Purposive Communication Reviewer

Module 1

Components of Communication Process

1. Source - Regarded as Influencers, Gatekeepers, Agenda-Setters. Can be anyone.
2. Message - Idea or Thoughts conveyed. From simple to complex.
3. Channel - Medium or means through which the message was conveyed.
4. Receiver - Target of the message.
5. Feedback - Reaction/Response by the receiver.
6. Environment - Place, Feeling, Mood, Mindset, Condition of both sender and receiver.
7. Context - Constructed Reality
8. Interference - Barriers/Difficulties

Types of Communication
1. According to Mode
a. Verbal, Non-Verbal Communication
b. Visual Communication - Signs, Symbols, etc…
2. According to Context
a. Intrapersonal Communication - Talking to self
b. Interpersonal Communication - Between or among people
c. Extended Communication - Electronic Media
d. Organizational Communication - Communication Protocol in Organizational
Contexts
e. Intercultural Communication - Between or among people having different
linguistic, religious, ethnic, social, and professional backgrounds.
3. According to Purpose and Style
a. Formal Communication - Formal Language. Inform, Persuade, and Entertain.
b. Informal Communication - Grapevine. Personal and Ordinary Conversation.

Modes of Communication
● Face-to-Face
● Video
● Audio
● Text-Based

2A - Models of Communication
1. Aristotle’s Communication Model

2. Lasswell’s Communication Model

 3. Shannon-Weaver’s Communication Model
Introduced in 1949, a year after
Lasswell’s, for Bell Laboratories.
Conceptualized for Radio and
Television. A model for Technical
Communication, which was later
adapted in the field of
communication.

4. Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

1960. From SMCR to
SMCRN to include Noise.

5. Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication

6. Eugune White’s Model of Communication

2B - Principles of Effective Communication

General principles of Effective Communication

 1. Know your PURPOSE.
2. Know your AUDIENCE.
3. Know your TOPIC.
4. Adjust to the CONTEXT of the situation.
5. Work on the FEEDBACK you were given.

Principles of Effective Oral Communication

1. Clear (Clarity)
2. Complete (Completeness)
3. Concise (Conciseness)
4. Natural (Naturalness)
5. Specific and Timely (Timeliness)

General Principles of Effectiveness Written Communication (9C’s)

1. Clear
2. Concise
3. Complete
4. Correct
5. Concrete
6. Coherent
7. Culturally Sensitive
8. Courteous
9. Considerate

3A - ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION

Velasquez et al (2010), “Ethics is based on well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe
what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or
specific virtues.”

Politeness
Brown and Levinson (1978) - Positive and Negative Politeness.

Positive Politeness - Compliments, encouragement, joking, white lies.

Negative Politeness - Respecting the privacy of others, leaving “backdoor” open. Distance-creating
linguistic devices, irony.

Scollon and Scollon (1995), 2 kinds of linguistic politeness strategies: involvement strategies and
independency strategies.

Involvement Strategies;
- Paying attention to the other person or taking care of them
- Being Optimistic
- Being voluble
 - Using the other person’s language or dialect

Independency Strategies
- Giving the other person the possibility to retreat.
- Speaking in General Terms
- Not speaking much
- Using your own language or dialect

Turn-taking
● Only one person should talk at a time
● We cannot have silence

Indication a turn will change

● Formal Methods: selecting by name or raising a hand
● Adjacency Pairs: a question requires an answer
● Intonation: a drop in pitch
● Gesture: a change in sitting position or loudness
● Change in Gaze Direction

Violations of Turn-taking process

● Interruption: new speaker interrupts and gains the floor
● Butting in: new speaker tries to gain the floor but fails
● Overlaps: 2 speaker at one time

Gender and Sexual Orientation (Sexist Language)

- Sexist Language can be used to discriminate against either man or woman (Klein, 1993)

1. Language that excludes women or renders them invisible.

Example: Manpower; Human resources, staff, personnel. Manning; Staffing, working, running.
2. The singular masculine pronouns (he, him, his)
3. Terms ending in “-man”
Example: Cameraman; Photographers, Cinematographers

Race and Ethnicity (Racism)

- Denigrates a person because of race (Allan, 2018)

Social Class
Age
- As generations age, language evolves so it results in different generations speaking different
languages.

Disabilities
- Talk to them the same way with a normal tone as you would to anyone else.
- Avoid being self-conscious
- Talk to them as adults directly than to an accompanying person.
- Ask them if they need assistance.
- Use “people-first language” ; ”a person with disability” rather than “the disabled”

3B - COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY

Most Common Social Media Tools and Platforms;

1. Blogs
2. Facebook
3. Twitter
4. Youtube and Vimeo
5. Flickr
6. Instagram
7. Snapchat
8. LinkedIn Groups

Ethics and Responsibility in Using Social Media

1. Use the correct language.
2. Avoid spreading racist, pornographic and violent contents
3. Acknowledge other’s works
4. Do not share personal information too much
5. Check the news validity

Validating Social Media Information

- Content
- Network/Source
- Be Across Platforms/Crosscheck
- Location of the Source
- Contextual Updates
- Age
- Build Your Own Network of Contacts

COMMUNICATION PROCESS, TYPES AND MODE (McCornack, 2014)

- Communication is a Natural Phenomenon.
- Sharing/Conveying
- One person to Another
 - Channes, Contexts, Media, and Cultures

COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL SETTING

- Multicultural diversity, and cross-cultural.

Cultural Differences
1. Value given to Time
2. Language Differences
3. Saying ‘No’
4. Directness vs Circumlocution
5. Personal/Friendly Language vs Respectful Language

Nonverbal Communication and Culture

1. Kinesics - Gesture
2. Gestures
3. Haptics - Touch behavior
4. Vocalics
5. Proxemics - Personal Space
6. Chronemics - Time is seen as commodities

5A; COMMUNICATION, POWER AND GLOBALIZATION

- Language: Tool for Communication and Power

A. Power Behind Language

1. Language Reveals Power
2. Language Reflects to power
a. Ethnolinguistic Vitality - Language community’s power.
b. World Englishes and Lingua Franca
B. Power of Language
3. Language Maintains Existing Dominance
4. Language Unites and Divides a Nation
5. Language Creates Influence
a. Power of Single Words
b. Oratorical Power
c. Conversational Power - Length and Order of speaking turns have not been pre-
assigned.
d. Narrative Power

COMMUNICATION THROUGH GLOBALIZATION

1. Increase in international trade at a faster rate than the growth in the world economy.
2. Increase in international flow of capital including foreign direct investment.
3. Increase in world production output and consumption
4. Greater trans-border data flow, using technologies as the internet, communication satellites
and telephones.
 5. Development of global telecommunications infrastructure
6. Greater immigration, including illegal immigration and others

IMPACT OF COMMUNICATION ON GLOBALIZATION

- Positive Impacts
1. Communication facilitates information among generations of people and promotes
economic developments of nations.
2. Communication promotes world peace and understanding through socialization and
recognition of and among the nations.
3. Communication calibrates world trade through successful and fast business
transactions.
4. Communication promotes exchange of ideas and technology.
- Negative Impacts
1. Communication among nations today has contributed to widespread corrupt practices
2. Improper or insistent communication on politics, economics and even language barrier
may lead to disputes and enmity between the nations.
3. Improper deliberations and breakdown in communication among nations could result in
war.

5B - WORLD ENGLISHES AND PHILIPPINE ENGLISH

World Englishes - Localized Varieties of English. Introduced by Braj Kachru (1985).

- Inner Circle (English as Native Language) - 380M, 120M outside of the US. Norm-Providing.
- Outer Circle (English as Second Level) - 150-300M. Norm-Developing.
- Expanding Circle (English as Foreign Language) - 100M-1B. Norm-Dependent.

Bautista and Gonzales (2006);

● Acrolect - Standard Form.
● Basilect - Midway between acrolect and mesolect.
● Mesolect - Diverged greatly from the standard form.

VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
a. British English
b. American English
c. Australian English
d. Canadian English
 e. Indian English - 1830s during the rule of East India Company. In 1835, English replaced
Persian as the official language of the company.
Grammar; Yes and No as question tags.
f. Singaporean English/Singlish - English, Mandarin, Malay and Tamil.
Grammar; Plurals and Past tenses is a matter of choice.
g. Philippine English - Code Switching: Mixing other languages in between sentences.
Redundancy.

6 - ANALYSIS, MEANING AND COMMUNICATION

AGENDA-SETTING THEORY IN MASS COMMUNICATION

- Media filters and shapes what we see rather than just reflecting stories to the audience.
- More attention, more importance for the public (Alvernia University, 2018).

CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS (CDA)

FOUR CATEGORIES OF CDA TOOLS BY FLOWERDEW AND LI (2002)
a. Negative Other Presentation
b. Scare Tactics
c. Blaming the Victim
d. Delegitimation - Outcasting

SPIRAL OF SILENCE THEORY - Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann in 1972, states that society isolates
members due to members’ opinions.

Theo Van Leeuwen’s representation of Social Actors (2008)

Nomination Utilizes a social actors unique identity or name

Categorization: Construction: use of proper noun for formal,

semiformal or informal usage that may include
honorific titles. Example: Senator Harris (formal),
Harris (formal) Jack Harris (semiformal), Jack
(informal

Functionalization References social actors by what they do or by

what they are. References social actors through
activities and the things they do, such occupations
or roles.

noun + -er, -ant, -ent, -ian, -ee. Example:

interviewer
noun + -ist, -eer. Example: pianist
noun + -man, -woman, -person. Example:
 crewman

Identification References social actors not through what they

do, but in terms of what they inexorably are.

Classification References the ways in which social actors are

defined by the differentialities between classes of
people within a given society or institution.

Construction:
Use of age, gender, provenance, class, wealth,
race,
Ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation. Example:
African-American

Relational Identification References social actors via their personal

relationships, kinship or work relations.

Construction: Often possessivated, closed sets of

nouns: friend, mother, wife. Example: my friend

Physical Identification References social actors via their physical

characteristics to uniquely distinguish them within
a specific context.

Construction: Use of nouns that denote physical

appearance. Example: brunette Use of adjectives.
Example: short Use of prepositional phrases with
or without: Example: with long hair

Impersonalization: Utilized within texts for the purposes of

backgrounding the identity or roles of social
actors, lending impersonal authority or force to an
action, adding positive or negative nuances to
actions or utterances of a social actor.

Abstraction Utilizes social actors via a quality that is assigned

to them by and in the representation.

Construction: Use of abstract nouns or concrete

nouns that do not denote the semantic feature
‘human.’ Example: Change

Objectivation: Utilizes the representation of social actors by

referring to them via references to a place or thing
that is either closely associated with the individual
or the action they are being represented as
engaging in

Spatialization References social actors by a place in which they

are.

Construction: Substitution of one noun for another.

Example: America for Americans
 Utterance Automization References social actors by their utterances.

Construction: Substitution of one noun for another.

Example: the report (said), instead of Jack (said).

Instrumentalization References social actors via the instruments they

use to fulfill the action they are being represented
as engaging in.

Construction: Substitution of one noun for another.

Example: A weapon (killed) instead of Sam (killed)

Somatization References social actors by utilizing their body for

their representation

Construction: Substitution of one noun for another.

Example: Kate’s neck

Exclusion: Utilizes social actors by omitting their involvement

from a text.

Suppression Involves the omission of any reference to the

social actor within the text

Backgrounding Excludes any direct reference to the social actor in

relation to a given action, however, mention of
them may be made elsewhere in the text.

Overdetermination Depicts social actors as participating in more than

one social practice at the same time.

Inversion Connects social actors to two practices that are

opposite one another Example: The
Simpsons=Dysfunctional American Family

Symbolization Utilizes fictional social actors or groups to stand-in

for nonfictional social actors or groups.

Connotation Utilizes cultural knowledge to stand in for a

classification or functionalization via the use of
association. Example: a black mask= the villain

Distillation Utilizes generalization and abstraction to connect

social actors to a social practice

7 - Mass Media
- Technology that is intended to reach a mass audience.

Types
1. Print Media - Newspapers, Books, Journals, etc.
2. Electronic Broadcasting Media - Television, Radio, Video games, etc.
 3. New Media/Digital Media - Websites, Digital Videos. Digital Video Games

Functions
1. Information
2. Education
3. Entertainment
4. Persuasion

Theories of Mass Communication

● Agenda Setting Theory - suggests that while the media may not dictate how people think, it is
effective in determining what people think about by highlighting certain issues. Introduced by
Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in 1972, the theory emerged from their research on North
Carolina voters during the 1968 U.S. presidential election, showing that public priorities aligned
with media coverage.

The theory is based on two main assumptions:

1. Media filters and shapes the news rather than simply reflecting it. For instance, a
sensational story might lead headlines even if other important events occur
simultaneously.
2. The more attention the media gives to an issue, the more likely the public will view it as
significant.

While mass media doesn’t tell audiences how to think or feel about a story, it influences public
attention by selecting and emphasizing certain stories. Scientific evidence supports this idea,
showing that repeated media exposure makes certain issues more memorable, even if they
don't directly affect individuals.

● Hypodermic Needle Theory or Magic Bullet Theory - introduced by Harold Laswell in the
1920s, is a linear communication model that emphasizes media’s powerful influence on
audiences. It likens media messages to "magic bullets" or "needles" that are injected into the
minds of passive audiences, influencing their opinions and behaviors either immediately or
over time. The theory assumes that audiences are powerless to resist media messages,
leading to uniform thoughts, fixed mindsets, and changes in perception. It suggests that even a
single media message can significantly alter beliefs or behaviors subconsciously, portraying
the public as vulnerable to media's strong influence.

● Uses and Gratification Theory - an audience-centered approach that explores why and how
people actively seek out specific media to satisfy particular needs. Unlike other communication
theories that view audiences as passive, this theory assumes that individuals are active media
consumers who interpret and integrate media into their lives. It emphasizes that audiences
choose media to fulfill their desires and achieve gratification, suggesting that media competes
with other information sources for viewers' attention and satisfaction.

Assumptions:
 • The audience is active and its media use is goal oriented
• The initiative in linking need gratification to a specific medium choice rests with the audience
member
• The media compete with other resources for need satisfaction
• People have enough self-awareness of their media use, interests, and motives to be able to
provide researchers with an accurate picture of that use.
• Value judgments of media content can only be assessed by the audience

As an example, people use social media for varied reasons. In general, students for example uses
social media for the following reasons:

• Socializing: Students were interested in talking and meeting with others to achieve a sense of
community and peer support on the particular topic of the group.
• Entertainment: Students engaged with the groups to amuse themselves.
• Self-Seeking: Students sought out or maintained their personal status, as well as those of
their friends, through the online group participation.
• Information: Students used the group to receive information about related events going on
and off campus.