardless of time spent.
• Simon-Binet Test
• Intelligence test used particularly on children aged 3 to 15 SPEED TEST
years. • Measures the amount of work done within the time limit.

• Which is later devised by Lewis Terman

o American psychologist

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SIGNIFICANCE OF TESTING INTELLIGENCE 2. THE HOMEOSTATIC THEORY

• Assumes that organisms attempt to maintain homeostasis,
• For academic performances the balance of physical state or equilibrium, by constantly
• It helps the educators adjusting themselves to the demands of the environment.
• It also helps businessmen to create some criteria for rejecting, • The Process of Homeostasis starts when an individual
accepting, and expecting individual roles in different settings activates a need, a biological requirement for survival. This
o Educational pushes or pulls the organism out of homeostasis because of
o Social the absence of a need. This imbalance then causes a
o Industrial (also to improve performances) psychological state of arousal which is uncomfortable and is
called a drive.
OTHER FORMS OF INTELLIGENCE • To be able to get back into the level of homeostasis, which is
the preferred state, the organism engages in behaviors that
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OR EMOTIONAL QUOTIENT (EQ) are designed to reduce the drive and thereby reduce the
• EQ is said to be a measure of a person’s emotional need. The end of this is that the individual can achieve his
intelligence goal.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) TWO TYPES OF DRIVERS

• Intelligence is most widely studied in humans but has also 1. Primary Drives – one resulting from biological needs,
been observed in animals and plants. Artificial intelligence is known as the innate drive.
the intelligence of machines or the simulation of intelligence 2. Secondary Drives – drives that result from operant
in machines. conditioning and the association with primary
reinforcements.
MOTIVATION
• Motivation can be described as a need, desire, or want that 3. AROUSAL THEORY
serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction. • States that rather than all organisms being motivated to seek
to reduce arousal, they seek to maintain an optimal level that
NATURE OF MOTIVATION varies from organism to organism.

1. Everybody is Motivated – Everyone is motivated but we are 4. INCENTIVE THEORY

not all motivated by the same things. • People and animals are likely to be activated because they
tend to pull toward a specific goal.
2. Reasons for Behaving – People could be hiding their
intentions and may project motivations onto others. 5. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
• Maslow made a hypothesis that our need is prioritized
CONSCIOUS MOTIVATION physiological, biological, social, and spiritual. He believes that
• Conscious Motivations are motivations that are willful and we lower levels had to be satisfied before one could focus on
are aware of, thus, we can provide rationale and explanation. satisfying needs at the higher levels.
• From the bottom of the pyramid to the top, our needs are
UNCONSCIOUS MOTIVATION ordered thus:
• Unconscious Motivations are motivations that we are not
aware of. These behaviors may be the result of repressed BIOLOGICAL NEEDS (BI)
fears, anxieties, and latent hostilities. Freud and Jung would o Needs for food, water, oxygen, and rest; also sexual
say these actions are from the unconscious level of expression and release from tension.
awareness.
SAFETY NEEDS (SAF)
INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL o Need for security, comfort, and tranquility; freedom from
• Attribute of events and actions depends on how individuals fear.
view things. It would be possible that the reason for such an
action of humans is determined by the present environment. ATTACHMENT (AT)
o Need to belong, affiliate; to love and be loved.
1. In the Internal Locus of Control, a person may manifest
negative behavior caused by himself. ESTEEM (ES)
2. External Locus of Control meanwhile relates the o Need for confidence in one’s abilities, sense of worth,
negative behavior to the poor living environment or due competence, self-esteem; respect for others.
to alcoholism or drug addiction of the parent.
COGNITIVE (CO)
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION o Need for knowledge and understanding, for novelty.

AESTHETIC (AE)
1. INSTINCT THEORY
o Need for order and beauty.
• There is an innate biological force causing an organism to act
in a certain way. These “forces” are perceived to be
SELF-ACTUALIZATION (SA)
automatic, involuntary, and unlearned behavior patterns or
o Need to develop and fulfill one’s potential; to have
reflexive behavior that are elicited when certain stimuli are
meaningful goals
present.
TRANSCENDENCE (TR)
EXAMPLES OF INSTINCTS:
o Need for spirituality; identification with the cosmos.
o A pregnant mother cat builds a nest with clothes and
cardboard.
o The cat shows aggression by arching its back and
hissing the presence of a threat.
o A hamster will accept a mouse that smells like a baby
hamster.

• Freud said that the two motivating forces of the human – the
“libido” and “Thanatos” were innate and instinctual. However
cross-cultural research showed that not all instincts that had
been identified in one culture existed in the other cultures.

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o Hygiene – factors are dissatisfiers; with their absence,
people would not be motivated but still, with their
presence, it is not a guarantee that there will be an
improved motivation.
12. EXPECTANCY THEORY
• Explained why individuals choose to follow certain courses of
action in organizations, particularly in decision-making and
leadership.
• Expectancy theory predicts that employees in an organization
will be motivated when they believe that:
o Putting more effort will yield better performance;
o Better performance will lead to rewards or attainment of
reinforcements, and;
o Rewards received are the values of individuals.

13. GOAL THEORY

• This theory could be explained through the identification of
the following dichotomies:
o Mastery/Performance - Described as an individual’s
desire to become proficient in a certain topic to the best
of his/her ability.
o Task/Ego Involvement - This mandates that an
individual as a task-involved subject who is interested in
the task for its qualities.
o Approach/Avoidance goals - Basically, not all goals are
directed towards approaching a positive outcome. It is
thought that approach goals contribute positively to
intrinsic motivation whereas avoidance goals do not

14. ADAM’S EQUITY THEORY

• Pertains to perception of people about how they are being
treated as compared with others. This involves feelings and
perceptions as a comparative process.
• Based on the theory, there are 2 forms of equity:
6. FREUDIAN CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION o Distributive – fairness people feel they are rewarded.
• According to the theory of Sigmund Freud, sexual or libidinal o Procedural – perception of employees about fairness of
and aggressive wishes are the primary motivating forces in company procedures.
human life.
15. OTHER THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
7. OTHER CONCEPTS OF MOTIVATION
A. BEHAVIORAL THEORY by Burrhus Skinner – Behavior is
3 COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATION learned from conditioning through operations and learning
takes place mainly through reinforcements.
o Direction – What a person is trying to do
o Effort – How hard a person is trying B. Albert Bandura’s SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY. – Gives
o Persistence – How long a person keeps on trying significance of reinforcement as a determinant of future
behavior, importance of psychological factors.
2 TYPES OF FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MOTIVATION
C. ATTRIBUTION THEORY (Guest) has an explanation of
o Intrinsic – Self generated factors such as responsibility, performance after we have invested considerable effort and
freedom to act, scope to use a develop skills and abilities, etc. motivation in a task: there are four types of explanations:
o Extrinsic – Motivations coming from the people around the ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck.
individual. It may be in the form of rewards, promotion or
punishment. CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVES
8. NEEDS THEORY 1. PHYSIOLOGICAL MOTIVES
• This is based on the belief that all behaviors are motivated by • Essential for the survival of man for its existence.
unsatisfied needs. So when an individual has unsatisfied a) Need for hunger
need, he tends to create tension and would enter a state of b) Need for thirst
disequilibrium. c) Need for sleep and rest
d) Need for proper elimination of waste
9. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY e) Need for maintaining proper body temperature
• It is the expansion of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. He f) Sex urges
categorized the needs for:
o Existence (E) 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL MOTIVES
o Relatedness (R) • Essential for man to function appropriately as a human being.
o and Growth (G). a.) Affection (Attraction)
b.) Security & Safety
10. MCCLELLAND’S NEEDS c.) Affiliation (Building interest with others)
• It is based on Henry Murray’s theory of personality. According d.) Status
to McClelland, the 3 most important needs are achievement, e.) Dependency
affiliation and power. f.) Social Approval
o Achievement – need for competitive success measured
against a personal standard of excellence. 3. EGO-INTEGRATIVE MOTIVES
o Affiliation – need for warm, friendly relationships with • Enhance the individual’s self-concept.
others. a.) Recognition (Accomplishment)
o Power – need to control and influence others. b.) Power Drive (Control & Influence)
c.) Achievement (Goal)
11. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR MODEL
• States that the function of motivators and hygiene factors. –
o Motivators – factors that motivate people

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REINFORCEMENTS AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS AREAS OF EMOTIONS

• The definition of reinforcement and punishment depends
upon whether an event is presented or removed after a FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
response is made, and whether the subject’s responding • Primary emotions are universally understood as human
increases or decreases. Any event that increases responding emotions. Smiling is universally seen as a positive reaction.
is called “reinforcement” and any event that decreases People from different cultures can recognize unfamiliar facial
responding is called “punishment”; any event that is expressions. Infants can recognize parental expressions to
presented is called “positive reinforcement” and any event communicate with them.
that is removed is called “negative reinforcement”.
BRAIN REGIONS AND CIRCUITS
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION • The amygdala assesses threats, with damage potentially
1. Incentives motivate learning – privileges and praises. affecting fear processing. The left prefrontal cortex drives
2. Both affiliation and approval are strong motivators – allies and social motivation, while damage can lead to joy loss. The right
peer groups with the same interests. prefrontal cortex controls withdrawal and escapes, with
3. Many behaviors result from a combination of motives – a damage possibly causing mania and euphoria.
single objective for an action can use many motivations o Intense emotions trigger the release of Epinephrine and
simultaneously. Norepinephrine, boosting alertness and arousal. High
levels can lead to an overwhelming sense of emotional
HIGHER MOTIVATIONS chaos.
• Creativity and compassion may be found at the other end of
the spectrum and may be considered as higher motivations. THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
a.) Moments of identity • Can emotions be detected through covert actions? Can the
b.) Well-groomed places body lie about emotions? Lie detectors rely on the arousal of
c.) Experiences the autonomic nervous system, including measures like
galvanic skin response, pulse, blood pressure, breathing, and
EMOTION fidgeting.
• It is a distinct feeling or quality of consciousness; such as joy
or sadness which reflects the personal significance of an CHARACTERISTICS OF EMOTIONS
emotion.
1. ADAPTIVE
HUMAN EMOTION • Emotion can be adaptive in managing stress by either diluting
• Is a feeling that is private and subjective. its intensity or overreacting to it, such as viewing stress as a
• Humans can report an extraordinary range of states that they challenge.
can feel or experience.
• The emotions noted seem to be blends of different states. 2. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES
• Emotions trigger involuntary body changes like heart rate,
ELEMENTS OF EMOTIONS blood pressure, and perspiration.

• The body 3. EMOTIONAL EXPRESSIONS

• The Mind • These physical manifestations, like trembling hands,
contorted face, and tense posture, show how a person feels.
• The Culture
When fear intensifies, defensiveness may be displayed.
Emotion can also be conveyed through changes in voice
THE BODY
tone. Expressing emotions is crucial as it allows individuals to
• Primary Emotions
communicate their feelings to others.
o Fear
o Anger
4. EMOTIONAL FEELINGS
o Sadness
• The experiences that a person may gather will reflect. On his
o Joy
responses when he or she is placed in different situations.
o Surprise
o Disgust
o Contempt THEORIES OF EMOTION

• Secondary Emotions o JAMES-LANGE THEORY (1884-1885)

o Developed with cognitive maturity and varies across • The theory posits that emotions are caused by bodily arousal.
individuals and cultures. For example, a person may feel fear after experiencing
physical symptoms like shaking when encountering a snake.
THE MIND
• Create Emotion o CANNON-BARD THEORY (1927)
• The theory suggests that the brain organizes emotional
TWO FACTOR THEORY feelings and bodily arousal. When a dangerous snake is
o Psychological arousal – Sweaty palms, increased heart seen, the thalamus triggers the cortex for emotional response
rate, rapid breathing and the hypothalamus for bodily arousal simultaneously.
o Cognitive labeling – Attribute the source of arousal to a
cause o SCHACHTER’S COGNITIVE THEORY OF EMOTION (1971)
• Stanley Schachter discovered that cognitive factors play a
ATTRIBUTIONS AND EMOTIONS role in emotions. When a person is aroused, they feel a need
o Perceptions and attributions are involved in emotions. to interpret their feelings and assign a label to them (anger,
Subjective as it is, how one reacts to an event or fear, happiness) based on past experiences, present
situation depends on how he or she perceives and situations, and others' reactions.
explains it. Hence the philosophy of life is also influential.
o THE EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
THE CULTURE • Originating with Charles Darwin in the late 19th century,
o Culture determines what people feel about posits that emotions evolved through natural selection as a
o Some cultures have words for specific emotions unknown to means of communicating intentions to others. Emotions in
other cultures humans are no longer functional but are associated with
o Differences in secondary emotions appear to be reflected in habits according to Darwin. Research in this area also
differences in languages

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examines physical displays of emotion, such as body • Emotions provide information and signals about situations.
language in animals and facial expressions in humans. Often, individuals may unconsciously pick up on signals
before having an emotional reaction without knowing the
exact trigger. Signals like "something doesn't feel right" or "I
had a feeling this would happen" can be generated in these
CLASSIFICATION OF EMOTIONS instances.
FUNCTIONS OF EMOTIONS
“ROBERT PLUTCHIK” • Emotions serve various physical and psychological purposes
and are considered a fundamental trait of being human by
PRIMARY scientists.

ANGER 1. Emotions give color to people's lives and give them their needed
o It is a strong feeling of displeasure which usually goes depth and differentiation.
with antagonism • Intense emotions are often tied to creativity and expression in
art, literature, and music. Emotions can serve as motivation
FEAR for human reactions and behavior, forming a strong emotional
o This is an unpleasant and often strong emotion caused connection between the artist and the audience.
by anticipation or awareness of danger
2. Physiologically, emotions aid individuals in survival.
SADNESS • Sudden fear can cause a person to freeze, reducing the
o Affected with or expressive of grief and unhappiness chance of attack. For instance, Gina froze when a vehicle
came towards her, improving her survival chances.
JOY
o The passion or emotion excited by the acquisition and 3. Emotions also help people monitor their social behavior and
expectation of something pleasurable or good regulate their interactions with others.
• Individuals naturally pick up on the body language and facial
DISGUST expressions of others to gauge their emotions and intentions,
o Marked aversion influencing their response to the situation.
o Aroused by something highly distasteful
4. Outward expressions of emotions in the form of body language
CURIOSITY/INTEREST mean different things in different cultures.
o Inquisitive • In some cultures, avoiding direct eye contact with authority
o Interest in other’s concerns which usually leads to figures is a sign of respect, while in others it can be seen as
inquiry a sign of guilt or untrustworthiness.
SURPRISE 5. Emotion can motivate behaviors.
o Taking of unawareness • Anxiety, performance stress, and ultimately performance
have a significant impact on the arousal that accompanies
ACCEPTANCE emotions.
o An agreement either expressly or by conduct to the act
or offer of another so that a contract is concluded and YERKES DODSON LAW
the parties become legally bound
• The Yerkes Dodson Law states that performance on a task
relies on the amount of physiological arousal and perceived
MIXED EMOTIONS
task difficulty. There is an optimal level of arousal for peak
• Combination of primary emotions to yield more complex
performance. Athletes must avoid being too tired or too
emotions in different situations.
nervous to perform well in sports.
o Guilt = Joy + Fear
• Studies have shown multiple factors that influence an
o Awe = Fear + Surprise
individual's optimal arousal level for a task.
o Disappointment = Surprise + Sadness
o Remorse = Sadness + Disgust
1. TASK DIFFICULTY
o Aggression = Anger + Anticipation
o High arousal levels are best for easy tasks, such as
o Jealousy = Love + Anger + Fear
running fast and bouncing a ball automatically in
o Optimism = Anticipation + Joy
basketball. A "psych-up session" can be beneficial
o Contempt = Disgust + Anger
before the game. However, for tasks that require control
o Submission = Acceptance + Fear
and focus, like making a throw from the free throw line,
o Love = Joy + Acceptance
it is important to be more in control. Familiarity with a
task can help make it seem easier.
THE FUNCTIONS OF EMOTIONS
• It is important for humans to be aware of their emotions to 2. TASK FAMILIARITY
give the appropriate reactions to situations that arouse them o Familiar tasks require higher arousal for optimal
performance, as seen in professional sports. Consistent
THREE MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF EMOTIONS practice can help a basketball player improve their free
throw shooting, becoming familiar with and performing
1. Emotions are used to communicate and influence others. better in that task.
• People communicate emotions through verbal and non-
verbal cues, such as facial expressions and body language. 3. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Non-verbal cues can automatically influence how others o Each individual has a unique response to stress, with
respond to a person's emotions. some thriving under pressure and seeking high-arousal
activities, while others prefer a more relaxed approach.
2. Emotions can be utilized to organize and motivate action. It is crucial to identify the optimal level of arousal for
• Emotions rapidly trigger action urges, motivating individuals oneself to reduce anxiety, stay focused, and maintain a
to act. These urges are hard-wired, automatic responses that sense of control.
prompt immediate behavior. For example, if you see your
sister in danger on a highway, fear may prompt you to act EFFECTS OF EMOTIONS
without hesitation, running to save her. • Scientists are increasingly recognizing the impact of human
• Emotions aid in overcoming obstacles. Anger can motivate emotions on immunity and overall body functioning.
protestors fighting injustices, while guilt can help dieters stick Research strongly supports the relationship between mind
to their plans. and body, showing that feelings and attitudes can significantly
affect health.
3. Emotions can be self-validating.

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1. Positive attitudes and emotions can help increase your health. PERSONALITY TRAIT
• The saying "laughter is the best medicine" highlights the • Stable qualities that a person shows in most situations
positive impact of optimistic attitudes on the body, promoting
better communication and boosting the immune system. PERSONALITY TYPE
Conversely, pessimistic attitudes can have negative effects • People who have several traits in common
on the body, disrupting the communication between the
immune, endocrine, and nervous systems. FACTORS THAT DETERMINE AND INFLUENCE PERSONALITY
• Emotions like positivity and bliss increase endorphins in the
blood, benefiting the immune system and overall health. GENETICS AND HEREDITARY FACTORS
• Genes undergo the process of division and re-division of
2. Positive attitudes and emotions can help improve one's self- which traits are passed on from parents to the offspring.
concept. • External attributes- examples of which are the physical traits
• An individual's self-concept greatly shapes their perception of like body build, complexion of the skin, facial contours, and
the world. Feeling down and out can lead to interpreting physical appearance
requests or statements as confirming negative beliefs about • Internal attributes—those refer to the conditions of the
oneself, resulting in feeling attacked. Conversely, feeling nervous system, endocrine system, and also the IQ level of
positive leads to a less hostile interpretation. This cycle can the individual.
reinforce negative self-perceptions. • Part of the inherited traits of the person is his aptitude and his
• It's easier to remember things if you're in the same mood as special talents or abilities.
when you first learned them. Emotions can trigger memories
and aid in recall. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
• A child’s behavior is also learned from his environment, he
DEVELOPMENT OF EMOTIONS learns things like eating, walking, talking, honesty, and fair
• Emotions may take time to develop, with the following play based on the accepted behavior patterns in his social
assumptions: environment. The people he comes in contact with have
much to do with his personality development.
1. GENERAL EXCITEMENT
• Newborn infants primarily show excitement as their main PRIMARY GROUP
emotional response, especially when about to receive milk or o Family, Playmates, Our neighborhood, School, Church,
held by their parents. Friends

2. EMOTIONAL LIFE BLOSSOMS RAPIDLY SECONDARY GROUP

• Emotions follow a consistent order, starting with a split o Larger environment (Society)
between pleasant and unpleasant feelings. Darwin believed
emotional expressions evolved for survival through CULTURAL INFLUENCES
communication. Basic human emotions emerge before age • Culture is also considered to be a factor in shaping one’s
2, with babies showing happiness, surprise, fear, anger, personality
sadness, disgust, and interest within the first year. • Cultural factors may explain reasons about ideas about
• The ability to express emotions is likely tied to brain appropriate ways of doing things
maturation, as all children across cultures show similar
patterns. Even deaf and blind children display similar facial TRAITS AND STATES
gestures for joy, sadness, disgust, and other emotions. • Traits are enduring dimensions of personality that
differentiate individuals based on their unique qualities and
3. CULTURAL GESTURES behaviors. They indicate a person's consistent patterns of
• Adults in different cultures develop distinct gestures. Chinese thinking and acting across different situations. A disposition
will stick out their tongue to show surprise, not disrespect. to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and
Facial expressions like fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, peer reports
anger, and happiness are universally understood. The smile • A state is a temporary personality change, while traits are
is the most easily recognized expression. differences in continuous variables among individuals.
Differences lie in the quantity rather than the quality of
PERSONALITY characteristics.

Salvador Maddi IDIOGRAPHIC VERSUS NOMOTHETIC

• A stable set of intrapsychic(internal) characteristics and • There are two views on the presence of traits in individuals:
tendencies determines the psychological behavior of people. The Idiographic view emphasizes unique personality
The behavior determined by personality is relatively structures, where certain traits like the cardinal trait may be
consistent over time. more significant for some individuals; while The Nomothetic
o Comes from the Latin Word “Persona” which means view suggests that individuals' personalities can be
mask. understood based on consistent levels of traits that vary
o People wear masks in the sense that the behavior that across people.
is manifested may differ on the situations that they are
in and people would have to “Fit in” to those situations. THE IDIOGRAPHIC VIEW
o Personality is I. We get a good idea of what personality o Focuses on individuals' unique psychological structures,
is by listening to what we say when we use “I”. emphasizing that some traits are exclusive to a single
person.
DEFINING SOME TERMS o It rejects comparisons between individuals and
highlights the variation in trait importance. Information is
PERSONALITY gathered through methods like case studies and diaries.
• A person’s unique and relatively stable behavior
patterns; the consistency of who you are, have been, THE NOMOTHETIC VIEW
and will become o Emphasizes comparability among individuals while
recognizing the uniqueness of trait combinations. Traits
CHARACTER are believed to have consistent psychological meanings
• Personal characteristics that have been judged or for everyone, with differences existing only in the level
evaluated of each trait.
o This viewpoint utilizes self-report personality questions
TEMPERAMENT and factor analysis to assess individual positions along
• Hereditary aspects of personality, including sensitivity, a continuum of traits.
moods, irritability, and adaptability

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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
• Various theoretical perspectives on personality consider the
relationship between personality and psychological
constructs, as well as the development of personality.
Exploring these theories helps in understanding the different
personalities people exhibit.

TRAIT THEORIES
• Attempt to learn what traits makeup personality and how they
relate to actual behavior. Trait theorists aim to describe
personality with a small number of traits or factors
• According to the DSM-IV-TR, personality traits are long-
lasting patterns of perceiving, relating, and thinking about the
environment and oneself across various contexts. Theorists
assume that:
a.) Traits are relatively stable over time,
b.) Traits differ among individuals, and
c.) Traits influence behavior.

• Models of traits typically include three to five dimensions. The • Cattell used oblique factor analysis while Eysenck used
least debated dimension is extraversion, which dates back to orthogonal, revealing key differences. A rotation was applied when
ancient Greece and describes outgoing individuals who thrive analyzing personality questionnaires, leading to the establishment
on physical stimulation, as opposed to introverts who are of the Big Five factors supported by extensive empirical research.
quieter and prefer less physical stimulation.
Lewis Goldberg and McCrae & Costa
Gordon Allport • Proposed a five-dimension personality model, from the work
• Identified various traits, or dispositions, that make up an of Cattell and his associates he developed the theory and
individual's personality. Central traits are fundamental, nicknamed it the "Big Five." For better recall, it is also referred
secondary traits are more peripheral, common traits vary to as OCEAN:
across cultures, and cardinal traits are defining
characteristics. o Openness to experience - open to new ideas and
change vs. traditional and oriented toward routine
Raymond Cattell o Conscientiousness - dutiful, organized, and orderly vs.
laidback, spontaneous, and unreliable
• Raymond Cattell's research propagated a two-tiered
o Extraversion - outgoing and stimulation-oriented vs.
personality structure with sixteen "primary factors" popularly
quiet and stimulation-avoiding
known as the 16 Personality Factors and five "secondary
o Agreeableness - affable, friendly, conciliatory vs.
factors."
aggressive, dominant, disagreeable
o Neuroticism - emotionally reactive, prone to negative
emotions vs. calm, imperturbable, optimistic

• Eysenck's theory emphasized biological drivers of traits, often

overlooking situational influences on behavior. Traits are statistical
generalizations and may not always align with an individual's
actions.

TYPE THEORIES
• Personality type categorizes people based on psychological
differences. It distinguishes between introverts and
extraverts, in contrast to trait theories which see introversion
and extroversion as part of a continuum.

Carl Jung
• Started this idea of psychological types based on his
theoretical work.

Hans Eysenck Isabel Briggs Myers & Katharine C. Briggs

• A different model was proposed by Hans Eysenck, who • Using Carl Jung's writings from WWII as a foundation, Isabel
believed that just three traits: Briggs Myers and her mother Katharine C. Briggs developed
o Extraversion (sociable, lively, active, and assertive), the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to categorize personality
o Neuroticism (anxious, depression, guilt feelings, low types.
self-esteem), and
o Psychoticism (aggressive, cold, egocentric, impulsive)
was sufficient to describe human personality. David Keirsey
• The model was further developed by David Keirsey to include
• Believed that many personality traits are related to whether Extraversion vs. Introversion as the basic dimension, along
you are mainly introverted or extroverted and whether you with three additional dimensions:
tend to be emotionally stable or unstable (highly emotional). o Extraversion vs. Introversion
These characteristics, in turn, are related to four basic types o Intuition vs. Sensing where trust in conceptual/abstract
of temperament first recognized by the early Greeks. The models of reality versus concrete sensory-oriented facts
types are: melancholic (sad, gloomy), choleric (hot-tempered, o Thinking vs. Feeling It considers thinking as the prime-
irritable), phlegmatic (sluggish, calm), and sanguine mover in decision-making vs. feelings as the prime-
(cheerful, hopeful). mover in decision-making
o Perceiving vs. Judging as the desire to perceive events
vs. the desire to have things done so judgments can be
made

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PERSONALITY INVENTORY Heinz Kohut
• A questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree • Like Freud, viewed transference similarly and focused on
items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge narcissism as a model for self-development, emphasizing its
a wide range of feelings and behaviors role in protecting low self-esteem and feelings of
• Used to assess selected personality traits worthlessness. Kohut expanded on Freud's theory by
introducing 'self-object transferences' such as mirroring and
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES idealization, making a significant impact on the field.
• The Psychoanalytic theory views development as primarily • Children need to idealize admired figures, like parents or
unconscious and emotion-driven, focusing on the symbolic older siblings, to learn self-soothing and other skills that
workings of the mind to understand behavior. It emphasizes contribute to a healthy sense of self.
early experiences with parents.
Karen Horney
Sigmund Freud • Developed the concepts of the real self and the ideal self,
• Sigmund Freud, known as the Father of Psychoanalysis, stating that individuals have both views of themselves. The
explained human behavior through the interaction of real self reflects one's true personality, values, and morals,
personality components, drawing on thermodynamics to while the ideal self is a self-imposed construct to align with
create the term psychodynamics. He proposed that psychic social norms and personal goals.
energy could drive behavior, emphasizing dynamic
unconscious conflicts in his theory. OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY
• Freud believed the human personality consists of three main • The object serves as the target for "relational needs" in
components: the id (savagery and raw urges), ego (reality- human development. Coined by Freud, the term "object"
testing), and superego. refers to the person or thing that an infant use to satisfy their
• The ID is driven by pleasure-seeking, while the EGO helps needs, such as a mother or favorite toy. Young children
the id express itself. It emerges to satisfy the id's desires in become fixated on objects that provide pleasure and may
line with reality, operating based on the reality principle. struggle to distinguish themselves from these objects.
• The SUPEREGO is the moral arm of personality, overseeing Throughout life, individuals seek to form attachments that
moral judgment and societal rules to keep the ego and id in impact their development.
check. It develops last through interactions with parents
during childhood, according to Freud. BEHAVIORIST THEORIES
• Freud's theory emphasizes sexuality as a crucial element in • Behaviorists explain personality as reactions to external
human development. He posited that humans maintain a stimuli, emphasizing the interaction between the individual
sexual nature from childhood, encompassing a broad range and their environment. In this model, children may act out to
of pleasurable sensations. Freud outlined five psychosexual seek attention they crave, following a pattern of stimulus
stages to explain personality development: (being ignored), response (acting out), and consequence
(receiving attention). Behavior is shaped by processes like
o Oral Stage (birth to 1 Year Old) – Pleasure is located in operant conditioning.
the mouth.
Ivan Pavlov
o Anal Stage (2 Years Old) – Pleasure is primarily in the • Known for his classical conditioning experiments with dogs,
anus. discovered the foundation of behaviorism. By pairing the
ringing of a bell with the presentation of food, he found that
o Phallic Stage (3 – 6 Years Old) – Manipulation of the the dog would eventually salivate at just the sound of the bell.
phallus is prominent, and the Oedipus and Electra This type of conditioning has broad applications across
complex is present. various experiments and situations.

o Latency Period (7 Years Old – Puberty) – There is John B. Watson

repression of sexual interests. Instead, social and • The Father of American Behaviorism, made four major
intellectual skills are developed. assumptions about radical Behaviorism:
o Evolutionary Continuity: The laws of behavior are
o Genital Stage (Puberty – Onwards) – A time of sexual applied equally to all living organisms, so we can study
reawakening and the source of sexual pleasure animals as simple models of complex human
becomes with someone who is outside the family. responses.
o Reductionism: All behaviors are linked to physiology.
• Freud believed adult personality is shaped by early childhood o Determinism: Animals do not respond freely; they
experiences, which can result in fixations preventing further respond in a programmed way to external stimuli.
development. Biological organisms respond to outside influences.
• When unable to overcome crises, individuals turn to defense o Empiricism: Only our actions are observable evidence of
mechanisms. These are unconscious strategies used to our personality. Psychology should involve the study of
reduce anxiety stemming from a situation. It is imperative to observable behavior.
manage anxiety by hiding its source from oneself and others.
• All behaviorists solely focus on observable behavior, giving
NEO-FREUDIAN CONCEPTS no consideration to unconscious motives, internal traits,
introspection, or self-analysis. Behaviorism leads behavior
Alfred Adler modification in therapy, applying learning principles to
• An early associate of Sigmund Freud, agreed that early achieve behavioral change.
childhood experiences are crucial for development. He also
believed that birth order could influence personality, with the COGNITIVE THEORIES
oldest sibling setting high goals to regain lost attention from • In the cognitive theory, behavior is explained as guided by
younger siblings. cognitions or expectations about the world, especially those
• He thought middle children were competitive and ambitious about other people. Cognitive theories are theories of
to surpass the firstborn, not seeking glory. Lastborns were personality that emphasize cognitive processes such as
seen as dependent and sociable but also babyish. Only thinking and judging.
children liked attention and matured quickly but struggled with
independence. Albert Bandura
o Striving for superiority • Albert Bandura, a social learning theorist, proposed that
memory, emotions, and environmental influences intersect.
Bandura is best known for his "BOBO DOLL" experiment
where a college student's aggressive behavior towards the
doll was filmed and shown to kindergarteners. The children
then imitated the behavior, leading Bandura to coin the term
"observational learning" or "modeling.

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OTHER THEORIES CENTRAL TO THIS FIELD HAVE BEEN: Abraham Maslow
• Introduced the idea of "self-actualizing persons," individuals
o SELF-EFFICACY WORK, dealing with confidence who strive to fulfill their potential. He suggested that those
people have in abilities to do tasks (Bandura, 1997) seeking personal growth are on the path to self-actualization,
exhibiting certain personality traits. Characteristics of self-
o LOCUS OF CONTROL THEORY (Lefcourt, 1966: actualizers according to Maslow include the four key
Rotter, 1966) deals with different beliefs people have dimensions:
about whether their worlds are controlled by themselves
or external factors o Awareness - Maintaining constant enjoyment and awe
of life. These individuals often experienced a "peak
o ATTRIBUTIONAL STYLE THEORY (Abramson, experience." A peak experience is one in which an
Seligman, and Teasdale, 1978) Examines how individual perceives an expansion of his or herself, and
individuals explain events in their lives by considering detects unity and meaningfulness in life.
stable vs. variable, as well as global vs. specific causes, o Reality and problem centered have the tendency to be
extending the concept of locus of control. concerned with "problems" in their surroundings.
o Acceptance/Spontaneity accepts their surroundings and
Walter Mischel (1999) what cannot be changed.
• Supported the cognitive approach to personality, using the o Unhostile sense of humor/democratic, those who do not
term "Cognitive Affective Units" to explain how the encoding like joking about others, which can be viewed as
of stimuli influences goal-setting and self-regulatory beliefs in offensive.
personality development. This term highlights his
consideration of both affect and cognition. Carl Rogers
• Maslow and Rogers viewed humans as active, creative
Albert Ellis (1955) beings who respond subjectively to their experiences. They
• In 1955, Albert Ellis, the pioneer of cognitive-behavioral believed in the potential for growth and self-actualization, with
therapy, introduced Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy the self at the center of a changing world. Encounters with the
(REBT), later known as Rational Therapy (RT). REBT world offer opportunities for personal growth and maturation,
focuses on helping clients recognize and challenge their diminishing feelings of hopelessness.
irrational beliefs that contribute to emotional distress. Ellis • Focused on the growth and fulfillment of individuals
posited that thoughts influence emotions and vice versa. The o Genuineness
core concept of REBT is that emotions are often a result of o Acceptance – UPR
our own thoughts, emphasizing the importance of examining o Empathy
and addressing thought patterns to change emotional
reactions. EMPATHIC ABILITIES
• Empathy is the ability to put oneself in the shoes of other
• Additionally, Ellis introduced the A-B-C theory of personality, people and see the world as they see it. Unlike
where: sympathy, which merely projects feelings onto other
o A represents the activating event, people, empathy allows one to sensitively enter
o B represents the belief system, and another’s feelings and accurately understand them.
o C represents the emotional consequence. • Carl Rogers said “Empathy is to sense the client’s
• The theory posits that it is not the activating event that causes private world as if it were your own, but without ever
the emotional response, but rather the belief system held by losing the As If quality – that is empathy”
the individual.
GENUINE INTEREST IN OTHERS
Aaron Beck • Effective counselors are authentic. They are genuinely
• The father of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), believes interested in helping people gain better mental health.
that changing an individual's thought processes can positively • Carl Rogers called this quality of authenticity
address nearly all psychological dilemmas. His ongoing Congruence and defined it as consistency between a
research in the field has shown increasing success. counselor’s real self and what a counselor says and
does.
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY • Being genuine means stripping away masks and being
real. It means not playing a role
Erik Erikson
• The Psychosocial Theory of HOMBURGER ERIKSON, like PERSONAL WARMTH
Freud's theory, suggests that personality evolves through • Personal warmth refers to one’s psychological climate
stages. However, it focuses on the influence of social and the conditions of the therapeutic interview.
experiences throughout life rather than just sexual • The warm counselor is caring and freeing; the humid
development. counselor is needy and possessive (Cavanaugh, 1990)
• Erikson focused on ego identity development, which is • A counselor with personal warmth shows interest,
shaped through social interactions. He believed that our ego concern, and attention but allows for personal space as
identity evolves through experiences and information gained well.
from interacting with others. Additionally, Erikson • Rogers called this quality Unconditional Positive
emphasized that a sense of competence drives behaviors Regard, the complete acceptance of clients’
and actions. characteristics and behaviors
• Erikson's theory suggests that each stage focuses on
developing competency. Success in a stage leads to mastery, BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
while failure results in feelings of inadequacy.
Richard Davidson
HUMANISTIC THEORIES • In the 1990s, neuroscience began influencing personality
• Humanistic psychology highlights free will and the active role psychology, shifting from traditional observation-based
individuals play in their behavior, focusing on subjective methods of identifying personality differences.
experiences rather than external influences.
• Neuroscience introduced powerful brain analysis tools like:
o Free Choice – Ability to choose that is NOT controlled o Electroencephalography (EEG),
by genetics, learning, or unconscious forces o Positron Emission Tomography (PET), and
o Subjective Experience – Private perceptions of reality o Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) to this
o Self-Actualization (Abraham Maslow) – Process of fully study.
developing personal potential
o Self-Actualizing Persons – Fulfilling themselves and
doing the best that they are capable of doing

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• Davidson's research explored the influence of the prefrontal o Self-centeredness that manifests itself through a me-first,
cortex (PFC) and amygdala on human personality, self- preoccupied attitude
specifically examining hemispheric activity. This asymmetry o Lack of individual accountability that results in a victim
can impact personality, especially in social contexts, leading mentality and blaming others, society and the universe for
to challenges in motor skills, spatial awareness, and social their problems
adaptation. o Lack of perspective-taking and empathy
o Manipulative and exploitative behavior
PERSONALITY DISORDERS o Unhappiness, suffering from depression and other mood and
• A personality disorder is recognized by abnormal patterns of anxiety disorders
thinking, mood, relationships, and impulse control in an o Vulnerability to other mental disorders, such as obsessive-
individual. It is how a person's character manifests through compulsive tendencies and panic attacks
their thoughts, emotions, and actions. When behavior is o Distorted or superficial understanding of self and other's
inflexible, maladaptive, and antisocial, a personality disorder perceptions. being unable to see his or her objectionable,
may be diagnosed. These disorders typically stem from unacceptable, disagreeable, or self-destructive behaviors or
difficulties in personal development and character formation the issues that may have contributed to the personality
during adolescence. disorder.
• Personality disorders do not disrupt emotional, intellectual, or o Socially maladaptive, changing the rules of the game,
perceptual functioning like illnesses do. However, they introducing new variables, or otherwise influencing the
contribute to a negative, unfulfilling life and hinder reaching external world to conform to their own needs
full potential. o No hallucinations, delusions or thought disorders (except for
• The DSM-IV-TR defines personality disorder as a persistent the brief psychotic episodes of Borderline Personality
deviation from cultural norms in behavior and experience, Disorder)
beginning in adolescence or early adulthood and causing
distress. The manual identifies 10 specific personality • It is important to note that some people diagnosed with borderline,
disorders. antisocial, schizoid, and obsessive-compulsive personality
disorders may be suffering from an underlying biological
1. ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER disturbance (anatomical, electrical, or neurochemical). A strong
• Described as a disregard for cultural norms, difficulty genetic link has been found in antisocial and borderline personality
interacting with others, and disobedience to societal rules. disorders.
Often referred to as psychopaths or sociopaths.
TREATMENT OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS
2. AVOIDANT PERSONALITY DISORDER • According to Dr. David B. Adams of Atlanta Medical
• There are marked manifestations of social inhibition, feelings Psychology, therapists struggle the most with individuals
of inadequacy, and extremely sensitive to criticism. suffering from personality disorders. They are hard to please,
hinder effective communication, resist building trust, and may
3. BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER not provide accurate information about their problems or their
• Lack of one's own identity, with rapid changes in mood, origins
intense unstable interpersonal relationships, marked • The Surgeon General states that mental disorders are
impulsively, instability in affect, and in self-image. treatable with various effective options, including
psychosocial and pharmacological treatments. Combining
4. DEPENDENT PERSONALITY DISORDER both, known as multimodal therapy, can be more effective
• Individuals with Dependent Personality Disorder exhibit an than using them individually.
overwhelming need for others, struggle to make decisions • According to the DSM-IV-TR, personality disorders may
independently, fear separation, and display submissive seem untreatable, but personal choice and commitment to
behavior due to low self-confidence and decisiveness. change can lead to healing. Therapy and medication can
assist, but it is ultimately the individual's choice to take control
5. HISTRIONIC PERSONALITY DISORDER of their life that makes the difference.
• Exaggerated and often inappropriate emotional displays, • Healing from a personality disorder requires a strong desire
approaching theatricality, are common in everyday behavior, to change and face past trauma, such as childhood abuse.
along with sudden and rapidly shifting emotions. • This involves changing their thoughts, relationships, and
behavior. With support from therapy, self-help groups,
6. NARCISSISTIC PERSONALITY DISORDER friends, family, and medication, they can break free from their
• The presence of grandiose behavior, lack of empathy, desire imprisoned life.
for admiration, inability to see others' viewpoints, and
hypersensitivity to others' opinions. FILIPINO TRAITS

7. OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE PERSONALITY DISORDER 1. SMOOTH INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS OR SIR

• Marked by perfectionism and rigidity: fixation on • The facility of getting along well with others without any
unchangeable behavior patterns. conflicts.
• To acquire this trait, the following are observed:
8. PARANOID PERSONALITY DISORDER
• Strong distrust of others, including baseless beliefs of a. PAKIKISAMA OR CONCESSION
exploitation, harm, and deception; lack of trust, perception of o Derived from "sama," meaning to go along, this trait
betrayal, reading of hidden meanings, unforgiving nature, and involves yielding decisions to authority or the
holding grudges. majority, while also promoting altruism.
b. USE OF EUPHEMISTIC LANGUAGE
9. SCHIZOID PERSONALITY DISORDER o Delivering harsh truths with sugar coating is a
• Characterized by limited emotional range and indifference to common practice among Filipinos when engaging
social relationships. in casual conversations. This approach, known as
the "sandwich method," involves framing criticism
10. SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY DISORDER or requests with compliments to soften the blow.
• The individual displays unusual thinking, beliefs, and c. USE OF GO-BETWEEN
behaviors, such as believing in psychic phenomena and o The need for a mediator to avoid feeling inferior
possessing magical abilities. when asking for favors in person.

According to Dr. Sam Vaknin, author of Malignant Self Love - 2. HIYA

Narcissism Revisited, INDIVIDUALS WITH PERSONALITY • Fr. Jaime Bulatao (1965) defines hiya as the painful emotion
DISORDERS HAVE MANY THINGS IN COMMON: felt when one's self-assertion is inhibited by an authority
figure or society, leading to a feeling of being in an
unacceptable position.

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3. NINGAS KUGON GRAPHOLOGY
• This refers to the tendency of Filipinos to start but not finish • Graphology is the study and analysis of handwriting,
things, especially seen in their New Year's resolutions. They particularly about human psychology. In the medical field, it
often begin with enthusiasm, only to lose interest over time. can be used to diagnose and track brain and nervous system
diseases.
4. UTANG NA LOOB. DEBT OF GRATITUDE. RECIPROCITY
• “Utang na loob” is a significant value in the Filipino system, SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ASSESSING PERSONALITY
revolving around the concept of reciprocating favors. This
belief implies that Filipinos tend to be passive in their 1. OBJECTIVE TEST.
relationships, as it is centered on the idea of owing gratitude • It is a written self-rating test or inventory test which is
for favors received. administered in the form of questionnaires and is answered
by yes or no or true or false
5. BAHALA NA
• The term is derived from the Filipino word Bathala, meaning 2. BEHAVIORAL METHOD
God, reflecting a "come what may" belief where Filipinos
entrust their efforts to divine intervention. 2.1 INTERVIEW
o It is a gathering to analyze a person's personality based
6. HOSPITALITY on how they interact with questions.
• The trait that defines Filipinos: hospitality towards guests at
the expense of their own family. ▪ UNSTRUCTURED Interview – Conversation is
informal, and topics are discussed as they arise
7. AMORAL FAMILISM
• Filipinos prioritize their own family, often only extending ▪ STRUCTURED Interview – Follows a prearranged
benefits to those within their immediate circle. This trait plan, using a series of planned questions
reflects the group-centered nature of Filipino culture. (family
honor) 2.2 LIFE HISTORY
o Utilizes the individual's life history, biographies,
Your Personality Type Influences How Much Self-control You Have autobiographies, diaries, anecdotes, and life pattern
• A new study from Northwestern suggests that people are journals.
either "promotion-focused" or "prevention-focused" when it
comes to their motivation. Choosing goal-pursuit strategies 3. PROJECTIVE METHODS
that align with these focuses can help with self-control. • According to the projective hypothesis, individuals structure
Additionally, research shows that personalities develop at a ambiguous situations based on their conscious and
young age and tend to remain consistent into adulthood. unconscious needs. It is an indirect method where the person
However, the study found that the most outgoing children being evaluated discusses topics unrelated to themselves.
may become withdrawn in their 20s due to negative peer • Projective methods as a tool for assessing personality
feedback. basically:
1. Reduce temptation to fake:
ASSESSING PERSONALITY 2. Do not depend as much on verbal abilities:
3. Tap both conscious and unconscious traits: and
Do You Make Your First Impression to Be Your Best Impression? 4. Focus is clinical perspective - not normative.
• Within three seconds of meeting someone new, they are
already evaluating you based on your appearance and TYPES OF PROJECTIVE METHODS
behavior. Everything from your posture to your accessories is
being observed. This quick assessment can leave a lasting INKBLOTS
impression, sparking curiosity or skepticism in others. • Rorschach Technique: Developed by Swiss psychologist
• First impressions happen in every new situation, with people Hermann Rorschach; contains 10 standardized inkblots (the
quickly judging based on surface clues. Once formed, first “inkblot” test). the most widely used projective test
impressions are hard to change. • Seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their
interpretations of the blots
PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ASSESSING
PERSONALITY PICTURES
• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – Developed by Henry
PHYSIOGNOMY Murray, personality theorist; projective device consisting of
• Physiognomy is the belief that one's outer appearance, drawings (black and white) of various situations; people must
especially their face, can provide insights into their character. make up stories about the people in it. a projective test in
It can also refer to the overall appearance of a person or which people express their inner feelings and interests
object without considering its scientific traits. through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
• Physiognomy is a pseudo-scientific method that is not used
as the basis of biological or psychological theory. It has been Assessing the Unconscious – TAT & Rorschach
associated with scientific racism and discriminatory ideas in
the past. • Other Picture Tests
o Thompson version
PHRENOLOGY o CAT (animals) and CAT-H (humans)
• Phrenology was a debunked study that claimed to determine o Senior AT
a person's personality traits by examining bumps on their o Blacky Picture Test - dog
skull. Developed by Franz Joseph Gall in 1800, it was popular o Picture Story Test
in the 19th century but was later denounced by François o adolescents
Magendie in 1843 as a pseudo-science. Despite this, o Education Apperception Test - attitudes towards
phrenology had some influence on 19th-century psychiatry learning
and modern neuroscience. o Michigan Picture Test - children 8-14
• Phrenology posits that the brain is the seat of the mind, with o Make-A-Picture Story make your pictures from figures
specific functions localized in different brain areas. This o APT Apperceptive Personality Test - attempt to address
theory suggests that the mind consists of various mental shortcomings of TAT and have objective scoring
faculties, each mapped to a distinct area of the brain.
• Phrenology is regarded as quackery by scientists. WORDS
• Word Association Tests - Francis Galton was the first to use
it which is based on reaction time aside from its content.
According to Carl Jung. words that represented potential
areas of conflict would eventually lead to the projection of
behavior.

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o Word Association Test by Gill & Shafer - 60 words- some IDENTIFICATION
neutral some traumatic • Taking on the characteristics of someone else to avoid feeling
o Kent-Rosanoff Free Association Test - 100 stimulus incompetent.
words all supposed to be neutral and common o Lisa who is uncertain of her own attractiveness takes on
the dress and mannerisms of a popular teacher whom
• Sentence Completion consists of stems either general or she idolizes.
specific which may be theory-based or not.
o Washington University Sentence Completion Test which INTROJECTION
is based on Loevinger's Theory of ego development to • A defense mechanism whereby a person acquires or imitates
measure self-concept the characteristics he fears or hates from a person.
o Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank, the popular 40-item o Bryan hates his father for being an alcoholic but
test can be used for high school and above, covering unconsciously acquires the habit of drinking.
categories like family, social and sexual attitudes,
general attitudes, and character traits at three levels. REGRESSION
• It is a way of alleviating anxiety by retreating to an earlier
•Figure Drawings establishing psychometric properties is period of life that was more secure and pleasant; reverting to
challenging due to the difficulty in doing so. While the tool a childlike behavior and defenses
may not accurately reflect the self, it does capture bodily o Losing one’s temper, pouting, talking baby talk, rebelling
concerns. This is partly due to being influenced by the artistic against authority, and other childish behaviors are forms
abilities of the person being tested. of aggression.
o Draw-A-Person Test (Karen Machover). It analyzes
characteristics such as time taken, placement of RATIONALIZATION
drawing, size, symmetry, and facial expressions. • It is a defense mechanism in which plausible reasons are given by
Different systems have been developed to standardize the person as an excuse for a behavior that would cause loss of
scoring for diagnostic purposes. self-esteem or approval.
o The House-Tree-Person Test (Buck) can be used to
identify abused children.
o Draw-An-Animal SOUR-GRAPING SWEET-LEMONADING
o Kinetic Family Drawing (KFD) is used to gather MECHANISM MECHANISM
information about the family system of the individual.
A man who loses his job A girl convinces herself that it is
CONCERNS ABOUT PROJECTIVE METHODS
would say that the job is not better to buy two sets of shoes
• Several concerns about projective methods: rather than buy one expensive
desirable.
o There are too many other variables besides internal
shoe in the mall.
feelings that enter into drawings.
o Stimulus may not be as ambiguous as assumed to be.
INTELLECTUALIZATION
o Every aspect does not necessarily relate to a personality
attribute. • Involves escaping one’s emotions through a focus on
o Assumes the existence of the unconscious and its intellectual concepts, abstract and insignificant details, or
influence on behavior. rational explanations devoid of physical acceptance.
o Factor of Situational Variables o Example – After learning that Carla is not invited to
attend a costume party, she coolly discusses the way
social cliques form and how they serve to regulate and
DEFENSIVE COPING OR MECHANISMS
control school life.
• This coping mechanism involves self-deception to convince
oneself that they are not threatened or that they do not truly
DISPLACEMENT
desire something unattainable.
• This defense mechanism involves transferring repressed
motives from one object to another substitute object.
FANTASY OR DAYDREAMING
• Temporary escape from life's difficulties through fantasy or
FREE-FLOATING
daydreaming allows desires and goals to be fulfilled through SCAPEGOATING SUICIDE
ANGER
imagination.
Hostility is
NOMADISM expressed against Hostility is
Hostility is directed to
• Escaping frustrating situations like constantly changing jobs, a person or an
anything or anybody.
directed towards
residences, and marital partners can lead to lasting object as a result oneself.
unhappiness and dissatisfaction. of his frustration.
A Clerk who is A person who cannot Usually,
DENIAL scolded by his express his pent-up emotional
• “Elvis is dead!” “No way”. supervisor may anger may manifest a people, who
• When circumstances of reality frustrate an id impulse, denial displace his anger bad temper and may have low self-
intervenes to protect the ego from the frustration of the real on his children engage in fights easily. esteem and
situation. It protects the self from unpleasant reality by when he gets Amuck is an example of experience
refusing to perceive it. home. Or a man this displacement excessive guilt,
o Sheila who always suffers from the physical abuse of who becomes whereby the victims are severe
her parent denies that this ever happened to her. bankrupt may strangers. For young depression, and
blame the entire people. They usually helplessness
REPRESSION economic system indulged in vandalism as may commit
• Visual or auditory perceptions may be distorted or memories for his failures. an expression of their suicide.
associated with painful events may be obliterated. It is anger.
excluding uncomfortable thoughts from the consciousness
o Myrna is at higher risk of developing breast cancer since REACTION FORMATION
most of her female relatives died of cancer, still routinely • Unacceptable impulse is repressed, next the opposite is
forgets to do self-examination. expressed on a conscious level.
o A man who always teases a girl and criticizes her is
PROJECTION manifesting a strong liking towards the girl.
• Process of unconsciously attributing one’s unacceptable
impulses, attitudes, and behaviors to other people. Projection SUBLIMATION
enables us to blame someone else for our shortcomings. • Is the only healthy way to deal with objectionable impulses
o A student blames his poor grade on a professor who because it allows the ego to convert them into socially
“can’t teach” accepted forms of expression.
• Sexual desires may be sublimated by sports, arts, music,
dances, and literature

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SUBSTITUTION
• Is an attempt to express directly an unacceptable desire
without losing the conscious quality of the desire
o A man who watches porno films or reads pornographic
materials or tells dirty jokes.

COMPENSATION
• It is a mechanism of adjustment wherein a person tries to
disguise the presence of a weak trait by emphasizing the
desirable one to cover up his inferiority.
o An unattractive girl most likely compensates for this trait
by excelling in her academic performance or athletic
activities. However, there are instances whereby
counterbalancing an imagined inferiority may lead to
over-compensation. An example is a girl who tries to
gain recognition and thus, wears dresses exaggeratedly
to attract attention.

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