MCFT-006

Applied Social
Indira Gandhi National Open University
Psychology
National Centre for Disability Studies

Block

2
POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
UNIT 6
Understanding of Self 5

UNIT 7
Emotions and Well-Being 20

UNIT 8
Promoting Well-Being 42

UNIT 9
Positive Parenting 65
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. V.N. Rajasekharan Pillai (Chairperson)
Vice Chancellor
IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Mathew Verghese Prof. Girishwar Misra Prof. Reeta Sonawat
Head, Family Psychiatry Centre Department of Psychology Dean & Head, Department of
NIMHANS, Bangalore University of Delhi, New Delhi Human Development, SNDT
Women’s University, Mumbai
Prof. Shagufa Kapadia Prof. Manju Mehta Prof. Ahalya Raghuram
Head, Department of Human Department of Psychiatry Department of Mental Health
Development and Family Studies AIIMS, New Delhi and Social Psychology,
The M.S. University of Baroda NIMHANS, Bangalore
Vadodara

Dr. Rajesh Sagar Prof. Rajni Dhingra Prof. T.B. Singh

Associate Professor, Head, Department of Human Head, Department of Clinical
Deptt. of Psychiatry, AIIMS & Development Psychology, IHBAS, New Delhi
Secretary, Central Mental Health Jammu University, Jammu
Authority of India, Delhi

Prof. Anisha Shah Prof. Sudha Chikkara Prof. Aruna Broota

Department of Mental Health and Department of Human Department of Psychology
Social Psychology, NIMHANS, Development and Family Studies University of Delhi
Bangalore CCS HAU, Hisar New Delhi

Prof. Minhotti Phukan Mrs. Vandana Thapar Dr. Indu Kaura

Head, Deptt. of HDFS Deputy Director (Child Secretary, Indian Association for
Assam Agricultural University Development), NIPCCD Family Therapy, New Delhi
Assam New Delhi

Dr. Jayanti Dutta Mrs. Reena Nath Dr. Rekha Sharma Sen
Associate Professor of HDCS, Practising Family Therapist Associate Professor
Lady Irwin College, New Delhi New Delhi (Child Development), SOCE
IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Vibha Joshi Prof. C.R.K. Murthy Mr. Sangmeshwar Rao
Director, School of Education STRIDE Producer, EMPC, IGNOU
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi New Delhi

Prof. Neerja Chadha Dr. Amiteshwar Ratra

(Programme Coordinator) (Convenor & Programme
Professor of Child Development Coordinator)
School of Continuing Education Research Officer, NCDS
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

Acknowledgement:
We acknowledge our thanks to Prof. Omprakash Mishra, Former PVC, IGNOU; Prof. C.G. Naidu, Former Director (I/c)
P&DD and Head, Nodal Unit; Dr. Hemlata, Former Director (I/c) NCDS; and Dr. Arun Banik, Director, NCDS, for facilitating the
development of the programme of study.

PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Dr. Amiteshwar Ratra Prof. Neerja Chadha
Research Officer Professor of Child Development
NCDS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOCE, IGNOU, New Delhi
COURSE COORDINATORS
Dr. Amiteshwar Ratra Prof. Neerja Chadha
Research Officer Professor of Child Development
NCDS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOCE, IGNOU, New Delhi

COURSE WRITERS
Unit 6 Dr. Rachna Bhangaokar, Asstt.Professor, Dept. of HDFS, Faculty of Family and
Community Sciences, The MS University of Baroda, Vadodara
Unit 7 Ms. Deepika Gupta, AIIMS, Delhi
Unit 8 Ms. Suparna Kailash, AIIMS, Delhi
Unit 9 Prof. Neerja Chadha, Dept. of Child Development, SOCE, IGNOU, New Delhi

BLOCK EDITORS
Prof. Manju Mehta Prof. Neerja Chadha*
Department of Psychiatry Professor of Child Development
AIIMS, New Delhi SOCE, IGNOU, New Delhi

Dr. Amiteshwar Ratra*

Research Officer
NCDS, IGNOU, New Delhi

* Course editing by the programme coordinators involved content editing,

language editing, unit formating and transformation of the units.
Acknowledgement:
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Jitendra Nagpal, Consultant Psychiatrist &
HOD, Moolchand Hospital, New Delhi for his initial inputs in Unit 9.
We would like to express our gratitude to all those who provided photos of their near and
dear ones and themselves for the cover page.
We would like to acknowledge the various authors, books, journals and websites from
which matter related to this course was researched; though they have been duly
acknowledged in the relevant Units, but might have inadvertently been missed.
Concept for Cover Design : Prof. Neerja Chadha & Dr. Amiteshwar Ratra
Preparation of Cover Design : Mr. Haldar, Pink Chilli Communications, Delhi

July, 2011
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011
ISBN:
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any
other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University,
New Delhi.
Further information on Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from
the University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi- 110 068 or the official website of IGNOU
at www.ignou.ac.in.
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BLOCK 2 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
The previous Block of this Course clarified basic concepts related to socio-
cultural influences on humans. Units under the previous Block dealt with
culture, socialisatiion, personality, adjustment, social cognition, prosocial
behaviour, aggression and karma theory. In this Block, ‘‘Positive Psychology’’
you will be introduced to a new way of looking at quite familiar terms and
concepts. You will study about self, emotions, well being and parenting. This
Block consists of four Units.
Unit 6 is on ‘‘Understanding of Self ’’. The Unit starts with a dicussion on
important concepts like self, identity and personality also as relevant in Indian
domain. It further highlights the theoretical perspectives in understanding of
self. The various correlates of self have been outlined and described. Impact
of culture and gender on self has also been discussed in the Unit. Indian
perspectives on self have been described at length in the Unit.
Unit 7 is ‘‘Emotions and Well-being’’, is the Unit which mainly deals with
emotions. The former part of the Unit defines emotions, describes components
and functions of emotions and discusses theories of emotions. As you go
through the Unit you will know about the meaning of well-being and its
dimensions. The inter-relationships between emotions and well-being has been
described in detail keeping in view the role of facial expressions, nervous
system and reactions to being in an emotional state. The role of emotions has
also been discussed in relation to our body, family, religion and health in the
latter part of the Unit.
Unit 8 is ‘‘Promoting Well-being’’. As the name suggests, the Unit starts
with introduction to well-being, its definition and types of well-being. The Unit
further elaborates the criteria of psychological well-being. This Unit discusses
the factors affecting well-being like life stages, personality factors, stress, etc.
This Unit will help you in advocating strategies used to promote well-being.
After studying this Unit you will be able to promote well-being in different
population groups.
Unit 9 is entitled ‘‘Positive Parenting’’. The term ‘parenting’ is quite a
common term used by lay persons also. Thus, as the title of the Unit
suggests, the Unit starts with orientation to the construal of positive parenting,
highlighting the significance of the cultural context. The contemporary shifts in
approaches and perspectives to understand the concept better, have also been
discussed. Some strategies and tips for positive parenting have been outlined.
A few myths involved in parenting have also been discussed.
UNIT 6 UNDERSTANDING OF SELF
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Self, Identity and Personality
6.3 Theoretical Perspectives in Understanding Self
6.4 Correlates of Self
6.4.1 Self Concept
6.4.2 Self Schema
6.4.3 Self Reference
6.4.4 Self Esteem
6.4.5 Self Efficacy

6.5 Culture, Gender and Self

6.6 Indian Perspectives on Self
6.7 Let Us Sum Up
6.8 Glossary
6.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
6.10 Unit End Questions
6.11 Further Readings and References

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Place a mirror in front of you. What do you see? You see an image of yourself.
Is that the real ‘you’, your real self? Or is it just a reflection of your physical
being, your body? Does your body or your face represent your real personality,
your likes, dislikes, attitudes, capabilities and weaknesses? Now, close your eyes
and think about yourself --- Who are you? How would you describe yourself? Do
you need to see yourself to describe salient features of your personality? Do your
verbal descriptions fully capture every aspect of your self?
Many such questions arise when we think about our ‘self’. Psychologists give
numerous explanations about this complex and multifaceted concept – the self.
This Unit will explain some of these perspectives about the self. The self or its
understanding is a basic requirement for human beings to function in society. The
understanding of others, their motives and emotions is impossible without an
adequate understanding of one’s own self. The unit will cover many relevant
aspects related to the self, the most important being, how did we understand that
our ‘self’ exists? The concept of self is differentiated from other concepts like
personality and identity with which the term is most often used interchangeably.
Then an overview of theoretical perspectives about the self are discussed. These
include the psychoanalytic, social learning (behaviourism) and developmental schools
of thought. After understanding these, significant correlates of the self are understood
in detail, with the help of examples. The last sections of the Unit will focus on the
influences of culture and gender on self development. The Unit ends with some
details about characteristics of the Indian self. The Unit will also cover how the 5
Positive Psychology self operates under different circumstances and in different contexts. Let us take
a look at the objectives of the Unit.
Objectives
After studing this Unit, you will be able to:
 Understand the concept of self from various theoretical perspectives;
 Describe the correlates of self and their relevance in everyday life;
 Analyse factors that influence the development of self; and
 Explain understand the functioning of self in different social contexts.

6.2 SELF, IDENTITY AND PERSONALITY

According to Sedikides & Skowronski (1997) (cited in Baron& Byrne, 2002),
the evolution of self led to better adaptation. In the course of evolution, human
beings began to have increasing levels of self awareness, that is, the ability to be
aware of one’s self or one’s existence in the environment around oneself. This
happened in three phases across species.
First, subjective self awareness came into existence. This is the awareness that
the self is separate and distinct from other things in one’s environment. So we
understand that we are physically separate from other people and other things that
surround us. So, we know that we are not part of the chair we are sitting on or
the table on which we are writing. Plants however, do not have the capacity to
make this separation or express it like humans.
Second, objective self awareness developed. This is the awareness that the self
can be an object of its own attention. The person can concentrate on one’s self
and think about oneself. Apes and human beings developed this ability. This
means that the person “knows that he or she knows” or “remembers that he or
she remembers”. When we see ourselves in the mirror, or think about our interests
or our health, we are being objectively self aware.
Third, human beings finally developed the ability to express themselves through
language and thought. This is called symbolic self awareness. This means,
human beings could use symbols and language to represent themselves. They
used language to communicate their own thoughts with themselves as well as with
others around them. As human beings are evolutionarily advanced, endowed with
intellect and have created culture, they are the only species who are symbolically
self aware. We use many different forms and symbols to express our desires, our
thoughts and our feelings. So, the self finds expression through language, poetry,
art forms, dance, and drama. In our everyday life all three types of self awareness
are put to use naturally.
Before we proceed to an in depth understanding of the self, let us understand the
difference between some terms that are often used interchangeably. All three
terms, self, identity and personality are used to explain human agency. Human
agency includes ideas associated with being human — our intentions, willingness
and behaviours there of thus become part of our agency.
Personality
Personality is a psychological concept which refers to an individual’s unique and
6 relatively stable patterns of thoughts, behaviours and feelings. Personality can be
assessed and explained in terms of some salient features and attributes that one Understanding of Self
possesses like being talkative or shy. Psychologists have identified five central
dimensions or the ‘Big Five’ of personality which include extraversion,
agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience.
Self
The self refers to personal and experiential aspects of living and is thus characterized
by more ‘inner’ attributes and explanations within a person. The self includes
being aware about one’s physical body as well as psychological boundaries of
one’s self from other selves, including categories like descendants and ancestors.
The self feels responsible for one’s own actions (some of the times) and can also
hold others responsible for theirs. Different notions of the self, like decontextualized
/ autonomous / independent or contextualized/ relational / interdependent are held
to explain the interface of the self with its external context.
Identity
Identity is closer to the social and the observable and thus refers to the more
‘outer’ aspects of being perceived as a person. Identity thus depends much more
on the social context of behaviour and at a given point of time; one could hold
many salient identities. For example, if you are travelling alone to a secluded area,
your gender identity as a man or woman may become salient with reference to
issues of safety. Similarly, social class and caste identities become salient with
reference to some practices like eating and dressing. Identity becomes more
complex with reference to group or collective membership. For example, identity
as a Gujarati or Punjabi or a Hindu or a Muslim is different from your professional
identity as a doctor or a lawyer.
In a culturally diverse country like India, factors like caste, religion, region and
language related identities influence the self in significant ways. On one hand, these
identities integrate with the self and create social diversity but on the other hand,
these very factors may become reasons for social and political upheavals in the
country from time to time. Thus collective identities play a very important role in
understanding the self in a social context, especially with reference to social stigma
and issues of marginalization.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: a) Read the following question carefully and answer in the space
provided.
b) Check your answer with that provided at the end of this Unit.
1. What is the evolutionary explanation for the development of self ?
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Now let us understand the concept of self from a theoretical perspective. Many
theorists have tried to explain the concept of self and its correlates. Let us
understand a few of them.
7
Positive Psychology
6.3 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN
UNDERSTANDING SELF
William James in The Principles of Psychology (1890) described the self as the
material self, the social self, the spiritual self and the pure ego. Since then, many
theoretical perspectives have come up to explain the self as a psychological entity.
Let us take a look at some of them.
Psychoanalytic Theories
Psychoanalytic explanations of self and personality highlight intrapsychic (internal,
within the person) processes. Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual
development refers to the development of personality through structures of id,
ego and super ego. Freud believed that the mind was governed by preconscious,
unconscious and conscious realms. The conscious realm was only a small part of
our mind which was concerned with immediate thinking or present experiences.
A bigger realm than the conscious was the preconscious which contains memories
which may not be part of current thinking but can be readily recollected, if need
be. The biggest and the most crucial realm that lay beneath the conscious and the
preconscious, was the unconscious which includes our thoughts, desires and
impulses about which we are largely unaware. The unconscious is full of repressed
thoughts that were considered anxiety provoking and thus pushed away into this
inaccessible realm. Freud explained many neurotic and behavioural disorders by
interpreting the unconscious. Freud’s theory not only explained normal behaviours
but also broadened the realm of the self to include areas other than the conscious
and accessible. With reference to the self, Freud explained many types of
personalities like the anal or compulsive personality that reflected typical behaviours
like being overly possessive of things and people or being overly organized and
concerned with cleanliness. Freud emphasized that our instinctual, bestial tendencies
need to be controlled and explained the struggle between the ego and the id.
Other theorists disagreed with Freud on this assumption about human nature.
These theorists believed in the positive and constructive human strivings for growth,
dignity and self-determination. The theories they proposed were called the
Humanistic theories. Carl Roger’s Self Theory states that poorly adjusted
selves have little overlap between their self concept and their experiences. In
order to fulfill the expectations they have to distort their real self. On the other
hand, well adjusted individuals experience more overlap between their immediate
experiences and their self concepts and so they can behave the way they really
are. For example, if a person is short tempered (part of self concept) but is
always expected to control his anger and behave in a very calm and composed
manner, he will experience frustration as he cannot really express his true feelings.
He may withdraw from social situations or be unable to control his rage, leading
to maladjustment. On the other hand, if a person is good at academics and is
supported and encouraged to do well in school, there is a better fit between what
he actually is and what he is expected to do. This leads to better personal
growth.
Abraham Maslow’s Self actualization theory is based on the study of
psychologically healthy people, who reach their maximum human potential through
peak experiences. Giving a hierarchy of needs, Maslow says that if lower order
needs like food and safety are fulfilled, then a person moves to achieve higher
8 order needs like intellectual innovations, self expression and creativity. He believed
that self actualized people look at the positive aspects of life and are seldom Understanding of Self
bothered by problems of everyday life like boredom.
Social Learning Theories
Unlike Freudian perspectives, the early social learning theorists like B. F. Skinner
highlighted the role of external, environmental factors and learning processes in the
development of self and personality. However, with more research it was established
that biological and internal factors like cognition, interact with environmental factors
and reinforcement strategies (rewards, punishments) to produce consistency in
behaviour. Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory explains the self system, which
consists of cognitive processes by which a person perceives, evaluates and regulates
his own behaviour. Through his theory, Bandura brought to light unique human
capacities like self regulation – the capacity to regulate and control one’s actions
with reference to their consequences and self reinforcement – the capacity to
reward themself when goals set by the self are achieved. For example, when we
participate in a marathon or prepare for an exam, everyone has different goals.
Some may want to just finish the race or pass the exam, others may want to win
the race or achieve a high percentage of marks. Each person, depending on his
goals, will congratulate and encourage himself for moving to higher goals. They
consciously regulate, monitor their behaviour and efforts to achieve their goals like
changing their strategies of preparation or practising for longer times or overcoming
their identified weaknesses.
Developmental Theories
Developmental perspectives explain how the self develops at various life stages
and what are the most influential factors that enable or hinder self development.
The contributions of Erik Erikson and James Marcia are important to understand
self from a developmental perspective. Erikson’s theory essentially explains self
as a psychosocial entity and emphasizes that throughout the stages of the human
lifespan, the individual is concerned about understanding and furthering one’s
psychosocial identity. This process is heightened during the stage of adolescence
and young adulthood where an adolescent experiences identity crises and actively
seeks to understand and establish his / her identity in the social world. Erikson
highlighted the role of culture in self development and explained that identity
development takes places in response to socio-cultural expectations.
James Marcia, a Canadian psychologist, furthered Erikson’s work on identity
development in young adulthood. Depending on whether adolescents have
explored alternative selves or not, Marcia came up with four identity patterns
which young adults were likely to experience. Like Erikson, Marcia concentrated
on crises and commitments experienced by young adults in the areas like career
choice, politics and religious views. These in turn determined their identity status.
The identity statuses identified were:
Identity diffusion — where adolescents have not experienced the identity crises.
This means they have not explored their own choices or preferences seriously.
They have not experienced a crisis which requires them to choose or explore
various alternative selves.
Identity moratorium — where adolescents are still searching for an identity.
They are in the process of finding themselves, their priorities, and their goals. They
may be trying out different alternative selves by doing different jobs or studying
various courses. 9
Positive Psychology Identity foreclosure – where adolescents have chosen an identity suggested by
parents or other authority figures. If parents think that the adolescent should
become a doctor or an engineer, the adolescent just follows the parent’s goals set
for them, without quite questioning what they really want.
Identity achievement – where adolescents have resolved the identity crises and
shown commitment to a clear alternative. They have explored various roles and
interests and identified what they like or shown preference for some alternatives
more than others.
We have reviewed various theoretical perspectives concerning the self. The self
is explained in recent psychological literature mainly through two broad
perspectives – self as autonomous and bounded versus the self as relational and
unbounded. The self as autonomous perspective understands the self as a
decontextualized entity, mechanical and individualistic in nature. This view refers
to the self independent of its context. On the other hand, the self as an unbounded
and contextualized entity has permeable borders and is socially constituted. This
self has social origins and is mainly relational and collectivistic in nature. Given this
broad categorization, different cultures show preference for one or the other kind
of self and many times even a mix of both types of selves. Recent researches have
shown how cultures differ with reference to self construal. We will come back to
a discussion of the same in another section. Now let us turn our attention to what
constitutes the self. This means when we refer to the concept of self, what do we
actually mean. These dimensions of the self are called the correlates of the self.
They are explained in the next section.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: a) Read the following question carefully and answer in the space
provided.
b) Check your answer with that provided at the end of this Unit.
1. What are the four identity statuses given by James Marcia?
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6.4 CORRELATES OF THE SELF

6.4.1 Self–Concept
Self concept is an organized collection of beliefs, attitudes and values about the
self. Self concept is all about your strengths, weaknesses, likes, dislikes, interests
and much more. It includes peripheral as well as central aspects. The peripheral
aspects include those qualities or abilities that are distant from the real self and
are less likely to be associated with the person. On the other hand, the central
aspects of one’s self concept are closer to the real self and are more likely to be
used to describe the person’s strengths, abilities or weaknesses. For example, if
you are a friendly and fun loving person in most situations, that is a central aspect
of your self concept. This is because the characteristic of being friendly and fun
10
loving describes you best as a person. At the same time, it is a consistent Understanding of Self
characteristic, true about you in most situations. But, if you are not good at
painting then your description as a painter does not describe you as a person
adequately. So, although you can paint, you may not be known (or even want to
be known) as a painter. This is thus a peripheral aspect of your self concept.
The self concept responds to some social influences. The self concept changes
with age because of the different social and environmental demands made on us
from time to time. Self concepts are also affected by the feedback we get from
others, especially when what people believe about us, is inconsistent with our own
self beliefs. Positive and negative life events like the birth of a child, a promotion
or the death of a parent or spouse can affect our self concept. Our profession
or jobs we hold from time to time also bring changes in our self concept as our
roles and responsibilities change in accordance with our work. Research in India
shows that parental warmth and child centeredness promotes positive self concept
among children. While it is believed that a lower socioeconomic or marginalized
societal status may negatively affect self concept, this may not be true. Comparative
researches with these specific social groups show mixed results. This means,
socioeconomic factors may or may not have a profound negative effect. In fact,
some researches show children and adolescents from these vulnerable groups
have an equal or higher emotional and moral self concept.

6.4.2 Self Schema

Another concept related to the self concept is self schema. Self schema includes
everything related to the past, present and future of the self. It is everything a
person remembers, knows and can imagine about oneself. With the help of a self
schema, a person can make comparisons about how she was in the past with how
she is now and what expected changes she will undergo in future. Self schemas
guide our present behaviour for future outcomes. For example, if you want to lose
weight, then you know how you look now (fat or overweight) and how you
would like to look in future (leaner and slimmer than now). The same is true for
behavioural expectations from the self also, for example, if I want to be more
social and friendly than I am now; I will have to make new friends, I will have
to meet new people and socialize in unfamiliar groups.

6.4.3 Self Reference

The self is the center of a person’s social world. As self schemas are very well
developed, we process self relevant information better than anything else. Self
relevant information like our last names, our birthdays, the first alphabet of our
name become important for us and we pay more attention in processing such
information. We also remember such information better than other things. For
example, if someone shares the same birth year or birthdate as our own, we tend
to remember that person better than others. The same thing is true in case we
share the same names or belong to same cities. This is called self reference
effect. The self becomes the source of reference and has an effect on our attention
and memory.

6.4.4 Self Esteem

Self esteem is an evaluation of your self. A person can have high self esteem or
low self esteem, depending on how he or she evaluates her abilities and her own
self worth. People with high self esteem tend to be confident of their abilities and
11
Positive Psychology feel good and worthy about themselves. People with low self esteem generally are
introverted, feel less confident and feel something is lacking in themselves. People
compare themselves with other members of a group or society in order to measure
their capabilities. This is called social comparison.
When people compare themselves with others who are “worse off” than their
own self, they feel good about themselves. This is called downward social
comparison. For example, if someone gets less marks than you, you feel good
about your performance on the test. Similarly, if someone is fatter than you, you
feel good about being slim. Downward social comparisons with strangers and
peers or even in groups generally lead to higher self esteem. But when you
downwardly compare yourself with a family member, it may lower your self
esteem. So if your brother gets less marks than you or if your sister is obese, then
your self esteem declines due to their characteristics and your association with
them.
Upward social comparison involves comparing yourself to someone “better off”
than you. So when you compare yourself with a stranger who is more beautiful
than you are, it may not have any effect. But if your friend is more beautiful than
you are, it may lead to a decline in your self esteem. Similarly, if your mother is
more beautiful than you, or your brother gets a prestigious award, your self
esteem goes up as you are associated with them. Thus upward and downward
social comparison has differing effects on our self esteem depending on our own
attributes and our evaluation of them as well as the group with which we are
making a comparison.
Sometimes our actual competence does not match our self-evaluation. The result
of such inconsistencies is a paradoxical self esteem. Let us understand this with
the help of an example. Suppose Reena considers herself a very good painter, her
painting abilities (according to her) give her high self esteem. However, when her
paintings are reviewed by others, they do not find them good and they think she
is not that good a painter. This leads to a paradoxical (confusing or contradictory)
self esteem for Reena, where her beliefs about herself are unrealistically high and
not supported by what others think about her. The same may happen when we
think too lowly of ourselves with reference to some skills or abilities. For example,
thinking that I am not so beautiful or I am really bad at mathematics. So when
our thinking about ourselves is unrealistically high or low, we have paradoxical self
esteem. As you may have noticed, paradoxical self esteem is a very relative idea,
which means it depends to a great extent on who is making the judgement about
you. Experts may have very strict judgements about performance as compared
to family members or friends. In Reena’s case, professional painters and artists
may have a stricter (more objective) opinion about her paintings than people she
knows well, like her friends or family (who may have subjective opinions). However,
research shows that having a higher or positive estimation of self (than what is
actual) can temporarily benefit a person’s mental health.

6.4.5 Self Efficacy

Self efficacy is a component of self functioning along with self focussing and self
monitoring. Self focussing means the act of diverting attention towards oneself as
opposed to one’s surroundings. This ability to focus inward on one’s self, away
from the external environment is called self-focussing. We self focus more when
a mirror is put in front of us or when we are under someone’s observation.
12 Similarly, when someone instructs us to ‘do as directed’, say describe what you
see out of a window, our focus of attention shifts from ourselves to the external Understanding of Self
world. Self focussing increases during adolescence and can considerably vary
from person to person in the adult years. Too much self focus or too much
external focus can both be problematic. Thus, a person needs to focus appropriately.
This needs self regulation. Self regulation is the ability of controlling one’s thoughts
and consequently the area of focus. Through self regulation, we reflect or introspect
on past actions and events. For example, if you are thinking about why you had
an argument with your mother last week over something trivial, you are self
focussing on your behaviour and whether what you did was appropriate or not.
Human beings have a tendency to monitor and regulate their own behaviour. This
self monitoring can be caused by internal or external cues. External cues may
include how others react to our actions while internal cues include our beliefs,
attitudes and values on the basis of which we act. People who change their
behaviour based on external cues are called ‘high self monitoring’ while those who
behave consistently and in line with their internal cues are called ‘low self
monitoring’. High self monitoring people are not consistent in their behaviour and
change according to what others or the external situation expects or demands.
For example, if others do not appreciate your laughing out loudly or your accent,
you make efforts to change and fit into what others expect, irrespective of how
difficult it may be for you to make this adjustment. Low self monitors, on the other
hand, remain consistent and stable (true to their beliefs) in varied circumstances.
For example, if you are comfortable with your style of dressing, you will continue
to wear what you wear, irrespective of what others say. Or if you are an honest
and truthful person, even if there is no one watching over you, you will not steal
or cheat. Extremely high self monitors and extremely low self monitors are both
less well adjusted in social situations. Thus, it is best to maintain a golden mean
or a middle range of self monitoring.
This brings us to the next component of self functioning, which is self efficacy. Self
efficacy is a person’s belief in her own ability to achieve some goals set by her.
This means, self efficacious people are confident of their performance, can regulate
their behaviour to achieve their set goals and also overcome barriers in the
process of achieving their goals. Such people have more clarity about tasks that
they can achieve or fulfill and those that they cannot. This helps them to allocate
their resources and time in a better manner to tasks that they are confident of
solving rather than those which they know they will not be able to solve. For
example, Iqbal knows he cannot dance very well. So he may decide to participate
in the singing competition in college, rather than the dance competition. He may
also be confident of his ability to sing or learn a new song and perform before
an audience. Thus, he concentrates on winning the singing competition by practicing
more everyday than trying to learn how to dance! Self efficacy helps us to decide
what we are good at and in a systematic, step by step manner, helps us achieve
our goals. Collective self efficacy means a group feels sure about its performance
or its ability to achieve a goal, like a cricket team or the sales department of a
company. When members of a group are self efficacious, the group performs
better, otherwise it becomes apathetic and each member starts believing that
things will not change or that goals are set too high for achievement.
Self efficacy can be improved by intervention. This means that your belief in your
own abilities can be enhanced if others show faith in you and take you from one
level to another, higher level of performance. Positive feedback and encouragement
can enhance self efficacy. Good teachers or mentors generally enhance the student’s 13
Positive Psychology self efficacy. If self efficacy is enhanced in certain areas, adolescents are able to
show resistance to peer pressure and also have sustained and fruitful social
relationships.
In one of the previous sections, we briefly came across how self construal and
understanding may differ across cultures. Gender also plays an important role in
defining the self with reference to specific cultural contexts. Both culture and
gender thus become important influencers and determinants of the constituents of
the self. Let us understand this in a little more detail in the next Section.

6.5 CULTURE, GENDER AND SELF

Culture is a pervasive category. This means, culture is ever present and influences
all aspects of human functioning in subtle ways. No single definition of culture can
actually capture the complexity present in the term. However, for our understanding
it may be adequate to understand culture as a shared way of life, shared meanings
associated with everyday events, activities, artifacts and social symbols. Language
is a significant part of culture and necessary for cultural continuity. Like genetic
or biological continuity, cultures also propagate themselves over generations, through
individuals and groups, by continuing certain practices and beliefs related to them.
At the same time, cultures are also highly dynamic. This means cultures respond
to changing environmental demands and conditions and reinvent themselves. Thus,
culture as a concept includes continuity and change in its very nature. It becomes
necessary to situate individual selves in this ever changing and dynamic background
of culture to understand the complex nature of self. Recent trends in the field of
cultural psychology claim that culture and self (or psyche) are inseparable and co-
constitute each other. Thus, when cultures continue, selves continue and when
cultures change, these changes are evident in the self construal also.
Gender also plays an important role in a person’s self construal. Gender based
norms of behaviour, gender stereotypes and gender identity, all have roots in
particular cultural ideologies. It is also important to note that most cultures in the
world are predominantly patriarchal in nature and thus reinforce traditional gender
norms and stereotypes that differentiate between men and women on many issues,
mainly division of labour and status in family and society. So cultures more often
than not, reinstate beliefs like women are supposed to care for families and bear
children, while men go out to earn. Other gender-stereotypical beliefs may include
that men are physically stronger and can make better decisions while women are
emotionally stronger and cannot make rational decisions. As many of these beliefs
are socially constructed, boys and girls are exposed to them early on in life and
thus these become inseparable parts of their gender socialization and eventually,
gender identity. Gender identity, which starts developing by age two, involves a
person’s identification as male or female. By age four to seven, children start
showing gender consistency, which means they understand that gender is a
constant and basic attribute of each person. Once these beliefs about gender
consistency are established, later perceptions about gender stereotypes depend
on what we are taught about gender. This leads to sex typing, where as children
grow older, they understand “correct” male and female behaviour as per their
own culture. Gender schema theory states that children have an inherent readiness
to organize all information about the self on the basis of what their culture prescribes
as appropriate male and female attributes. Children learn about gender mainly
from role models like parents and teachers. Thus it is very important to have
14 balanced, gender equitable role models before the child, rather than models which
send out gender biased messages like ‘women are weaker, less capable’, or Understanding of Self
‘boys are brave and so should not cry’. On the other hand, tribal societies may
have very different gender stereotypes and role models (mostly, more gender
equal and less patriarchal) which are applicable in their own cultural context but
very different from the mainstream. Thus a variety of gender based perceptions
may develop and vary according to cultural diversity.
Cross-cultural research in the past showed the emergence of two distinct self
construal patterns across cultures. One is the independent, bounded and
autonomous self, essentially found in post-industrialized, individualistic western
cultures. The other is an interdependent, unbounded, relational self, found mostly
in collectivistic, eastern cultures. More comparative work in this area mostly from
countries like the USA, Japan and others led to the formation of dichotomous self
patterns on the individualism-collectivism continuum. This led to further debate
about whether the individualistic and collectivistic cultures (and the two self
construals, therefore) were diametrically opposite to one another. Later research
showed that the independent and interdependent selves were not opposite to one
another. So it was not as if all westerners were individualistic always and all
easterners were collectivistic always. Rather, one kind of self (or its characteristics),
generally, was found to be associated more with certain cultures. However,
countries like India showed a mixed pattern of both independent and interdependent
self or both aspects of individualism and collectivism. At the same time, the Indian
self was considered to be extremely context-sensitive. In the next section, we
understand the Indian self in some more detail.
Feminist scholars, however, have argued against the western, stereotypical notion
of an individualistic, autonomous self which underplays the role of relationships
and connections with others as an obstacle to self development. They believe that
women have alternative pathways of self development which are more relational,
interdependent and care-oriented. With specific reference to the Indian self, others
(immediate family members, children) play a significant role in Indian women’s self
construction. Adhering to traditional gender roles and fulfilling familial obligations
are important components of their own selfhood, and inability to ‘fit in’ results in
concerns about their own well being and self esteem. The contemporary scenario
in India brings out many new trends for women who are educated and employed
and those who are managing households.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: a) Read the following question carefully and answer in the space
provided.
b) Check your answer with that provided at the end of this Unit.
1. What are the two distinct self conceptualizations that emerged from initial
cross-cultural research?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

15
Positive Psychology
6.6 INDIAN PERSPECTIVES ON SELF
Ideas about the self in the Indian tradition are constructed from a variety of
sources including spirituality, religion and folk psychology. Self in the Indian context
is mainly understood as a “deeper inner consciousness that identifies the individual
with the entire universe or cosmos” (Misra, Akoijom & Misra, 2009). Non-
material or spiritual as well as empirical aspects are included in the Indian
conceptualization of the self. The Atman is transcendental in nature and represents
the conscious selfhood. Ahamkara on the other hand is considered the source
of all problems. Beliefs about karma (past, present and future) significantly influence
the concept of self in India, giving it a unending, continuous and immutable
characteristic. Religious texts like the Bhagavad Gita also mention the self as an
indestructible entity which has no beginning and no end like time or consciousness
itself. Many Buddhist ideas about the self link the concept of selflessness or no-
self to explain the nature of selfhood. The Taitraiya Upanishad explains that the
self has five sheaths or layers (kosha) nested into one another. The first is the
annamayakosha or the physical body created due to the food we consume. The
second layer is called the pranamayakosha which consists of life and includes
breathing and other functional organs and systems of the body. The next layer is
the manomayakosha which involves the sense organs and ego related personal
involvements. The fourth layer is that of the vigynamayakosha which represents
cognition or intellect. The innermost sheath is called the anandamayakosha and
it represents a joyous state of selfhood which experiences bliss. The gunas or the
properties of nature like satva, rajas and tamas also constitute and influence the
self, creating different personality types like a rajasic personality or a tamasic
personality.
Apart from the religious-spiritual explanations of the self, there are other empirical
characteristics of the Indian self that have surfaced as a result of pertinent research
studies. Ramanujan (1990) has called the Hindu self ‘allocentric’ which means the
self is to a large extent determined by how others view you. The focus of our self
on others’ reactions and perceptions about us is very common. Many of our
actions are guided by ‘what people will say’ (log kya kahenge) or what others
will think of us on the basis of how they will interpret our actions (log hamare
bare mein kya sochenge).
Cross-cultural comparisons have brought forth other traits of the Indian self. The
most prominent one is that the Indian self is highly context sensitive and many of
its actions and thoughts are dependent on the immediate social and interpersonal
context. Most responses are in line with the desh (place), kala (time) and patra
(person) involved in any social situation. Indologists like Marriott have called the
Indian self a ‘dividual self’or divisible self and not an individual. Other psychologists
like Roland have called the Indian self a spiritual and ‘familial self’ because of the
primacy and significance attached to the immediate family and the extended network
of caste and kin in the construction of personhood. Due to these reasons, many
times the Indian self is categorized as a collective self. However, recent research
on the Indian self brought out newer categories which include a mix of individualistic
and collectivistic characteristics. According to this view, the Indian self can be
categorized mainly as an ‘encompassing self’ which is embedded in relationships
and extends beyond the person.
Thus, the Indian case demonstrates how the socio-historical context and cultural
16 traditions influence the sense of self. The concept of self is complex and challenging
to study, but a lot of answers to the mysteries of our everyday behaviour probably Understanding of Self
lie in how well we understand our self. If we understand ourselves well, we can
understand the motives and conditions of other selves also. This is the key to
having harmonious social and interpersonal relationships as well as ensuring our
own well being also.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
Note: a) Read the following question carefully and answer in the space
provided.
b) Check your answer with that provided at the end of this Unit.
1. What are the five sheaths or layers of the Indian self?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

6.7 LET US SUM UP

The Unit takes you on a journey to understanding the self from a variety of
theoretical perspectives. The influences of gender and culture on self construal are
highlighted along with the measureable and observable correlates of self like self
esteem and self efficacy. All these concepts need to be understood to know how
a self functions in day to day life situations. Many factors like age, life events,
work or profession and adult role models like parents and teachers influence the
development of the self. Through child socialization and specific socio-cultural or
familial practices, many beliefs about self –in-society and gender appropriate
behaviour are constantly reinforce and thus become parts of our self. Thus, in line
with the current trends and debates in the field of psychology, culture and gender
become overarching frames of reference with respect to self development and
hence are purported to vary cross culturally.

6.8 GLOSSARY
Objective self awareness : Awareness that the self can be an object of
its own attention, that the person “knows
that he or she knows” or “remembers that
he or she remembers”.
Self concept : Self concept is an organized collection of
beliefs, attitudes and values about the self.
Self efficacy : Self efficacy is a person’s belief in her/his
own ability to achieve some goals set by
her. This means, self efficacious people are
confident of their performance, can regulate
their behaviour to achieve their set goals and
also overcome barriers in the process of
achieving their goals.
17
Positive Psychology Self esteem : Self esteem is an evaluation of oneself. A
person can have high self esteem or low self
esteem, depending on how he or she
evaluates her/his abilities and her/his own
self worth.
Self reference : The self reference effect is when the self
becomes the source of reference and has an
effect on our attention and memory.
Self schema : Self schema includes everything related to
the past, present and future of the self. It is
everything a person remembers, knows and
can imagine about oneself.
Subjective self awareness : Awareness that the self is separate and
distinct from other objects and beings in one’s
environment.
Symbolic self awareness : Awareness and the ability to use symbols
and language to represent themselves.

6.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. The evolutionary perspective believes that the self developed for better
adaptation of the human species. The first awareness of the self is called
subjective self awareness which separates the self from other objects in the
environment. This is followed by objective self awareness where the self is
an object of its own awareness and lastly, symbolic self awareness developed,
which is an expression of the self using symbols and language.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. The four identity statuses given by James Marcia are: Identity achievement,
Identity moratorium, Identity foreclosure and Identity diffusion
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1. The two distinct conceptualizations of the self were independent and
interdependent self. They emerged from the individualism-collectivism paradigm
that lumped cultures together. However, with advances in cross-cultural
research, these dichotomous categories were overthrown and a more culture
inclusive idea of self emerged which included aspects of both independent
and interdependent self, depending on the corresponding cultural context.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1. The five sheaths of the Indian (spiritual) self are: annamayakosha,
pranamayakosha, manomayakosha, vigyanamayakosha, and anandmayakosha.
Each sheath takes the person closer to the cosmic self which is in the state
of bliss.

18
 Understanding of Self
6.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. With the help of examples from your daily life experiences, explain the
correlates of self.
2. How are the self, personality and identity different from each other?
3. Give examples to explain the influence of culture on our understanding of
self.
4. Gender and self development are critically linked. Justify this statement with
the help of relevant examples.

6.11 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Baron, R. & Byrne, R. (2002). Social psychology (10th ed.). New Delhi: Prentice-
Hall of India.
James, W. E. (1890). Principles of psychology. New York: Dover.
Kakar, S. (1979). (Ed.). Identity and adulthood. New Delhi: Oxford University
Press.
Kapadia, S. (1999). Self, women and empowerment: A conceptual inquiry. In T.
S. Saraswathi (Ed.). Culture, socialization and human development: Theory,
research and applications in India (pp. 255-277). New Delhi: Sage.
Mascolo, M.F., Misra, G., Rapisardi. C. (2004). Individual and Relational
Conceptions of Self in India and the United States. New Directions for Child
and Adolescent Development, 104, 9-26.
Misra, A. K., Akoijom, A. B., & Misra, G. (2009). Social psychological
perspectives on self and identity. In G. Misra (Ed.). Psychology in India: Social
and organizational processes. Vol. 2 (pp. 53-104). New Delhi: Pearson.
Ramanujan, A. K. (1990). Is there an Indian way of thinking? An informal essay.
In M. Mariott (Ed.), India through Hindu categories (pp. 41-58). New Delhi:
Sage.
Sedikides, C. & Skowronski, J. J. (1997). The symbolic self in evolutionary
context. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 1, 80-102.

19
Positive Psychology
UNIT 7 EMOTIONS AND WELL-BEING
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Emotions
7.2.1 Definition and Meaning of Emotions
7.2.2 Components of Emotions
7.2.3 Functions of Emotions
7.2.4 Theories of Emotions

7.3 Well-Being
7.3.1 Definition and Meaning of Well-Being
7.3.2 Dimensions of Well-Being

7.4 Inter-relationships between Emotions and Well-Being

7.4.1 Facial Expressions and the Facial Feedback Hypothesis
7.4.2 Role of Nervous System in Emotions
7.4.3 Reactions to Being in an Emotional State

7.5 Our Body and Emotions

7.5.1 Psycho-Physiological Disorders
7.5.2 Management of Emotions to Foster Well-Being

7.6 Role of Family in Enhancing Well-Being

7.7 Emotions, Religion and Health
7.8 Let Us Sum Up
7.9 Glossary
7.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
7.11 Unit End Questions
7.12 Further Readings and References

7.1 INTRODUCTION
We all have commonly used the word emotions in our day-to-day conversations
to express our feeling state and state of mind. However, the word emotion
has a deeper meaning and is different from affect which is used to describe
our temporary mood states. The interaction between the mind and body and
how they influence each other has been well established. In the present Unit,
we will strive to study more details about our emotions and how they impact
our state of well-being.
Objectives
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:-
 Understand emotions and how we perceive them;
 Identify the state of well-being as well as its various dimensions;
 Analyse the relationship between our body and our emotions; and

20  Discuss how we can better control our emotions to enhance well-being.

 Emotions and Well-being
7.2 EMOTIONS
7.2.1 Definition and Meaning of Emotions
The word emotion is commonly used in our day-to-day communication, often
interchangeably with the words mood, feeling, affect or state of mind. However,
the word emotion, derived from the French word, émouvoir, means a complex
psychological and physiological phenomenon involving an individual’s state of
mind and how it interacts between that individual and the respective environment.
Emotions are feelings that generally have both psychological and cognitive elements
which influence behaviour. These have the following essential characteristics:
 Physiological changes within our body (shift in heart rate, blood pressure,
etc.)
 Subjective cognitive states (personal experience that we label as emotions)
 Expressive behaviours (outward signs of the internal reaction)
Emotions are triggered by external events and can be elicited by a wide
variety of stimuli. It is a subjective response usually accompanied by a
physiological change that is interpreted by an individual, readies the individual
towards some action and has associated with it, a change in behaviour. For
example, people may cry when they are sad and laugh when they are happy.
There are some emotions which are considered universal across all cultures and
geographical boundaries like grief, fear, anger, joy, trust, disgust, anticipation and
surprise. Emotions can be described as having two main types:
 Affect : Emotion is short lived emotional response to an idea or event
 Mood : Emotion is sustained and pervasive emotional response
It is no surprise that our feeling state affects our thinking as well as our behaviour.
In this Unit, we will understand, to begin with, what are the different components
of emotions and how do we come to understand our emotions. Following this we
will learn the finer interactions between emotions and our state of wellness.
7.2.2 Components of Emotions
Frijda (1986) suggested that an intense emotion has at least the following six
components:
1. Subjective experience of the emotion i.e. the feelings associated with the
emotions
2. Internal bodily reactions, particularly those involving the autonomic
nervous system
3. Collection of thoughts and beliefs (cognitions) that accompany the
emotion and seem to come to mind automatically
4. Facial expression
5. Global reaction to the emotion which may influence one’s outlook to the
world
6. Action tendencies associated with the emotion
All these components come together to create a particular emotion and have
an influence on another. For example, if you believe that a shopkeeper is
cheating you, you will become angry; but if you already enter the situation angry
then you will become even more angry. 21
Positive Psychology 7.2.3 Functions of Emotions
Besides adding more feeling to our thoughts and perception of ourselves and the
environment, emotions also perform important functions. Some are enlisted as
follows:
 Preparing us for action: Emotions act as a link between events in the
external environment and behavioural responses that an individual makes.
They act as stimulus for developing responses in given situations. For
example, when we see a dog charging at us, the emotion of fear, evokes
the response to run from the situation.
 Shaping our future behaviour: Emotions promote learning of
information that will help us in making appropriate responses in the
future. For example, after having unpleasant experiences at a shop, the
likelihood that we will return to the same would be reduced.
 Helping us to regulate social interaction: Emotions aid in verbal and
non-verbal communication by helping the listener/observer understand
what we are experiencing.
7.2.4 Theories of Emotions
The nature and experience of emotions has been attempted to be understood
across various research studies. Some of the theories explaining the sequence
of events in emotional states are as follows:
1. James-Lange Theory: According to this theory, we experience emotions
as a result of the physiological changes producing specific sensations.

Eliciting  Bodily Changes  Perception of

Event Emotions

a) We perceive the situation that will produce the emotion;

b) We react to the situation;
c) We notice our reaction.
2. Cannon Bard Theory: According to this theory, felt emotions and bodily
reactions are independent events and are triggered simultaneously. We
first perceive potential emotion producing situations in the external world,
then lower brain areas such as the hypothalamus are activated, which
then send output in two directions:

Eliciting
Event

Physiological Perception of
Arousal Emotion

i. To the internal bodily organs and the external muscles to produce

the bodily expressions of emotions; and
ii. To the cerebral cortex, where the pattern of discharge from the
lower brain areas is perceived as the felt emotion.
22
3. Schachter-Singer Theory: This theory proposes that the emotion we Emotions and Well-being
experience is due to the interpretation of an aroused bodily state. The
theorists argued that the bodily arousal for all the emotions is almost the
same and even if there are some differences in the physiological arousal,
the individual cannot perceive them. However, individuals have different
felt emotions or subjective experiences because of the differences in the
way they interpret or label the physiological state. The sequence therefore
followed is:

i) Perception of a potential emotion producing situation;

ii) An aroused bodily state which results from this perception and which is
ambiguous; and

iii) Interpretation and labelling of the bodily state so that it fits the perceived
situation.

4. Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Emotions: Proposed by Lazarus (1991),

this theory emphasizes the appraisal of information from several sources.
Since appraisal involves cognition or the processing of information from the
environment, the body and memory, this theory is a cognitive one. According
to this theory, the emotions we feel result from appraisals, or evaluations, or
information coming from the environmental situation and from within the
body. In addition, memories of past encounters with similar situations,
dispositions to respond in certain ways, and consideration of the consequences
of actions that might result from the emotional state enter into the appraisal.
The outcome of the complex appraisal of all this information is the emotion
as is felt.

Eliciting  Generalized state  Interpretation  Felt emotion

Event of bolily arousal of the arousal

Reappraisal of potentially emotion evoking situation is also important. It is a way

of coping effectively with stress. For example, being called by the principal causes
apprehension, but finding out that it was actually for offering you a position in the
Students’ Council, turns the apprehension into pleasure.
The primary emotions and their appraisals can be briefly understood as in the
following table:
EMOTION APPRAISAL EXAMPLE
Grief Loss of loved one Death of a close family member
Fear Threat Travelling alone at night in a train
Anger Obstacle Not getting good marks even after
putting in hard work
Joy Being liked Being appreciated for your good
work
Trust Group member Relying on a family member for
your safety and wellbeing
Disgust Gruesome object Watching a video of an enraged
wild animal eating an innocent prey
Anticipation New territory First day in a new school
Surprise Sudden novel object Receiving an unexpected gift
23
Positive Psychology 5. Theory of relationships amongst emotions: Plutchik (1980) proposed a
descriptive theory concerning the primary emotions and how they can be
mixed together. In order to show the relationships amongst emotions, Plutchik
proposed that they differ in three ways: i) Intensity; ii) Similarity to one
another; and iii) Polarity or oppositeness.

(two-dimensional circumplex model)

(three-dimensional circumplex model)

Fig. 7.1: Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions

Using these three dimensions, Plutchik drew a spatial model representing the
relationships among the emotions. The 8 segments of the model represent 8
primary emotions. Plutchik maintained that these primary emotions are derived
from evolutionary processes and therefore have adaptive value. Within each primary
emotion segment, the strongest varieties of emotion are at the top of the segment
with progressively weaker varieties towards the bottom. Emotions that are opposite
to each other conflict, whereas emotions that are too close to each other around
the figure are complimentary.

24
 Emotions and Well-being
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: a) Read the following questions carefully and answer in the space
provided.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this Unit.
1. What are the characteristics of emotions?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. Name the different theories of emotions.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3. Match the following emotions with their appraisals
1. Grief a. New Territory
2. Trust b. Being liked
3. Surprise c. Threat
4. Disgust d. Obstacle
5. Anger e. Gruesome object
6. Joy f. Group member
7. Fear g. Sudden novel object
8. Anticipation h. Loss of loved one

7.3 WELL-BEING
7.3.1 Definition and Meaning of Well-Being
The words well-being, life satisfaction and quality of life are often used
interchangeably. These words come to indicate the level of enjoyment and
fulfillment derived by humans from the life they live within their local economic,
cultural, social, and environmental conditions. Well-being being a more global
term indicates the state of being healthy, happy, and prosperous. It incorporates
not just physical and mental health, but also social and spiritual health. According
to the World Health Organization (2001), mental health is defined as a state of
well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential, can cope
with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able
to make a contribution to her or his community. The positive dimension of mental
health is stressed in WHO’s definition of health as contained in its constitution:
“Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” Health is conceptualized from a bio-
psycho-social approach, which views health and illness as the product of a
combination of factors including biological characteristics (e.g., genetic
predisposition), behavioural factors (e.g., lifestyle, stress, health beliefs), and social
conditions (e.g., cultural influences, family relationships, social support).
25
Positive Psychology As there is oneness of individual and his/her environment, not only internal processes
but also external processes influence one’s state of wellness.
The following are some variables that can reduce one’s state of well-being:
 Malnourishment
 Physical or mental illness of self and/or family
 Accident/trauma/handicap
 Chronically ill dependent patient in the family
 Crisis & sudden trauma in family/death of a close one
 Environmental hazards: population explosion, pollution
 Natural calamities
 Social isolation, prejudice
 Lifestyle factors (smoking, alcohol, drug and substance use, eating habits)
 Individual personality characteristics (thrill seeking, impulsivity, hostility,
emotional instability)
 High risk behaviour (road rage, unsafe sexual practices)
 Poverty and deprivation
 Hazardous occupation
 Job stress
 Inner turmoil, frustrations, conflict of motives, failed goal achievement

7.3.2 Dimensions of Well-Being

Well-being is not a uni-dimensional concept but a multifaceted holistic
understanding of an individual’s level of wellness. It comprises of the following
dimensions:
1. Physical well-being: It is defined as the absence of pain and injury and
receiving appropriate nutrition so as not to limit an individual in any
field of social, occupational or vocational involvement. It is reduced by
illness, stressful work leading to fatigue and bodily aches.
2. Psychological well-being: It is defined as being in a state free of stress
and worry and being in a positive frame of mind. This dimension is
assessed according to the patients’ level of coping, happiness, self-concept
and self worth and life satisfaction. Optimism and hardiness or resilience
in times of stress is a hallmark of a psychologically healthy person.
3. Social well-being: It is understood as the satisfaction derived out of
being in a healthy and purposeful relationship with immediate family and
other social relationships. It is enhanced by receiving support, help,
cooperation and motivation from family members, friends and other
social support and networking groups. The social support and physical
health are two very important factors that help the overall well-being of
the individual. A general theory that has been drawn from many researches
26
 over the past few decades postulates that social support essentially predicts Emotions and Well-being
the outcome of physical and mental health for everyone. There are six criteria
of social support that researchers use to measure the level of overall social
support available for the specific person or situation (Cutrona , Russell, &
Rose, 1986). These six criteria are outlined below:
 The amount of attachment provided from a lover or spouse.
 The level of social integration that the individuals involved with; it usually
comes from a group of people or friends.
 The assurance of worth from others such as positive reinforcement that
could inspire and boost the self-esteem.
 The reliable alliance support that is provided from others, which means
that the individual knows they can depend on receiving support from
family members whenever it was needed.
 The assurance of support given to the individual from a higher figure such
as a teacher or parent plays an integral role.
 The opportunity for nurturance. It means the person would get some
social enhancement by having children of their own and providing a
nurturing experience.
Adolescents could develop some kinds of sensitive feelings, which may
impact on their health if they do not get adequate social attention from
others. They may become involved in an unfortunate situation that makes
them feel overwhelmed or awkward. The adolescent is still developing,
and could easily experience some strain to their emotion if no help is
immediately available. Anxiety and depression are two main psychological
disorders that often can be seen among the adolescents. For adolescents,
family support is the most important element in their lives. As part of
their growth experience, adolescents usually expect a lot of things from
their parents. Inadequate support from the parents is likely to increase the
chances of depression among adolescents. This occurs because adolescents
usually become confused when they expect to get plenty of help and positive
reinforcement from their parents, but it does not happen (Stice, Ragan, &
Randall, 2004).
4. Spiritual well-being: This dimension is understood as an individual’s state
of hopefulness for the future and idea of right and wrong. It also incorporates
faith in self, in God or a higher power and dedication of one’s life to a
purpose in life.

7.4 INTER-RELATIONS BETWEEN EMOTIONS

AND WELL-BEING
Emotions and well-being cannot be isolated and studied. In one way they can be
understood as complementing one another and in another can be understood as
byproducts of each other. For example, we can understand the complementing
relationship between feeling happy emotionally when we recover from an illness,
i.e. gain physical well-being. In this way, emotions present as avenues through
which one can express the state of one’s well-being and consequently communicate
27
Positive Psychology unmet desires. For example, an individual would experience the emotion of grief
when losing a loved one and through this grief reaction would help cope with the
loss.

Emotions and well-being can also be understood as emotions being the byproduct
of the state of ill-health or of wellness. For instance, a disease affects an individual’s
state of psychological well-being. An individual who becomes seriously ill or
injured faces many different practical stressors. The stressors include problems
meeting medical and other bills; problems obtaining proper care when home from
the hospital; obstacles to caring for dependents; having one’s sense of self-reliance
compromised; gaining a new, unwanted identity as a sick person; and so on.
These stressors can lead to feelings of depression and reduced self-esteem, thereby
further compromising one’s well-being.

Even though on the surface emotions may appear to be a completely psychological

construct, there is a biological counterpart to them as well. Let us try to understand
that in the following sub-section.

7.4.1 Facial Expressions and the Facial Feedback

Hypothesis
An individual’s emotional state can be expressed not only through the verbal
delivery of the thought, but also through non verbal channels of communication.
These include facial expressions, eye contact, body movements, tone of voice
etc. Research suggests that the basic emotions of anger, fear, sadness, disgust,
happiness and surprise are represented on the human face from an early age.
However, the interpretation of these expressions is influenced by the situational
context in which these occur.

The idea that facial expressions in addition to their communicative function

also contribute to our experience of emotions is called the facial feedback
hypothesis (Tomkins, 1962). According to this, the feedback that we receive
about our facial expressions combines with the other components of emotion
to produce an intense emotional reaction. This implies that if you smile and
hold the smile for a few seconds, you will begin to feel happier.

7.4.2 Role of Nervous System in Emotions

The autonomic nervous system consists of many nerves leading from the
brain and spinal cord out to the smooth muscles of the various organs of the
body, to the heart, to the glands and to the blood vessels serving both to the
exterior and interior of the body. The autonomic nervous system has two
parts. The first; the sympathetic nervous system, is active during aroused
states and prepares the body for extensive action by increasing the heart rate,
raising the blood pressure, raising the blood sugar levels and raising the level
of certain hormones like epinephrine and norepinephrine in the blood. This
part of the nervous system is active during emotions like fear and anger.
These changes help the body deal with threatening situations and therefore
the pattern of activity in these emotions is known as the “emergence reaction”
or “flight or fright response”. The second; the parasympathetic nervous system,
tends to be active during calm and relaxed emotional states. This is responsible
for conserving the body’s store of energy.
28
7.4.3 Reactions to Being in an Emotional State Emotions and Well-being

Some reactions that an individual experiences could be specific to the emotion

being experienced (approaching someone who looks happy) and some could be
more general. However, being in an emotional state can:

1. Determine what we attend to and learn: We tend to pay more attention

to the events that are congruent to our mood and hence learn more about
them. One’s mood during learning increases the availability of memories that
fit that mood, and such memories would be easier to relate to new material
that also fits that mood.

2. Determine what kinds of judgements we make about the world: Our

mood can affect our evaluation of other people and our own selves. It can
be extended towards judging a friend, our own material possessions, our
health, our achievements and possibilities towards a better or worse future.

Emotions not only cause general reactions, but also specific action tendencies; for
example, we laugh when happy or become aggressive when angry. Out of the
many action tendencies, one of the most studied is that of anger or aggression as
how an individual or society reacts. In the present Unit, studying this aspect is
even more important as it has a direct effect on one’s well-being. When in an
angry state, the individual not only experiences aggressive thoughts, but is also
charged with bodily arousal, triggering him to react impulsively. When unable to
manage these, the individual’s health and interpersonal relations are affected. But
what causes aggression? Once this is resolved, management of this emotional
state becomes more easily possible, which in turn can directly affect their state of
wellness. A common understanding of the cause of aggression derives from the
frustration-aggression hypothesis, which holds that whenever a person’s efforts
to reach their goal is blocked, an aggressive drive is induced that motivates
behaviour to injure the obstacle (person or object) causing the frustration (Dollard
et al. 1939). Some other theorists propose that instead of being an instinct as
above, aggression is a learned response. The more often it is reinforced, the more
likely it is to occur. A person blocked in achieving his/her goal, experiences an
unpleasant emotion. The response that this emotion elicits will differ, depending
upon the kinds of responses the individual has learned to use in coping with
stressful situations. The chosen response will be the one that relieved frustration
most successfully in the past. In conditions when the coping response fails or
proves to be inadequate, the individual responds through lowering the state of
physical (poor sleep, poor immunity, vulnerable to cardiac illness, stomach ulcers,
aches and pains), psychological (negative thinking, irritability, excessive emotionality,
difficulty in attention and concentration, poor decision making and problem solving),
social (reduced social interaction, staying occupied in solitary activities, not aligning
with primary support systems) and spiritual (unable to find faith in oneself or
anchor within or outside) well-being. Hence, we can now see a direct relationship
between our emotional state and our overtly observable behaviour, the processes
that the emotions trigger in our behaviour and how it influences our health. Let us
take a closer look at the interplay of emotions and health now.

29
Positive Psychology
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: a) Read the following questions carefully and answer in the space
provided.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this Unit.
1. Briefly explain the concept of well-being.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. What are the dimensions of well-being?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3. Give an example explaining how emotions and well-being can be related.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

7.5 OUR BODY AND EMOTIONS

Superficially it may appear that our emotions and bodily processes are not
interlinked, but in reality, there is a strong relationship between the two. This
interaction operates not only at the level of hormonal involvement and arousal, but
also comes into play with the various emotional states that enhance or impair well-
being. Let us find out how.
7.5.1 Psycho-Physiological Disorders
Psycho-physiological disorders, also called somatoform or psychosomatic
illnesses, are categorized under mental disturbances that arise from psychological
dysfunction, disorders or difficulties which are manifested through physical
symptoms. However, these physical symptoms cannot be traced back to any
serious physical disease or origin. Nor are they under the conscious control of the
patient. These conditions are significantly correlated with psychological distress.
Stress produces specific adverse physiological reactions and direct damage to the
body. Stress damages the body indirectly by increasing unhealthy behaviours.
Stress induces unhealthy cognitions and behaviours in certain personality types,
making them vulnerable to physical illness. There has been no research suggesting
that different kind of stress created different kinds of disorders in individuals, but
it is the constitutional vulnerability of the individual that predisposes them to
30 developing the illness.
Conceptualization of Psycho-Physiological Disorders Emotions and Well-being

 These find origin in negative emotional state and failed coping strategies.
Cannon (1927) showed how different emotions produced patterns of
physiological alterations, emphasizing the importance of the autonomic network.
It is also known that certain inherited traits respond differently to certain
stimuli such as stress and anxiety, causing physical system break downs.

 Another explanation for psychosomatic disorders is that some personality

types themselves respond in vulnerable ways to contract physical symptoms.
Friedman & Rosenman (1974) introduced the concept of a coronary prone
personality, where the Type A personality type individuals who are competitive,
ambitious, work with time urgency, aggressive and hostile have a greater
predisposition towards developing psycho-physiological illness than their Type
B counterparts who are more calm and relaxed.

 Negative emotions influence our hormones and lower our immunity to several
diseases. Depression, anger, and social isolation contribute to heart diseases.
Stress on the other hand, affects asthma, digestive tract disorders and many
other physical ailments.

 The physically manifested symptoms are psychoanalytically interpreted as

social communication whose result is to avoid obligations (e.g., going to
school when the child is unable to cope with studies or adjust with classmates),
to express emotion (e.g., anger at parents), coping with failure (e.g., failing
an examination), bringing attention to unfulfilled needs (e.g., feeling neglected
after birth of younger sibling) or to symbolize a feeling or a belief (e.g., pain
in the gut).

 From the behavioural perspective, parental teaching, parental example and

the cultural norms teach some children to somatize more than the others.

Some common symptoms as presented in an individual with these disorders are

vomiting, difficulty swallowing, pain in arms and legs, abdominal pain, low back
pain, shortness of breath without exertion amongst others. Pseudoneurological
symptoms unrelated to a neurological disorder also present in the form of fainting
spells, loss of touch or pain sensation, paralysis, aphonia, deafness etc.
Psychological distress most commonly presenting as depression and anxiety with
interpersonal problems are also observed.

Some of the physical conditions associated with psychological distress

and emotional disturbances are as follows:

1. Heart disease: Psychological factors have been found to have a major role
to play in the development of heart disease. Individuals who expressed or
concealed their anger, were irritable, and complained a lot were found to be
three times more likely to develop early heart disease and five times more
likely to have a heart attack than others. Social isolation has been found to
increase the risk for an individual to develop a coronary problem, whereas
social conflict has been found to predict poor outcome of recovery for a
heart patient.
31
Positive Psychology 2. Conversion disorder: An individual suffering from this disorder experiences
impairment of ability to walk or move and is unable to use the senses in a
normal way, without any neurological basis or cause having an impact on the
physiology. Psychological factors such as stress and trauma play a major role
in this disorder. Example is a situation where a person would lose his/her
voice in a situation where he/she is afraid to speak. These symptoms may
later develop into permanent conditions such as paralysis, loss of sensation
(touch, taste), going blind or deaf amongst others.

3. Pain disorder: It is marked by severe pain and becomes the focus of the
patient’s concern. Pain disorders cover a range of patients with a variety
of ailments, including back problems, chronic headaches, muscle aches
and cramps, arthritis or pelvic pain. The source of pain is considered to
be psychological in most of these cases. Pain behaviours are reinforced
when rewarded and inhibited when punished or ignored. For example,
a child complaining of abdominal pain just before going to school on the
day of an exam, would be intensified or maintained when given attention
by others or by permission to miss the exam.
4. Hypochondriasis: It is marked by excessive fear or preoccupation with
having a serious illness that persists in spite of medical testing and
reassurance. The individual misinterprets bodily symptoms and functions.
Patients’ preoccupation result in significant distress to them and impairs
their ability to function in their personal, social, and occupational roles.
This condition is often correlated with stressful events in one’s life style.
Some theorists posit that individuals with hypochondriasis amplify their
physical symptoms stemming from the fact that they have a low threshold
or low tolerance for physical discomfort. From the behavioural perspective,
it is understood as the request for admission to the sick role made by
a person facing seemingly insurmountable and unsolvable problems. The
sick role allows the patient to not only avoid unwanted obligations and
duties, but also is rewarded with increased sympathy and understanding.
5. Body dysmorphic disorder: It is another form where the individual
becomes excessively and exaggeratedly pre-occupied with an imagined
defect in appearance. They perceive themselves as highly ugly despite a
normal or nearly normal appearance. This excessive concern in turn
significantly influences the individual’s feelings and functioning. Individuals
may tend to develop these feelings following rejection from social group
membership, individual rejection, failure and poor self confidence. Often
it is found to be co-morbid with depressive disorders.
6. Disorders of the gastrointestinal tract: These are intimately intertwined
with emotional life, past and present. For example, during depression
there is a lack of appetite, decreased salivation and intestinal peristalsis
resulting in constipation and weight loss.
7. Peptic ulcers: These are linked to psychological factors such as aggression
and stress. Stress does not directly cause an ulcer, but may serve as a
contributing factor for developing one, either by directly influencing
acid secretion that destroys the stomach lining or indirectly by engaging
the individual in poor lifestyle habits like irregular diet, smoking and
alcohol consumption.
32
8. Cancer: Although there is no direct biological evidence which suggests that Emotions and Well-being
stress or a negative emotional state leads to production of cancerous cells,
but research indicates that negative emotional state predisposes an individual
towards developing illnesses like cancer, and the tumour growth is more
rapid in the stressed individual than the non stressed one.
Other psycho-physiological disorders include asthma, anorexia nervosa, acne,
blisters, headaches, hypertension, disturbances in urination and menstruation
etc. Another short term symptom is diarrhoea resulting from changes in the
usual life style such as marriage, moving into a hostel, etc.
7.5.2 Management of Emotions to Foster Well-Being
There clearly are linkages between our lifestyle, our thinking, our emotions
and our health. Stress is correlated with poor well-being. However, to be
able to better cope with stress, one needs to have a clear understanding
about what is stress and what is a stressor. Any situation or event that
exceeds our coping resources is termed stressful. So what may appear to be
very easy and manageable by your friend, may be a source of immense stress
for you. According to Lazarus (1991), stress is produced when:
1. The individual perceives the result as an important determinant of their
success
2. The individual perceives it as taxing or exceeding their ability to prepare
for and complete it successfully
3. The individual feels inadequacy in the personal resources and strategies
available to deal with the event
Let us now try to understand how we can enhance our well-being by managing
our negative emotional state more adaptively. Emotion Regulation means to
be able to properly regulate one’s emotions. It refers to the processes by
which individual’s influence which emotions they have, the intensity of these
emotions and how these are expressed. It is a complex process that involves
the initiating, inhibiting, or modulating the following aspects of functioning:
 internal feeling states (i.e. the subjective experience of emotion),
 emotion-related cognitions (e.g. thought reactions to a situation),
 emotion-related physiological processes (e.g. heart rate, hormonal, or
other physiological reactions), and
 emotion-related behaviour (e.g. actions or facial expressions related to
emotion).
Emotion regulation skills include the ability to:
1. Recognize that you are having an emotional response
2. Understand what the emotional response is
3. Accept your emotional responses (rather than reject them or react to
them with fear)
4. Access strategies that allow you to reduce the intensity of the emotion
when needed
33
Positive Psychology 5. Engage in goal-directed behaviour when upset

6. Control impulsive behaviours when upset

An individual’s well-being can be enhanced by applying emotional regulation skills

in combination with the following:

1. Cognitions and perceptions: It is our cognitions or our thinking and

perception that mediates an event and the emotions that we experience.
For instance, putting on a little weight can be a small setback for one, while
it may become a major issue of stress for another, depending upon how we
appraise the situation. The degree of control individuals prefer to have in
their lives, as well as the amount of control they perceive they have over
specific stressors, also influence their perception of threat.

A simple strategy that can be used in order to appraise adaptively would be

to engage in positive self statements, like, and “I can solve this problem”, and
“I have the strength and the wisdom to overcome this issue”.

2. Coping: Coping has been defined by some as a multidimensional process

involving cognitive, behavioural, and emotional efforts to deal with
stressful events that create demands on the individual. Coping strategies
refer to the specific efforts, both behavioural and psychological, that
people employ to master, tolerate, reduce, or minimize stressful events.

Two general coping strategies have been distinguished: problem-solving

strategies are efforts to do something active to alleviate stressful
circumstances, whereas emotion-focused coping strategies involve efforts
to regulate the emotional consequences of stressful or potentially stressful
events. An additional distinction that is often made in the coping literature
is between active and avoidant coping strategies. Active coping strategies
are either behavioural or psychological responses designed to change the
nature of the stressor itself or how one thinks about it, whereas avoidant
coping strategies lead people into activities (such as alcohol use) or
mental states (such as withdrawal) that keep them from directly addressing
stressful events. Generally speaking, active coping strategies, whether
behavioural or emotional, are thought to be better ways to deal with
stressful events, and avoidant coping strategies appear to be a
psychological risk factor or marker for adverse responses to stressful
life events (Holahan & Moos, 1987). Research indicates that people use
both types of strategies to combat most stressful events (Folkman &
Lazarus, 1980). The predominance of one type of strategy over another
is determined, in part, by personal style (e.g., some people cope more
actively than others) and also by the type of stressful event; for example,
people typically employ problem-focused coping to deal with potential
controllable problems such as work-related problems and family-related
problems, whereas stressors perceived as less controllable, such as certain
kinds of physical health problems, prompt more emotion-focused coping.

3. Anger management: Anger is a primary emotion and thereby has

functional properties, for instance, standing up to injustice. As an emotion,
it is not negative, but how it mediates our reactions can create a negative
emotional state. To be angry or not depends upon how we appraise the
34
 situation. Beyond that there are some simple steps that we can take so as Emotions and Well-being
to not view situations and people from a negative angry perspective, but be
able to distance ourselves and then deal with the situation in a balanced
manner.

ANGER MANAGEMENT TIPS

 Become aware of the frequency of anger outbursts and its signs in your life

 Maintain a journal in which you document situations/people that make you

angry

 Take a deep breath and relax yourself

 Distract yourself towards something that is enjoyable and relaxing

 Count backwards from 10 to 0

 Think about what made you angry instead of thinking how dare that happen

 Express feelings clearly and honestly to the person at whom your anger is
directed

 Clearly express the point of disagreement without impinging on others’

right to difference in opinion

 Empty chair technique: express angry feelings in front of an empty chair in

a constructive, non self-defeating manner

4. Conflict resolution: The clash of desires or goals creates emotional

disturbances, which further affect our personal, professional and interpersonal
domains. Hence conflict resolution is an important skill one must be armed
with in order to gain mastery over one’s sense of well-being. There are
different kinds of conflict that one may come across:

a) Approach-approach conflict: When an individual has to make a choice

between two seemingly likeable alternatives (watch T.V. or play on the
computer)

b) Approach-avoidance conflict: It appears to be an easy choice to

make between what one would like to do and want to avoid to do, but
these are difficult; for example, whether to study or play before an
exam. Even though play appears to be a more likeable option, the
conflict would arise.

c) Avoidance-avoidance conflict: When an individual needs to make a

choice between two aversive conditions.

To resolve conflict, the first step is to not avoid the conflict but face it. We need
to be able to decide what goal we are trying to achieve through this conflict. We
can also be aware whether the choice is being made according to what introduces
short term pleasant emotion only or even long term benefit.

35
Positive Psychology
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: a) Read the following questions carefully and answer in the space
provided.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this Unit.
1. Give 3 reasons explaining psychosomatic disorders.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. Name any three psychosomatic disorders.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3. Name any three emotion regulation skills.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4. What are the different types of conflict situations?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

7.6 ROLE OF FAMILY IN ENHANCING WELL-

BEING
A family is the basic unit where an individual lives in an enmeshment of roles and
relationships. The family as a structural and functional unit takes care of basic
needs of the individuals and also educates about the societal norms and cultural
practices. In many cases, family circumstances and relationships can serve as a
source of stress, but more often than not, it provides a buffer protecting the
members from stress leading to breakdown of functioning. As a primary social
support system, it allows successful coping with stressors through development of
confiding relationships and allowing for self disclosure about the effect of stressors
on one’s life. Family helps enhance both physical and psychological well-being,
36 helping individuals meet the basic needs of survival by making available food,
clothing and shelter; security needs by having the unit support an individual through Emotions and Well-being
ups and downs; and individual growth needs by allowing for education, recreation,
creative thinking and development into an independent fully functioning individual
contributing to society. Research supports that when faced with stress, turmoil or
frustration of needs, having a close and confiding social unit where the individual
can share accomplishments, defeats and mistakes without being judged helps the
individual maintain self confidence and solve problems more effectively.

7.7 EMOTIONS, RELIGION AND HEALTH

“Religion” can be considered a collection of beliefs and practices that are external
expressions of spiritual experience. These expressions can be organizationally
based or private, but are usually grounded in a collective tradition. “Spirituality”
can be considered an orientation toward or experiences with the transcendent,
existential, or sacred dimensions of life. That which is transcendent or sacred is
considered as something beyond oneself, whether it be conceptualized as a divine
being, higher power, nature, spirit, or the ultimate ground of being. It is possible
for people to engage in religious activities independent of having spiritual experiences,
just as some people consider themselves intensely spiritual without being religious.
The relationship between religion and emotion is a long and intimate one, for
religion has always been a source of intense emotional experience. Silberman
(2003) suggests three ways in which religion and spirituality influence emotion:
1. Religion prescribes appropriate and inappropriate emotion and the extent
of their intensity;
2. Beliefs about the nature and attributes about God may give rise to
specific emotions as well as influence overall emotional well-being; and
3. Religion offers the opportunity to experience a uniquely powerful emotional
experience of closeness to the sacred.
Correlational studies of religious or spiritual involvement and health outcomes
have shown a positive association with longer life; less cardiovascular disease;
less hypertension; more engagement in health promoting behaviours; decreased
risk of depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and suicide; better coping with
illness; and better health-related quality of life. Sacred emotions like gratitude,
awe, reverence and hope motivate the inner self to overcome difficulties
without grudge, feel undefeated in times of crisis and help the individual not
feel alone and uncared for. These emotions motivate the individual to engage
in pro-social behaviour which further enhances the sense of psychological,
social and spiritual well-being.
Emotional regulation that we studied earlier as well is influenced by one’s
religious state. For instance, forgiveness is a religiously based technique
which has been found to be powerful in regulating negative emotions. Religion
lends a spiritual meaning to the act of forgiveness and religious role models
facilitate this act. This further helps in reducing anger, sadness and overall
negative arousal.
Mindfulness based techniques are also increasingly gaining influence in bringing
about mental health benefits. It involves being more conscious of what is
happening in the here and now. Research indicates that those who are more
mindful, are more attuned to their emotions. 37
Positive Psychology
7.8 LET US SUM UP
Emotions form a very central aspect of our human experience. They comprise
bodily changes, associated thinking and outward reaction to events. They have a
very strong influence on our physical and psychological sense of wellness where
the body and mind share a reciprocal relationship. A negative emotional state and
poor ability to cope with stress predisposes an individual towards developing
physiological disorders with no organic basis. These can be prevented and be
coped with by implementing emotional regulation skills, coping skills, anger
management and conflict resolution skills. How we feel and act stems from what
we believe in, which in the larger milieu is built in through religious faith and family
functioning.

7.9 GLOSSARY
Affect : Short lived emotional response to an idea
or event
Anxiety : Being in a state of worry or concern
Appraisal : To give meaning or reason
Cognition : The higher mental processes by which we
understand the world, process information,
make judgements and decisions, and
communicate knowledge to others
Coping : The efforts to control, reduce, or learn to
tolerate the threats that lead to stress
Depression : Clinically significant low mood state,
disinterest in ordinarily pleasurable activities,
psychomotor retardation, often associated
with physical symptoms as well
Emotions : Feelings that generally have both physiological
and cognitive elements and that influence
behaviour
Health : State of being well in mind or/and body
Hypothesis : Proposition made as a basis for reasoning;
without supposition of its truth
Malnutrition : Dietary condition resulting from the absence
of healthy foods
Mental health : State of well-being in which every individual
realizes his or her own potential, can cope
with the normal stresses of life, can work
productively and fruitfully, and is able to
make a contribution to her or his community
Mood : Sustained and pervasive emotional response

38
Nervous system : Body’s network of specialized cells that Emotions and Well-being
transmit nerve impulses between parts of the
body
Perception : Apprehend with the mind; understand
Physiological : Of concerning the functions of living beings
and their parts
Religion : Particular system of faith and worship
Spirituality : Concerning the spirit as opposed to matter
Stress : Physical/ mental strain or distress

7.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1.  Physiological changes within our body (shift in heart rate, blood pressure,
etc.)
 Subjective cognitive states (personal experience that we label as emotions)
 Expressive behaviours (outward signs of the internal reaction)
2. James Lange theory, Cannon-Bard Theory, Schachter-Singer Theory, Theory
of cognitive appraisal, theory of relationships amongst emotions.
3. 1h, 2f, 3g, 4e, 5d, 6b, 7c, 8a
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. Well-being refers to the level of enjoyment and fulfillment derived by humans
from the life they live within their local economic, cultural, social, and
environmental conditions.
2. Physical well-being, psychological well-being, social well-being and spiritual
well-being
3. When an individual is physically ill, for ex, meets an accident or develops
chronic illness, it is accompanied by a negative feeling state. And when
an individual is very joyful, (s)he is more active and work productivity
is also higher.
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1. Failed coping strategies, personality types- type A, excessive somatic
preoccupation in families predispose some individuals to somatize more
than others.
2. Coronary (heart) problems, ulcers, bodily pains (headaches/stomach aches)
3. Correct appraisal of the situations, effective coping strategies and effective
anger management skills.
4. Approach-approach conflict, approach-avoidance conflict, avoidance-
avoidance conflict.
39
Positive Psychology
7.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. What do we understand by ‘emotions’? What are the components and func-
tions of emotions.

2. Brieflyexplain the theories of emotions?

3. What is the meaning of well-being? What are the factors that influence well-
being?

4. What role do emotions play in enhancing/reducing the well-being of an indi-

vidual?

5. Outline some strategies for better management of emotions to enhance well-

being.

6. Does religion serve to influence emotions and well-being in any way? How?

7.12 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Cannon, W. B. (1927) The James-Lange theory of emotion: A critical examination
and an alternative theory. American Journal of Psychology ;39:10-124.

Cutrona, C., Russell, D., & Rose, J. (1986). Social support and adaptation to
stress by the elderly. Psychology and Aging, 1, 47-54.

Dollard, J.D., Miller, L.W., Neal E., Mowrer, O.H., and Sears, Robert R.
Frustration and Aggression. New Haven:Yale University Press, 1939.

Ekman, P. & Davidson, R.J. (1994). The nature of Emotions: Fundamental

Questions. Oxford University Press

Feldman, R.S. (1997). Understanding Psychology. Tata McGraw Hill.

Folkman S, Lazarus, RS. An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community

sample. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour,1980; 21: 219-239.

Friedman, M. & Rosenman, R. H. (1974). Type A Behaviour and your Heart.

New York: Knopf.

Frijda, N.H. (1986). The Emotions. Cambridge University Press.

Greene, J.O. & Burleson, B.R. (2003). Handbook of communication and social
interaction skills. Routledge.

Holahan CJ, Moos RH. (1987). Risk, resistance, and psychological distress: A
longitudinal analysis with adults and children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,
1987; 96: 3-13.

Lazarus, R.S. (1991). Emotion and Adaptation. New York, NY: Oxford University
Press

Plutchik, R. (1980), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol. 1. Theories

of emotion, 1, New York: Academic.

40 Silberman, I., ed. (2003). Religion as a meaning system. J. Soc. Issues (In Press).
Stice, E., Ragan, J., & Randall, P. (2004). Prospective relations between social Emotions and Well-being
support and depression: Differential direction of effects for parent and peer support?
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 155-159.

Tomkins, S. S. (1962), Affect Imagery Consciousness: Volume I, The Positive

Affects. London: Tavistock.

World Health Report 2001 - Mental Health: New Understanding, New Hope,
World Health Organization.

41
Positive Psychology
UNIT 8 PROMOTING WELL-BEING
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Definition of Well-Being
8.3 Aspects of Well-Being
8.3.1 Psychological Well-Being
8.3.2 Emotional Well-Being and Social Well-Being
8.3.3 Physical Well-Being
8.3.4 Cognitive Well-Being

8.4 Factors Affecting Well-Being

8.4.1 Life Stages
8.4.2 Personality Factors
8.4.3 Individual Differences
8.4.4 Stress
8.4.5 Healthy Values and Goal Attainment

8.5 Assessment of Well-Being

8.6 Strategies to Promote Well-Being
8.6.1 Cognitive Rrestructuring
8.6.2 Behaviour Modification
8.6.3 Relaxation Exercises
8.6.4 Social Support
8.6.5 Time Management
8.6.6 Art
8.6.7 Journal Writing
8.6.8 Humour
8.6.9 Music
8.6.10 Exercise and Nutrition

8.7 Promoting Well-Being in Different Populations

8.7.1 Promoting Well-Being in Children and Adolescents
8.7.2 Work Environment and Well-Being
8.7.3 Well-Being and Special Population
8.7.4 Well-Being Among the Elderly

8.8 Let Us Sum Up

8.9 Glossary
8.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
8.11 Unit End Questions

42 8.12 Further Readings and References

 Promoting Well-being
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The goal of positive psychology is to “learn how to build the qualities that help
individuals and communities not just endure and survive but also flourish”.
(Seligman, 2002)
Positive psychology emphasizes on well-being, satisfaction, happiness, interpersonal
skills, perseverance, talent, wisdom, and personal responsibility. It is concerned
with understanding what makes life worth living; with helping people become
more self-organized and self-directed.
The concept of well-being originated from positive psychology.
Objectives
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
 Outline the various aspects of well-being;
 Identify factors affecting well-being; and
 Discuss strategies to promote well-being.

8.2 DEFINITION OF WELL-BEING

Well-being is a state of human existence in which a person’s basic needs are
adequately met and satisfied. It is a broader concept, which deals with many
aspects such as self confidence, adjustment, self esteem, level of aspiration, self
concept etc.
Well-being is categorically defined as a positive state of human being which
consists of pleasure or happiness and lies in the actualization of human potentials.
The Indian philosophical thought endorses the assumption that the natural state
of the human being is positive. They call it “sat-chit-ananda” – meaning the
real internal bliss. The striving of a human being is toward actualization and
sustenance of this state. Thus, there seems to be unanimity in understanding
the natural positive state of human being.
If the natural human state is well-being, then why and how does one lose it?
Most of us are born healthy, and made sick as a result of personal misbehaviour
and environmental conditions. Viewed from the perspective of behavioural
science, the abilities of an individual are optimally manifested only when there
is appropriate action and interaction with a congenial environment. The actions,
in turn are initiated and directed by the internal factors related to the individual’s
personality and the external factors such as reinforcements. Thus the consequence
of the synergy between the personality and environmental factors may be viewed
as the determinant of the degree of well-being in an individual. It subscribes
to the assumption that well-being is a natural state in human beings while variation
of this state is only of degree. This basic assumption of ‘wellness’ as the natural
state is the very cause for neglect of the ‘study of wellness’ for long.
Well-being is a complex construct. Just as positive affect is not the opposite
of negative effect, well-being is not the absence of mental illness (Ryan & Deci,
2001). Well-being consists of three factors, viz. life satisfaction, presence of
positive mood and absence of negative mood where evidently the latter two
are not mutually exclusive.
43
Positive Psychology
8.3 ASPECTS OF WELL-BEING
8.3.1 Psychological Well-Being:
It Includes:

Self-acceptance Possess positive attitude toward the self;

accept multiple aspects of self; feel
positive about life.
Personal growth Have feeling of continuous development
and potential and openness to new
experience; feel increasingly
knowledgeable and effective.
Purpose in life Have goals and a sense of direction
in life; hold beliefs that give purpose to
life.
Environmental mastery Feel competent and able to manage a
complex environment; choose or create
personally suitable contexts.
Autonomy Be self-determining, independent and
regulate behaviours-internally; resist social
pressures to think and act in certain
ways; evaluate self by personal standards.

Positive relations with others Have warm, satisfying, trusting

relationships and are concerned about
others’ welfare; have strong empathy,
affection and intimacy; understand give-
and-take of human relationships.
Social acceptance Have positive attitudes toward people;
acknowledge others and generally accept
people, despite others’ sometimes
complex and perplexing behaviour.
Social actualization Care about and believe society is positive,
think society has potential to grow
positively.
Social contribution Feel they have something valuable to
give to society; think their daily activities
are valued by their community.
Social coherence See a social world that is intelligible,
logical and predictable; care about and
are interested in society and community.
Social integration Feel part of community; think they belong
to and feel supported; share
commonalities with community.

44
8.3.2 Social and Emotional Well-Being Promoting Well-being

Social and emotional well-being encompasses multiple elements:

 The development of emotional understanding and regulation;
 The ability to cope with stressors;
 The development of autonomy and trust;
 The development of self-system, including identity, self-concept, and self-
esteem; the development of empathy and sympathy;
 The formation of positive social relationships with parents, siblings, and
peers.
This group represents a core set of essential strengths of social and emotional
well-being as defined by the literature and experts in the field.
A striking commonality between the elements of this domain is the influence
that each has on the other and how each can be promoted by the others. For
example, a child’s ability to regulate his or her internal emotional reactions is
a key contributor to the quality of relationships with parents, siblings, and peers.
At the same time, loving and supportive relationships with parents, siblings and
peers help to increase feelings of security and happiness and reduce the
prevalence of psychological problems such as depression and anxiety.
Another common theme of socio-emotional well-being is that the elements of
this domain can promote and be promoted by the core elements of both the
cognitive and physical domain. For example, warm and responsive parenting
styles promote the development of trust and autonomy, which foster feelings
of security within the infant which in turn lead to increased exploration of his
or her physical environment. Context also plays an important role in the
development of the elements of social emotional well-being.
Each of the elements in the socio-emotional domain can be promoted through
various interventions. More specifically, social and emotional well-being can be
promoted by individual characteristics, interpersonal relationships, and environmental
factors.
8.3.3 Physical Well-Being
Key components of physical well-being include the following:
 Good nutrition,
 Preventive health care,
 Physical activity,
 Safety and security,
 Substance abuse prevention.
These elements of physical well-being also contribute to both the socio-emotional
development and the cognitive development. Physical well-being is affected by
the contexts in which people live.
Many factors including the family’s and societal system’s values, community
security, availability and accessibility of a public health system, institutional
practices, environmental quality, accessibility of basic services, and economic 45
Positive Psychology considerations affect an individual’s well-being. Based on this information, it is
imperative to consider the entire context in which an individual lives to ensure
that their physical well-being is supported and nurtured.

8.3.4 Cognitive Well-Being

“Cognition refers to the processes of perceiving, remembering, conceiving,
judging, and reasoning in order to obtain and use knowledge, and communication
refers to skills that permit the exchange of thoughts, wishes, and feelings so
necessary to developing and maintaining social relationships with others”
(Bornstein, 2003). These skills are essential for adaptation to one’s environment,
maintenance of health, and participation in productive activities that will improve
social and environmental interactions.

It is inferred that as cognitive elements develop and improve, overall well-being

will also improve. Consequently, it is important to acknowledge that the cognitive
elements are dependent upon and can be positively impacted by the external
influences to which an individual is exposed.

In short, it is important to pay attention to both objective measures of cognitive

skills and subjective evaluations of those same skills to determine cognitive well-
being (Bornstein, 2003).

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note: a) Read the following questions carefully and answer in the space
provided.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this Unit.
1. Well-Being is defined as the positive state of human beings which consists
of _____________ and lies on the __________ of human potentials.

2. What are the different types of well-being?

...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3. What do you understand by social actualization?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

46
 Promoting Well-being
8.4 FACTORS AFFECTING WELL-BEING
8.4.1 Life Stages
Society today is driven by competition and is putting pressure on the people.
This results in individuals of all ages experiencing stress from one source or
the other. There are certain crucial stages in life which are more prone to
vulnerability. One such stage is the late adolescence and young adulthood stages.
Youth and particularly students require not only career guidance but also
counselling in promoting well-being.

8.4.2 Personality Factors

Research suggests that the level of well-being is determined by stable individual

characteristics i.e. personality traits.

Cloninger (2006) reported that personality traits of self-directedness,

cooperativeness and self-transcendence are each essential for well-being.

Research also suggests that the level of well-being is determined by stable self-
esteem (Sharma, Sharma and Yadav, 2004) and general mental health.

Hariharan (1995) enlisted three personality factors that effect well-being:

1) General disposition to anticipate

2) Flexible coping style

3) Judicious use of social support

8.4.3 Individual Differences

Not all activities will help a particular person become happier. People have
varying values, interests, strength and indications which predispose them to benefit
more from some activities than others. Thus one act that makes one individual
very happy and promotes well-being might not do so for another; therefore
emphasizing on the role of person-activity fit.

8.4.4 Stress

Stress and adverse environment with variation in degree, is a universal

phenomenon. However, well-being is not solely determined by the environmental
factors such as opportunities and reward, as the organism is not a passive
respondent to the environmental stimuli. What finally decides the coping
mechanism of the individual and the subsequent attainment of well-being is the
individual’s appraisal of the situation vis-à-vis his/her autonomy, competence and
relatedness to handle the environment appropriately so as to restore the
homeostasis and sustain the state of well-being. This is the crucial aspect that
distinguishes between those who are vulnerable and those who remain invulnerable.

The invulnerable or resilient are those who sustain and promote well-being by
manifesting optimal functioning despite multiple adversities in the environment. 47
Positive Psychology The vulnerable are those who become dysfunctional or manifest inadequate
functioning owing to the disadvantaged environmental conditions.

Table 8.1: Well-being of Invulnerable in Adverse Environment

Wellness
Presence Absence

Environment Positive Advantaged Laidback

Conditions Negative Invulnerables Vulnerables

The presence of psychological well-being amidst negative environmental conditions

(where invulnerables are located) and absence of well-being despite positive
environmental conditions (Laidback) are the outcomes that have led to greater
research in well-being.

8.4.5 Healthy Values and Goal Attainment

Some values, motives and goals are inherently positively associated with well-
being, while others might have a negative impact on well-being. Well-being also
results from psychological need satisfaction.

There are two kinds of motives — intrinsic and extrinsic.

Table 2 : Distrinction between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motiones

Intrinsic Motives Extrinsic Motives

Stem from basic Derived from the need to obtain other

psychological needs people’s approval, admiration and praise

Reflect “psychological” Derived from the need to avoid social

growth punishment

Essential to well-being Do not promote well-being

8.5 ASSESSMENT OF WELL-BEING

The common and most usual method of measuring well-being is through self-
report surveys in which the respondent himself/herself judges and reports about
his/her life satisfaction and the frequency of his/her pleasant/unpleasant emotions.

Subjective Well-being Inventory (SUBI): The SUBI (Sell and Nagpal, 1992)
is a 40 items instrument that assesses subjective well-being of the respondents
on 11 factorial dimensions and has been standardized on adult Indian population.
These 11 factors include, General well-being, positive affect [GWB-PA],
expectation-achievement congruence [EAC], confidence in coping [CC],
Transcendence [Trans], Family group support [FGS], Social support [SS],
Primary group concern [PGC], Inadequate mental mastery [IMM], perceived
ill-health [PIH], Deficiency in social contacts [DSC], and General well-being
48 – negative affect [GWB-NA].
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS): The life satisfaction of the subjects Promoting Well-being
can be assessed using the SWLS (Diener, Emmons, Larson and Griffin, 1985).
This scale is originally in English language and contains five items requiring a
general evaluation of the respondent’s life as whole on a 7-point scale ranging
from strongly disagree to strongly agree. So, the total score may range from
5 to 35. Scores on SWLS can be interpreted in terms of absolute as well
as relative life satisfaction. A score of 20 represents the neutral point on the
scale, the point at which the respondent is about equally satisfied and dissatisfied.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Read the following questions carefully and answer in the space
provided.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this Unit.
1. What personality traits are essential for well-being?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. What factors affect well-being?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3. Well-being can be assessed using ....................... & ..................

8.6 STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE WELL-BEING

The objective in promoting well-being is to draw out a person’s existing strengths.

8.6.1 Cognitive Restructuring

Stressors come in all shapes, sizes and degrees of intensity. The circumstances
are not so stressful but their interpretation. Especially when the interpretation
is exaggerated, it is referred to as cognitive distortion. Sometimes we can turn
everyday problems into gigantic monsters. Cognitive restructuring refers to
changing a perception from negative to neutral or positive one, thus making
it less stressful. So by altering how we look at the problem or everyday life,
we can feel better. Thus, well-being can be promoted by:
1. Assuming responsibility for your own thoughts
2. Facing the reality of the situation
3. Resolving whatever causes stress
4. Creating and adopting a positive frame of mind
49
Positive Psychology 5. Fine tuning expectations
6. Handling the toxic thoughts (Negative thoughts)
7. Positive affirmations
8. Looking at positive aspects of the situations
9. Making self-talk positive
Self-talk
Much of what an individual feels is caused by what the individual says to himself/
herself. According to Davidson (1988), 80% or more of our internal dialogue
that we carry on with ourselves all day long is with little awareness of it. This
is because self-talk is automatic and is carried out repeatedly. An individual
however can make conscious efforts to focus on positive self-talk.
Self-talk is a coping technique that involves consciously replacing negative self-
talk with positive statements. Well-being can be promoted by focusing on positive
statements to be used as the basis of self-talk such as:
 I am capable.
 I am doing my best.
 I can achieve my goal.
 I choose to be happy.
Coping
It involves cognitive and behavioural flexibility in the face of environmental
demands that cause stress to the internal and external resources of the individual.
Some coping techniques lead to greater well-being. For instance, confrontive
coping refers to a technique whereby the individual tries to face the problem
squarely. Here, the individual tries to address the crux of the problem by winning
the situation through logical arguments, aggressive encounters or convincing
methods. The strategy calls for perseverance, conviction angle of continued
apprehension of adversities and preparedness to face it.
Effective coping may involve:
— Coping through passive appraisal, reframing, spiritual and religious support
— Coping through use of social support or formal support
Learned optimism training
Learned optimism training is designed to transform negative thinking into positive
cognitive processes that promote flexible thought and resiliency. In learned
optimism, intervention processes have the three components of explanatory style
(i.e permanence, pervasiveness and personalization) and are modified with
cognitive techniques so that people are able to respond in a healthier manner
to both positive and negative outcomes of daily events. (Seligman, 1999)
Creative problem solving
Well-being can be promoted by finding innovative ways to handle everyday life
50 using following the steps given below:
i) Description of the problem, Promoting Well-being

ii) Generating ideas,

iii) Idea selection and refinement,
iv) Idea implementation, and
v) Evaluation and analysis of action plan.
Hope
A hope therapy system has been developed ( Lopez, Ulven & Snyder, 2000).
Hope therapy is based on the prerequisite skills necessary to produce well
conceptualized goal thoughts, along with the requisite associated pathway and
agency thoughts.
Well-being is promoted by:
 Helping clients to conceptualize clearer goals,
 Producing numerous pathways to attainment of goal,
 Summoning the mental energy to maintain pursuit, and
 Reframing insurmountable obstacles as challenges to be overcome.
Communication skills
Good communication skills promote well-being. As you are aware, communication
skills can be improved by using the following strategies:
 Speak with precision and directness.
 Enhance your vocabulary.
 Use language appropriate for your listening audience.
 Attack issues not people.
 Avoid putting others on the defensive.
 Avoid asking someone else to pass on your thoughts and feelings to a
third party.
 Avoid information overload.
 Validate you assumptions.
 Resolve problems when they arise.

8.6.2 Behaviour Modification

At one time or another, everyone has considered some plan of action for self
improvement. The following steps lead to well-being:
1. Select a behaviour that you want to incorporate or change.
2. Ask yourself how motivated you are to change this behaviour.
3. Think about what changes in your perceptions and attitudes must accompany
this behavioural change.
51
Positive Psychology 4. Specify what new behaviour you wish to adopt.
5. Evaluate effectiveness of new behaviour. Evaluate the new attitude and
decide how beneficial it was.
Assertiveness
Assertiveness is an important part of promoting well-being. It is described as
the ability to be comfortably strong–willed about one’s thoughts, feelings and
actions and be neither inhibited nor aggressive in actions for the betterment of
oneself in the surrounding environment.
In order to promote well-being, one should be assertive; that includes:
 To say no and not feel guilty
 To take your time to form a response to a comment or question
 To ask for assistance with instructions or directions
 To ask for what you want
 To experience and express your feelings
 To feel positive about yourself under any condition
 To make mistakes without feeling embarrassed or guilty
 To form your own opinions and convictions
 To protest unfair treatment or criticism
 To be recognized for your significant achievements and contributions
 Focus on problem and not to belittle self or others.
 Recognize your rights & others’ rights; stand up to protect those rights
 Overcome feeling of fear
 Handle feeling of anger diplomatically
 Avoid manipulation
 Practise peaceful diagreement
 Use assertive body language
 Use eye contact
 Learn to use “I’ statements

8.6.3 Relaxation Exercises

The relaxation exercises can be used to promote well-being in a number of
ways:
a) Yoga: One needs to be aware of the positive effects of the technique on
the body as well as the psyche. Yoga is an age old indigenous technique
as well as an art of healthy living. In order to promote well-being yoga
should be practised regularly and systematically. Studies have shown that
people who practice yoga tend to have positive self image, greater self
esteem and higher degnees of self efficacy.
52
b) Meditation: Meditation is a powerful method of coping with stress and Promoting Well-being
promoting well-being. Meditation is thought to be the oldest form of
relaxation. In simple terms, it is mind cleansing or emptying process. At
a deeper level, meditation is focused concentration and increased awareness
of one’s being. When the mind has been emptied of conscious thought,
unconscious thoughts can enter the conscious realm to bring enlightenment
to our lives.
In fact according to Bhamgara (1997), meditation is of far greater importance
than medication for whatever afflicts humankind today.” Meditation is a practical,
systematic method which enables an individual to gain relaxation, peace and
happiness. There are a variety of forms of meditation. Common to all forms
of meditation is a stimulus on which the one who medicates will focus his/her
attention. For example focusing on one’s own breath; a candle flame; flower;
etc. Focusing on such stimuli enables the individual to gain relaxation and achieve
mental well-being.
c) Mental Imagery/Visual Imagery
Steps to initiate mental imagery are as follows:
1. Assume a comfortable position: Mental Imagery can be done anywhere.
You can close your eyes momentarily to your current surroundings and
allow your imagination to replace it with a setting more conductive to
relaxation.
2. Concentration and attitude: As with other relaxation techniques, mental
imagery requires sound concentration.
3. Visual themes: Choice of mental images is unlimited. Begin by deciding
the purpose of your visualization. Promote a healthier lifestyle.
For example, individuals can be asked to visualize their future in terms of positive
mental imagery. To illustrate, seeing themselves as getting high ranks in the
examinations; as individuals who have achieved their academic goals; etc. They
are then asked to put in consistent efforts to make this mental imagery a reality.
8.6.4 Social Support
Social support is believed to be another important factor in enhancing well-
being. Performing an activity as a group or with the support of a close, with
others, it is likely to promote greater and more sustained well-being than doing
the activities alone. Thus well-being can be promoted by:
 Building a good social-support network
 Nurturing relationships
 Judicious use of social support network (Henderson & Brown, 1988)
Social support promotes well-being as it satisfies the individual’s need for
affiliation and enhances self esteem and self efficacy and it also reduces
environmental demand or pressure that generate stress. It also attenuates the
relationship between stress and well-being by enhancing the recipients’ cognitive
and behavioural coping strategies (Parasuraman et al 1992). Thus, instead of
having direct effects on stress or health, social support modifies the relationship
between stress and health and protects the individual from negative consequences
of stress (Williams & House; 1985).
53
Positive Psychology 8.6.5 Time Management
Well-being can be promoted through effective time management. Some effective
time management techniques are as follows:
 Prioritization: Prioritization means ranking responsibilities and tasks in their
order of importance. Before this can be done, however, a list of all current
responsibilities must be made.
 ABC rank-order method: It involves assigning the letters A, B, C, to
various responsibilities. A for the highest priority activities (Must do
immediately), B for second-priority activities (anything that is not A or C
but should do soon), and C for low-priority tasks or things you would
like to do (can wait to do).
 Important-versus-urgent method: It involves assigning tasks as urgent,
which need to be done immediately vs. those that are important and can
be done after the urgent tasks are done.
 Scheduling: Scheduling is time allocation for prioritized responsibilities, or
the skill of matching a specific task or responsibility with a designated time
period in which to accomplish it.
 Execution: The execution of responsibilities is a systemic progression of
steps taken toward the satisfactory completion of each task more
specifically; execution can be described as the implementation of an
established schedule.
8.6.6 Art
Art can be used to promote well-being by building on the individual’s inner
strength, and enhancing an individual’s positive image. Art can be used to promote
well-being by doing exercises such as the following:
 Draw something that represents you: This could be a symbol of yourself,
a picture of something you identify yourself with or something that gives
you inner strength.
 Draw two fantasy animals: Whatever two animals come to mind, even
creations of animals that to not exist on the planet. Then describe the animals
you have drawn in a few words (approximately three adjectives) on the
back of the paper.
 Draw a picture of a part of your body you feel needs special attention
(Healing images): Draw an area that you feel is perhaps a target organ
of stress, one that shows signs of excessive wear and tear, or a part of
your body that does not feel completely whole.
 Draw a peaceful image: Draw an image that makes you feel relaxed just
by thinking about it. It can be a place you have never been to but have
always wanted to go to.
 Draw how you feel now: What emotion(s) are you feeling now? Anger,
fear, guilt, worry, love, joy, peace? What does your anger look like to
you? How would you illustrate your feelings of love? Try to visualize your
emotions on paper.
 Draw a dream image: Try to include whatever fragments of a particular
dream you can recall. Include the use of colours.
54
8.6.7 Journal Writing Promoting Well-being

Journal writing includes writing personal events, thoughts, feelings, memories and
perceptions. Journal writing can be used to promote well-being as it:
 Can be used to express worry.
 Provides for emotional catharsis by getting out on paper the toxic thoughts
roaming through ones mind.
 Nurtures self awareness process and honest expression.
 Acts as a vehicle for meditation.
 Helps in self exploration.
 Helps in planting, and harvesting the seeds of creative problem solving.
Strategies for promoting well-being through journal writing:
 Try to identify the concerns and problems that cause tension.
 Ask yourself what emotions are elicited when these stressors as encountered.
 Allow the writing process to augment your creative process further.

8.6.8 Humour
Humour can also be used to promote well-being.
Learn not to take life too seriously. Take your work seriously, but take yourself
lightly. This attitude means seeing yourself as more than your work. Many times
we place all our eggs in the career basket and if we have a bad day at work,
then our self-esteem withers away. See yourself as a whole person, with many
aspects and talents, not just as a student, spouse, or professional. People who
are able to laugh at their mistakes are considered more emotionally sound than
those who fret at the slightest hint of imperfections.
Find one humourous thing a day. Humourous events and concepts are around
us all the time. Life is full of ironies, incongruencies and just plain funny stuff.
One’s frame of mind is either receptive to these, or simply dismisses them.
Work to improve your imagination and creativity. Creativity and humour are
virtually inseparable. Play with children. Kids have wonderful imaginations.
Maybe some of theirs will transfer to you!
Start a tickler notebook. Buy a notebook and fill it with anything that puts
a smile on your face. It can include, among other things, cartoons, favourite
jokes, letters, funny photographs with yours captions attached, favourite
newspaper columns, love poems, and a host of personal items (birthday cards,
postcards, photographs, etc.) that make you feel good inside.

8.6.9 Music
Music can also be used to promote well-being. The following aspects need
to be taken into consideration:
 Musical selection: The type of music that is most conductive to relaxation
and helps return to homeostasis should be selected.
55
Positive Psychology  The music should preferably have a slow tempo.
 The selection should be enjoyable rather that disturbing.
 Listening environment should be comfortable.
 Postures and cognition: The individual should reclins in a comfortable
position with eyes closed to minimize distractions.
 Making your own music also helps.

8.6.10 Exercise and Nutrition

Exercises
The psychological benefits from regular exercise and the intuitive holistic link
between physical exercise and well-being are well documented. Evidence base
supports the existence of a strong relationship between physical activity and
well-being. Physical activity impacts well-being by preventing mental health
problems and by improving the quality of life for people with mental health
problems. (Fox, Boutcher, Faulkner, & Biddle, 2000).
Any exercise has a de-stressing ability because it burns up the extra energy.
Exercise increases blood circulation and this improved flow of blood to the
brain provides additional supplies of oxygen and sugars which are essential in
helping the individual function properly when stressed. Among the many common
exercises, the most desirable techniques are walking and simple aerobics.
Nutrition
Well-being is promoted by:
- Eating a well balanced diet.
- Eating a good breakfast and spacing meals evenly throughout the day.
- Avoiding or minimizing the consumption of caffeine and sugar.
- Eating a diet that provides adequate levels of vitamins and minerals.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: a) Read the following questions carefully and answer in the space
provided.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this Unit.
1. How can cognitive restructuring techniques be used to promote well-being?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. How can assertiveness training be done?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
56 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Promoting Well-being
3. Can music be used to promote well-being and how?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

8.7 PROMOTING WELL-BEING IN DIFFERENT

POPULATIONS
8.7.1 Promoting Well-Being in Children and Adolescents
Role of Parents
Parents are important influences on children. Parental role in the life of the Indian
adolescent is much greater and the influence they exert on their wards is even
stronger when compared to adolescents of the west.
Apart from the developmental changes that occur at an accelerating speed, the
academic pressures exerted on them by their parents beset adolescents to even
greater pressure. Though parental pressure can be positive, most adolescents
perceive it as negative. The adolescent perceives this pressure both as highly
threatening and challenging, thereby experiencing intolerable stress. They thus
face additional adjustment problems as well. Unable to cope with such stressful
situations, the adolescent may get frustrated and irritated. Parents can play a
very crucial role in promoting well-being in their children by helping their child
focus only on positive expectations and believe that their efforts would bring
them great success as negative expectations would increase anxiety and stress.
Role of teachers
Positive beliefs about our self are a very important aspect in promoting and
sustaining well-being. For some children it may be essential to reinforce feelings
of self worth externally. This, in turn may induce and strengthen the positive
feelings that might help temporarily laidback children, with support from teachers.
Some children have a tendency to restrict their social network. The teachers
can expose them to a wider variety of interaction with varied groups in a secure
group environment, where they would enjoy the interaction and thereby develop
a more positive sense of self.
Planning and designing games demanding high alertness and actions of reflex
and swift-solving skills may help in enhancing their state of anticipation of
adversity and preparedness of encountering the same.

8.7.2 Work Environment and Well-Being

Baldry et al (1997) argued that the social processes which generate occupational
ill-heath can be understood through examining the degree of ‘fit’ between three
interrelated components of any work system: the social environment (work
organization, managerial control); the proximate environment (work station
design) and the ambient environment (lighting, air quality). The mismatch of these
components may result in strain which may be experienced by the worker as
57
Positive Psychology physical discomfort or actual ill-health. A fit between all the interrelated
components of the work system would promote well-being.

8.7.3 Well-Being and Special Population

For promoting psychological well-being among families of people with special
needs, the measures should be need-based. Identifying and meeting individual
needs of various members in the family is one way to strengthen the family.
Family intervention model will work effectively after knowing family needs only.
The following are a few examples of need-based interventions:
1. Counselling family members and handling emotional reaction.
2. Communicating diagnosis and assessment.
3. Facilitating contacts with other similar parents.
4. Providing material and information and awareness building.
5. Behaviour modification programme for the child.
6. Facilitating parent-teacher contact and relationship.
7. Facilitating parent participation in parent-support group.
8. Train parents in time management skills.
9. Counselling family to identify sources to raise family income to meet
expenditure on long term basis.
10. Providing needed help to avail government benefits and concessions.
11. Helping parents understand assets and limitations of the disabled person.
12. Helping build informal/formal social security support for the child.
13. Greater acceptance of disability, thereby demonstrating a sense of meaning
in their circumstances.
Professional Help
Professional help can play an important role in promoting psychological well-
being among the families of disabled children. Psychologists, psychiatrists,
trained counsellors, family therapists, and social workers are professionals to
contact who can help families resolve their problems. They help them in
understanding their problem well and finding a proper solution to the problem.
Professionals together can help initiate interaction between interested parents by
bringing them initially together at a neutral place for contact. Depending upon
the further need of a particular parent group, the a professional could provide
support such as helping in identifying needs of the group, facilitating parent group
meetings, fostering mutual concern among parents, helping develop policies and
programmes to be undertaken, providing technical guidance, motivating parents
to mobilize resources and their activities which could help parents in helping
themselves.
For example, programmes such as interpersonal and social-skills training and
innovative interventions such as aerobic exercise training have been found to
lead to an increase in sense of well-being, and acceptance of disabilities among
persons with physical disabilities.
58
Cognitive-behavioural interventions designed to enhance coping effectiveness may Promoting Well-being
have beneficial effects on people’s ability to positively reappraise their situations
and to increase their sense of hope, with corresponding improvements in
psychological adjustment (King & Kennet, 1999). Strategies that include family
members as an integral part of the rehabilitation process may be particularly
effective (Moore, 1989); moreover, these approaches may be couched within
cognitive-behavioural frameworks and delivered in innovative, home-based
programmes (e.g. Roberts et al, 1995).

8.8.4 Well-Being Among the Elderly

Improvement in standard of living and prosperity, availability of advance
healthcare services and practices have led to impressive gains in the life span
of older people. Though lives are becoming longer, they are not necessarily
well lived. To live long and live well is a common human endeavour.
Strategies for promoting well-being among the elderly include the following:
1. Incorporate healthy lifestyle in one’s life: Healthy lifestyle will include.
a) Eating hygienic and nutritious food
b) Exercising/walking/jogging regularly
c) Adopting constructive good habits
d) Seeking medical advice and following prescriptions systematically
e) Controlling stress through coping mechanisms
f) Time management
2. Life study management: Advice elderly people on how to manage major
life events.
3. Positive attitude: Guide elderly people to have and develop positive
attitude and to tackle new challenges with enthusiasm.
4. Control over one’s own financial affairs: Guide elderly to plan for
secure future, supplementary income, dealing with financial crises and
property management.
5. Independence: Advice elderly to have freedom to move about, doing things
for oneself, freedom to choose one’s own clothes etc.
6. Degree of autonomy: Greater the autonomy older people can achieve,
greater the chances for happiness.
7. Social contacts: Elderly people will be happy if they have opportunities
for social contact with outsiders, than if their contacts are limited to the
family members.
8. Emotional adjustments: Express negative emotions with less intensity and
express positive emotions, explicitly (laughter and humour clubs are
abundant).
9. Self concept: Develop positive self concept (through optimizing view, self
confidence etc.)
59
Positive Psychology 10. Spiritual and religious practices: Spirituality has always been in the
center stage of Indian culture. Studies have shown that increase in the
amount of religious practices has beneficial effects on the well-being of older
people. Prayer helps to reduce anxiety.
11. Yoga: Yoga and meditation help to promote well-being systematically. One
should practice yoga and meditation regularly.
12. Living conditions: Elderly are advised to live in non polluting environment,
proper ventilation, in hygienic living conditions including use of safe water.
13. Support services: Awareness and availability of support services to elderly
is important.
14. Recreational activities: Involvement and participation in recreational and
sports activities enhance well-being.
15. Creativity: Participation in arts and music activities is beneficial.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

Note: a) Read the following questions carefully and answer in the space
provided.
b) Check your answer with those provided at the end of this Unit.
1. How do teachers promote well-being in student?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. Elucidate the role of professionals in working with special population.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

8.9 LET US SUM UP

What attracts the scientific and academic attention is the deviation from the norm
more than the norm itself. The prolonged neglect of research into wellness and
the major preoccupation of mental health experts with the study of etiology,
symptoms and treatment of illness perhaps are responsible for evolving
intervention modules based on the assumptions rather than the facts of health
and well-being.
Well-being is a state desirable for one and all. Some of the characteristics
associated with well-being are optimism, positive work attitudes, understanding
relationships, reaching out to people, maintaining good health, ability to sustain
relationships, ablility to handle crisis effectively etc. The above characteristics
60 sound utopian in the context of present day lifestyle.
 Promoting Well-being
8.9 GLOSSARY
Behavior modification : Behaviour modification is a treatment approach,
based on the principles of operant conditioning, that
replaces undesirable behaviors with more desirable
ones through positive or negative reinforcement.
Cognitive restructuring : Cognitive restructuring is a skill taught in Cognitive
behaviour therapy. The main goals of cognitive
restructuring are identifying irrational or unhealthy
thoughts and modifying them to present a more
accurate view of the situation.
Positive Psychology : Positive psychology is a branch of psychology that
focuses on improving the mental functioning of human
beings above that of normal mental health.
Well-Being : Well-Being is most commonly used to describe what
is non-instrumentally or ultimately good for a person.

8.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Well-being is defined as the positive state of human beings which consists of
pleasure and lies in the actualization of human potentials.
2. The different types of well-being are:
i) Psychological well-being
ii) Emotional well- being and Social well- being
iii) Physical well- being
iv) Cognitive well-being
3. Social actualization includes the personality traits of self-directedness,
cooperativeness and self-transcendence that are each essential for well-being.
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. Personality traits of self-directedness, cooperativeness and self-transcendence
are each essential for well-being.
2. Factors such as life stages, personality factors, individual differences, stress,
healthy values, and goal attainment affect well-being.
3. Well-being can be assessed using subjective well-being inventory &
satisfaction with life scale.

Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Cognitive restructuring techniques be used to promote well-being by:
Assuming responsibility for your own thoughts
Facing the reality of the situation
61
Positive Psychology Resolving whatever causes stress
Creating and adopting a positive frame of mind
Fine tuning expectations
Handling the Negative thoughts
Positive affirmations
Looking at positive aspects of the situations
Making self talk positive
2. In order to promote well-being one should be assertive that includes:
To say no and not feel guilty
To take your time to form a response to a comment or question
To ask for assistance with instructions or directions
To ask for what you want
To experience and express your feelings
To feel positive about yourself under any conditions
To make mistakes without feeling embarrassed or guilty
To own your own opinions and convictions
To protest unfair treatment or criticism
To be recognized for your significant achievements and contributions.
Focus on problem and not to belittle self or others.
Recognize his/her rights & others rights, stands up to protect those rights.
Overcome feeling of fear
Handle feeling of anger diplomatically
3. Music can also be used to promote well being. One should:
Select the type of music most conductive to relaxation,
The music should be instrumental with a slow tempo, and
The selection should be enjoyable and the listening environment should
be comfortable with minimizing distractions.
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1. Teachers can promote well-being in children by reinforcing feelings of self
worth ,that, in turn may induce and strengthen the positive feelings. Support
from teachers & those who have a strong and health social support network
report more well-being.
Planning & designing games demanding high alertness and actions of
reflex and swift-solving skills may help in enhancing the children’s state of
anticipation of adversity and preparedness of encountering tough situations.
62
2. Professional can play an important role in promoting psychological well being Promoting Well-being
among the families of disabled children. They help them in understanding
their problem well and finding proper solution to the problem.Depending
upon the further need of particular parent group, the professional could
provide support such as helping in identifying needs of the group, facilitating
parent group meetings, fostering mutual concern among parents, helping
develop policies and programmes to be undertaken, providing technical
guidance, motivating parents to mobilize resources and their activities which
could help parents in helping themselves.
Programmes such as interpersonal and social-skills training ,cognitive-
behavioural interventions designed to enhance coping effectiveness may have
beneficial effects on people’s ability to positively reappraise their situations
and to increase their senses of hope, with corresponding improvements in
psychological adjustment. Formal vocational rehabilitation intervention
programmes that support a return to career-related activities-broadly defined
to include support for independent living assistive devices, and meaningful
social activities.

8.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Name any five components of psychological well-being.
2. How do intrinsic and extrinsic motives differ from each other?
3. What are the different steps of creative problem solving?
4. Give any 4 strategies for promoting well-being among the elderly.

8.12 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Baldry,C., Bain, P. and Taylor, P.(1997) Sick and tired? Working in the modern
office, Work, Employment and Society,11(3):519-539.
Bornstein, M. H. (2003). Positive parenting and positive development in children.
In. R. M.Lerner, F. Jacobs, & D. Wertlieb (Eds.), Applying developmental science
for youth and families: Historical and theoretical foundations. Volume 1 of Handbook
of applied developmental science: Promoting positive child, adolescent, and family
development through research, policies, and programmemes (pp. 187–209).
Editors: Richard M. Lerner,Francine Jacobs, and Donald Wertlieb. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Cloninger,C.R.(2006): The Science of well being: an integrated approach to mental
health and its disorders.World Psychiatry,5,71-76
Diener,E., Emmons,R.A., Larsen,R.J., & Griffin,S.(1985) The Satisfaction with
Life Scale. Journal of personality Assessment,49,71-75.
Fox, KR;Boutcher,SH;Faulkner,G; Biddle SJH(2000). The case for exercise in
the promotion of mental health and psychological well-being.In Biddle SJH, Fox
KR, Boutcher SH (eds) Physical Activity and Psychological Well-being. London:
Routledge.

63
Positive Psychology Hariharan,M(1995) Positive Health and Well –being in adverse environment: A
leaf from the invulnerable. In Amrita Yadav and Nov Rattan Sharma (eds) Positive
Health Psychology(2007) Global Vision Publishing House, New- Delhi(71-82)
Lopez,S.J., Floyd,R.K.,Ulven,J.C., &Snyder,C.R.(2000)Hope Therapy:Helping
Clients build a house of hope. In Snyder,C.R., Handbook of Hope: Theory,
measures, and applications.London: Academic Press.
Moore,A.,Bombardier, C.H., Brown, P.,& Patterson, D(1994)Coping and
emotional attributions following spinal cord injury, International Journal of
Rehabilitation Research,17,39-48.
Parasuraman, S; Greenhaus, JH; and Granrose,CS(1992)Role stressors,social
support and well-being among two career couples.journal of organizational behavior,
Vol 13, pp339-356.
Ryan, R.M., & Deci,E.L.(2001)To be happy or to be self-fulfilled: A critical
review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. In S. Fiske (Ed.),
Annual review of psychology vol 52;141-166.Palo Alto,Annual Revie/ Inc.
Seligman, M.E. P. (2002). Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive
Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment. New York: Free
Press
Williams D.,House,J.S.(1985)Social support and stress reduction, In : Cooper
CL, Smith MJ (eds) Job stress and blue collar work.Wily,London:pp207-224.

64
UNIT 9 POSITIVE PARENTING
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Looking at Parenting from a Positive Perspective
9.3 Parenting in the Cultural Context
9.3.1 Individualistic and Collectivistic Worldviews
9.3.2 Variations in Family Structure and Organization
9.3.3 Parenting Styles and the Cultural Backdrop
9.3.4 A Move Away from ‘Parenting Styles’

9.4 Toward a Better Understanding of Parenting

9.4.1 Extending Focus Beyond the Mother
9.4.2 Mutuality of Influence in Parenting Relationship
9.4.3 Adopting a Developmental Framework

9.5 In Search of Positive Parenting

9.6 The Significant Role of Grandparents
9.7 Contemporary Concerns and Challenges
9.8 Rising Above Some Myths
9.9 Let Us Sum Up
9.10 Glossary
9.11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
9.12 Unit End Questions
9.13 Further Readings and References

9.1 INTRODUCTION
The quality of parent-child relations and parenting is considered to be an
important influence on both adaptive and maladaptive functioning.
Every parent desires to be a “good” parent. The extent of unanimity, however,
ends at this point. The debate regarding what constitutes good parenting
continues unabated, among parents and experts alike. All parents have their
moments of doubt. And there is lack of consensus among experts as well
regarding optimal modalities of parenting, and the extent to which the
‘recommended’ strategies and processes can be effectively and consistently
transacted in real life on a day-to-day basis.
Parents typically desire that their children should behave in socially desirable
ways and should grow up to be responsible adults. And yet, what is being
increasingly witnessed in the youngsters of the day is increasing narcissism
and self-centeredness on the one hand, and lowered levels of tolerance, respect
and patience on the other. In this contemporary era, the need for positive
parenting seems to be tremendous indeed.
65
Positive Psychology In this Unit, we shall learn more about positive parenting and related aspects.

Objectives

After studying this Unit, you will be able to:

 Appreciate the increasing emphasis on parenting from a positive

perspective;

 Understand the construal of parenting in the cultural context;

 Analyse the shift in perspective with reference to extending the focus

beyond the mother, understanding mutuality of influence of parent-child
interactions, and the need to adopt a developmental framework in the
context of positive parenting;

 Explain the desirables in the context of positive parenting; and

 Provide a critique of some myths that prevail with reference to positive

parenting.

9.2 LOOKING AT PARENTING FROM A

POSITIVE PERSPECTIVE
The benefits of focusing on the positive in daily life, and on human strength
and virtues, is now being increasingly recognised.

For too long, the focus has been on negatives; on trying to correct them,
both in the context of psychological and child development research and
practising advice. Now, however, there is a diagrammatic shift, with an
increasing emphasis on the need to maintain a balance and emphasize fostering
the positives.

The result is the emergence and increasing acknowledgement of the vital

significance of construals such as positive psychology and positive parenting.
Positive parenting pertains to nurturing what is best within our
children.

9.3 POSITIVE PARENTING IN THE CULTURAL

CONTEXT
Psychosocial development and processes do not occur in a vacuum - these
occur in the specific socio-cultural milieu. This is particularly valid, yet usually
ignored, in the context of parenting. On examining the research studies,
prepositions and postulations in the domain of parenting, one finds that most
of these are based on Western values and experiences! It is important to
take a holistic view and give due emphasis to ethnotheories of parenting
as well. After all, what is deemed to be “good” parenting would necessarily
be influenced by what qualities are desired in children and adults in the
particular cultural context.

66
9.3.1 Individualistic and Collectivistic Worldviews Positive Parenting

“Strengths” and “ weaknesses” indeed are determined by the cultural value

systems. Most Western cultures are individualistic in nature, focusing on the
individual, who is held above the group in terms of importance. Thus
competition and personal achievement are emphasized in these cultures. On
the other hand, in collectivistic cultures, including India, the group is valued
above the individual. The emphasis, thus, is on cooperation. Fitting-in and
accommodating are traditionally fostered, rather than encouraging the individual
to stand out. This difference in the basic perspective and worldview results
in differences in what is valued, and what characteristics, attributes, dispositions
and constructs are deemed to be strengths in any given culture. While
individualistic cultures foster self-efficacy, collectivistic cultures promote
interdependence. While the former believe in self-reliance and carving-out one’s
own future, the latter recognize the wisdom of the elders. This feature itself
has a bearing on how parents, grandparents, and other significant others in
the family and kin group are perceived, and the influence they have – including
that on parenting.
Likewise, the greater emphasis on harmony and compassion, rather than fighting
for one’s own right, is likely to influence the socialization emphasis, including
in the familial context.

9.3.2 Variations in Family Structure and Organization

There is tremendous variation in family structure, organization and functioning
mechanisms; including roles and responsibilities of various family members,
evident in different societies. And yet, in most of the discussions on parenting,
the template assumed is that of a nuclear family located in the West. Don’t
you think that we need to rethink the contemporary models of parenting
in the context of, for instance, extended and joint family systems, especially
when the responsibility of parenting is shared across several caregivers? In
our country, for instance, one finds that unlike the nuclear family scenario
of the West, it is not just the parents, but also the grandparents, uncles
and aunts – particularly paternal, who are involved in the upbringing of the
child, more so if they are members of the household. Thus, it may be the
paternal grandmother or even the grandfather who looks after the young child,
while the mother is involved in household chores or in an economically gainful
activity. Caregiving and parenting in often a shared activity, with other members
of the larger family and kin group playing an active role. The experience
of growing-up would obviously be different for a child in such a milieu.
Implication and impact of maternal employment also, obviously, would be
different. Parenting thus needs to be located in its complete systemic context,
with due attention accorded to the various sub-systems involved.

9.3.3 Parenting Styles and the Cultural Backdrop

You have read about Baumrind’s classification of parenting styles in Unit 13
(Block 3) of Course 1 of this programme of study. You are thus aware
that authoritative parenting is said to be associated with higher levels of well-
being of children and adolescents compared to the other parenting styles.
On the other hand, authoritarian parenting, according to Baumrind, results
in children lacking initiative, spontaneity, and social competence. While
typologies and the propounded corresponding child outcomes have practically 67
Positive Psychology dominated the field for the last four decades, recent studies have raised serious
doubts about the generalizability of parenting styles across socio-cultural groups
or socio-economic strata. For instance, research evidence from cross-cultural
studies (e.g., Chao, 1994) challenges the strongly believed notion that
authoritative style of parenting is essentially and universally beneficial.
Baumrind’s categories reflect the dominant North American view of child
development, and the typology and the child outcomes proposed may not
be valid or applicable across all cultures or socio-economic groups. Rather,
in some groups, aspects of authoritarian style of parenting have been found
to be associated with more positive child outcomes than predicted by
Baumrind; for example, firm parental control may be a necessary safeguard
for children in families living in slums or amidst other high risk factors. Further,
with regard to traditional Asian child rearing that is typically described as
authoritarian according to Baumrind’s typology, one needs to take note of
a significant difference – that of parental concern and involvement in the
children’s lives. And this is something we all would unhesitatingly agree to
in the Indian context as well. While parents do exercise control and expect
obedience and conformity from their children, there is ample parental warmth,
commitment, involvement and concern with regard to the child. When control
is perceived together with the warmth and concern, the children’s perception
of parental control is also likely to be different; it is more likely to be seen
as “caring” rather than “domineering”. This aspect alone makes a significant
difference to the resultant implications of the parenting style. Thus, cultural
and contextual factors need to be given due importance when considering
any type or style of parenting or child rearing. “Positive” aspects are with
reference to the particular socio-cultural context!

9.3.4 A Move Away From ‘Parenting Styles’

Researchers are now pushing the pendulum back from ‘parenting styles’ to
more specific aspects of parenting. The focus is shifting to specific aspects
such as expectations, attribution and issues or factors impacting parent-child
interactions, such as contingent responsiveness. To illustrate, research studies
have pointed out that children’s transgressions do not meet with a set pattern
of parental response. Rather, parental response is likely to be contingent upon
parental mood, the severity of transgression, and perception of the child’s
response to the misbehaviour.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: a) Read the following questions carefully and answer in the space
provided.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this Unit.
1. State whether the following statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
i) Individualistic cultures focus on personal achievement
and competition. ( )
ii) Positive parenting focuses on curbing anger and
aggression. ( )
iii) Parenting processes and goals are influenced by the
socio-cultural milieu. ( )
68
 Positive Parenting
9.4 TOWARD A BETTER UNDERSTANDING
OF POSITIVE PARENTING
Early theories of parenting were typically characterized by preoccupation
with the role of mother; unidirectionality of parental influence on children;
and primarily non-developmental conceptualizations. For a better understanding
of positive parenting, one needs to appreciate the fundamental shift and the
change in perspective, that has occurred with regard to each of these
aspects.
9.4.1 Extending Focus Beyond the Mother
Much of the early work on parenting primarily focused on the mother’s
role. Given that, in any case, the areas of interest were various forms of
disorders and psychopathology, the evidence generated held mothers (not
fathers) as the primary source of children’s problems. Yet, there’s been
some evidence that mothers and fathers are deemed to be equally
responsible for children’s positive behaviour!
Considerable significance has been assigned to maternal attachment and the
quality of mother-child relationship. As you studied in Course 1, Bowlby
and Ainsworth in the context of maternal attachment proposed that the
mother, because of her unique biological relationship to the child, also has
a unique psychological relationship, which is so significant that the quality
of this early relationship influences the quality of all subsequent emotional
relationships that the child would have. Since, within this paradigm, the
father and other important persons in the child’s life are relegated to a
peripheral role, theoretically, mother blaming is inevitable!
There is now an increasing recognition of the need to shift the focus from
the mother to the more complex web of relationships in which child
development takes place.
The role of other family members; in particular the father, is being
increasingly focused upon. Indeed, fathers in urban, nuclear families now
play a more active role in bringing-up their children. While it is often
believed that the fathering role has evolved in a linear manner from the
position of a remote authority-bearing patriarch to an involved caregiver
leaning towards egalitarianism, it is not really the case. As several scholars
have pointed out, men’s roles in families have varied; influenced by factors
such as historical period, geographical region, race, ethnicity, class and the
like.
The key characteristics of fathers that have been found to promote
children’s well-being include responsivity, and emotional availability.
9.4.2 Mutuality of Influence in Parenting Relationship
It is generally assumed, erroneously, that the direction of influence is one-
way; from the parents to the child. The common belief is that parenting
influences the child. This, however, is not the complete story. The reverse
direction of influence is equally a reality. Thus, the nature of parenting, at
least partly, is a response to the characteristics and temperament of the
child. Studies indicate that parents are more controlling and less involved
when they perceive their children to be difficult. There is increased
recognition of the child’s role in the socialization process, as well as the
bi-directional nature of parent-child interactions. It is important to
acknowledge this aspect, so that it can be accommodated. 69
Positive Psychology At the same time, it is also vital to recognize the fact that since the
sub-systems in the family (including dyadic) are inter-dependent; one usually
has to reckon with multi-directionality of influence. For instance, the quality
of husband-wife relationship has consistently been linked with the quality of
parenting, and vice-verse.
Parenting and the Child’s Temperament
Many modern day parents do not really accept the importance of the
child’s temperament till the second child is born. The first child’s behaviour
is often considered to be the result of how the child was socialized.
However, subsequent experiences may drive home the point that the
strategies (for instance, in the context of feeding, sleeping, toilet training,
and responding to strangers) that work with one child may simply not be
required, or may not work, with another child; who may instead present
a different set of issues and problems. Such experiences make one realise
the existence and significance of dispositional and temperamental differences
in children, and the implications of the same for parent-child interactions.
While in Western literature, this aspect is being ‘increasingly recognized’
now, in Indian tradition, this acknowledgement always existed, and was an
essential component of the child rearing practices. Talk to any grandmother
and she would confirm this!

Each child is unique, and calls for adaptive parenting.

9.4.3 Adopting a Developmental Framework

An effective positive parenting framework requires one to adopt a
comprehensive developmental perspective; recognizing not only the
development of the child, but also that of the parents as individuals and
as a couple, along with development of the family as a unit. A
developmental perspective includes paying attention to transitions in a life-
cycle (at the individual, sub-system, and familial levels) that may be
normative or non-normative, and the effects of these transitions on the
lives of those involved. Awareness and understanding constitute the first
step to doing the right thing!

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Read the following questions carefully and answer in the space
provided.
b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this Unit.
1. Does positive parenting encompass only the mother? Give reasons for your
answer.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. What is the primary focus in positive parenting?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
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 Positive Parenting
9.5 IN SEARCH OF POSITIVE PARENTING
Children do better when parents:
 Are warm, affectionate, responsive, involved
 Act as authorities; setting limits, providing rules and guidelines
 Focus on both quality and quantity of time spent with the children
 Are neither punitive nor aloof
 Are neither negligent nor overindulgent
 Maintain a harmonious (not acrimonious) relationship with each other,
and with other members of the household as well
 Are good role models
 Adapt to the individuality of the child
 Provide unconditional love and acceptance to the child (separating the
child from his behaviour)
 Nurture the child’s self esteem
 Catch the child being good, and reinforce the desired behaviour
 Stay connected with the child, in terms of warmth in the relationship
and communication.
In the Indian context, with multiple parenting caregivers, the above would
be valid for all family members who are involved in parenting the child.

Several factors located in the home and parenting climate promote positive
psychosocial development in children and youth. These include the
following:
 Close relationships with caregiving adults
 Parenting that is high on warmth and structure/monitoring
 Positive family climate with low discord
 Organized home environment
 Close relations to competent, prosocial and supportive adults

Positive discipline is a part of the positive parenting concept. The foundation

of this style of disciplining is a close and loving relationship, so that the
child will want to please his parents. To achieve this, it is important for
the child to spend some time with the parent(s). Day-to-day activities provide
spontaneous opportunities for teaching the child and imparting a sense of
do’s and don’ts. It also paves the way for better communication and
connectedness. Discipline and teaching work best among positive relationships.
Further, according to experts, other important aspects include reasonable and
age appropriate expectations, feeding healthy foods, ensuring enough rest, giving
clear instructions and repeating them if necessary, looking for causes of any
misbehaviour and addressing the same, and building routines that provide
predictability without regimentation.

9.6 THE SIGNIFICANT ROLE OF

GRANDPARENTS
Grandparents, in the Indian context, tend to play a significant role in the
upbringing of children. Most grandparents welcome the opportunity to observe 71
Positive Psychology the grandchildren’s development and share in their activities something often
described as the best feature of being a grandparent.
Grandparenting is often described as more enjoyable than parenting. Many
grandparents admit that they value this second chance in life since they were
too busy and overwhelmed by their then responsibilities to enjoy the childhood
and the process of growing-up of their own children!
For parents too, particularly working mothers, this support and help is
welcome. In the Indian context, in particular, it is realized that no crèche
or child care centre, or a maid or paid help, provides the quality or emotional
warmth that a family member, particularly grandparents can. Parents often
also lack the time and patience that children tend to require; something which
grandparents are readily able to provide. The supportive role of grandparents
in the parenting process enhances children well-being. The special affectionate
bond between children and grandparents is a common observation. At the
same time, common conflicts that arise in the relations between grandparents
and parents; or put another way, between parents and adult children, include
communication and interaction style (e.g., he is always yelling or she’s too
critical), habits and lifestyle choices, child-rearing practices and values (e.g.,
being pemissive/controlling or the freedom and choice of activities permitted).

Positive parenting is inclusive of positive grandparenting.

In the Indian joint on extended family context, what has been said above
for grandparents could well be true of other members of the family or kin
group; including other older paternal or maternal uncles and aunts, older
cousins, etc.

9.7 CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS AND

CHALLENGES
The day-to-day practicality of modern times and circumstances may render
the task of providing positive parenting experiences to the children somewhat
difficult for the parents to accomplish on a consistent basis. Modern day
phenomena such as changing nature of families including single-parent families,
with concomitant higher levels of stress, including economic stress, high rates
of maternal employment outside the home, work stress and its impact on
family life, increasing marital discords and divorces, etc. pose a number of
challenges which parents need to effectively overcome.
For instance maternal employment per se does not have detrimental effects
on the child’s development, an extended or joint family offers clear advantages
in this case. In some families and circumstances, however, work related stress
can spill over and have a negative impact on parenting. This is no generalizable
rule though. Some handling stressful jobs provide better parenting as a balancing
mechanism for themselves and the child! In others, a greeter sense of overall
well-being produced by work can lead to more postive parenting.
Separation and divorce, however, are a different issue. It is more difficult
for a single parent to provide an optional family environment, and most
researchers agree that children from divorced familes show poorer adjustment
72
than those from intact families. However, this does not mean that parents Positive Parenting
who continue with a marriage marked by high marital discord are doing
any favour to their children. In fact, if the stress and negativities in the family
environment associated with an unhappy marriage, that erode the well-being
of children, are reduced through the divorce, then divorce can be advantageous.

9.8 RISING ABOVE SOME MYTHS

 Giving children what they want will make them happy
In the present era, one commonly observes parents desperately trying to
ensure that their children get what (in fact whatever!) they want. They find
it difficult to say ‘No’, and try to avoid anything that might cause the child
distress, including discipline.
The irony of the situation is that this constant indulgence is likely to ensure
long term unhappiness rather than happiness for the children.
What we need to consider is that ‘wants’ are unending, and the child has
to learn to operate in the larger world.
When these children step out into the world, they are in for a rude shock.
They find that they cannot always get what they want something that they
had started considering their fundamental right! They learn, in fact, that people
do not like them because they are rude and selfish. As parents, we need
to emphasize the children’s long-term good rather than short-term happiness.
The old fashioned methods of parenting had distinct advantages, because
children were brought-up as a part of the family, kin group and society
instead of making them the fulcrum of all activities and making them feel
as if they were the center of the universe. Children were corrected without
hesitation, and they still felt loved while viewing the parents and other elders
in the family with a healthy awe. We need to teach children that one does
not always get what one wants! This lesson needs to begin at home. Children
need to be taught to accept a ‘No’; to accept an instruction they don’t
like. Watching their parents handle similar situations cheerfully could help!
l How I treat my spouse and other family members doesn’t matter
as long as I am loving towards my child
In the present times, it is not an uncommon sight to observe a parent being
highly indulgent and affectionate towards the child, and having no qualms
about mishehaving with the spouse, the grandparents, or others in the family.
One forgets the saying: ‘‘Life is a boomerang  what you give comes back
to you’’. Larger issues notwithstanding, the fact is that this doesn’t do much
good to the child. Children learn a lot by observing  regardless of whether
the same is intended or not! Conflicts and discord are best avoided. Rather,
one should focus on being a good role-model for the child.
l You should always explain the reason to the child
Giving explanations and elaborating on the rationale is deemed to help children
understand ‘why’ they have been asked to do something. However, the flip
side is that the children grow up expecting justifications and explanations
from their parents for every request and instruction! Imagine having to provide
73
Positive Psychology a reason to the child (and ensure its acceptability to the child!) for each
and everything you want the child to do; from childhood through adolescence!
Life may become a constant battle of wits. Further, at times it may be
vital that the child follow the instruction instantaneously (say, when crossing
the road), with the parent being assured of the same.
l You should be a friend to your child
This statement should not be implemented in toto! While you would do well
to always be available to your child, and inspire enough confidence that
your child is able to share his/her wishes, dreams and worries with you,
you need to basically remain a parent! Thus, you need to ensure that the
child does the right thing; placing limits and drawing boundaries, and making
clear that everything is not negotiable. A parent needs to have a certain
degree of authority and provide clear leadership. Children too, in deep honest
moments, desire this. It is a primary responsibility of parents to raise decent,
well-adjusted members of society, and fulfillment of this responsibility is not
possible without setting limits. Friendships are based on casualness and equality.
Yet, for parenting to be affective, children need to respect parental authority.
l Parents should always praise children to motivate them to behave
well
Do not take children to be fools! They are able to make out when the
praise is genuine and well-earned, and when it is not! Praise works best
when it is well-deserved. Often a simple smile or look of approval, or a
pat on the shoulder is enough to make the child glow. Experts opine that
both praise and criticism have a greater impact when they are used sparingly
and in well-deserved instances.

9.9 LET US SUM UP

This Unit focussed on positive parenting, and various associated aspects and
issues. After an orientation to positive parenting, the significance of the cultural
context was discussed. The contemporary shifts in perspectives were also
discussed. Some do’s and don’ts in the context of positive parenting were
outlined. The significant role, in the Indian context, of grandparents and other
family members was also highlighted. The Unit concluded with examination
of some contemporary concerns and challenges, and an analysis of some
prevalent myths dominating the field of parenting.

9.10 GLOSSARY
Extended family : A family unit that includes not just a couple and their
children, but other family members as well; including
grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins etc.
Nuclear family : A family unit consisting of the husband, wife and their
children.
Positive parenting : Nurturing what is best within our children.

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 Positive Parenting
9.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. i) True
ii) False
iii) True
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. No. It encompasses the father and other family members as well, since
they too play a vital role in parenting and influencing the child’s well-
being.
2. Promoting the positives in the child (rather than curbing the negatives).

9.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. With the help of examples, discuss the issue of mutuality of influence
in parenting relationship.
2. From your personal experience and observations, what tips and strategies
would you suggest for positive parenting?
3. Analyse any two contemporary challenges in the context of positive
parenting.

9.13 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Chadha, N. (2011). Socio-emotional development in the cultural context. In G.
Misra (Ed.), Handbook of psychology in India (pp. 181-192). New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
Chadha, N. (2007). Prosocial development in children: Helping, sharing and
comforting. New Delhi: Mittal.
Chao, R.K. (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style:
Understanding Chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child
Development, 65,1111-1119.
McHale, J.P., & Grolnick, W.S. (Eds.) (2002). Retrospect and prospect in the
psychological study of families. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Papalia, D.E., Olds, S.W., Feldman, R.O. (2004). Human development. 9th Edition.
New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.
Ratra, A. (2006). Working and non-working women. Delhi: Mittal.
Ratra, A., Kaur, P. & Chhikara, S. (2006). Marriage and family in diverse and
changing scenario. Delhi: Deep & Deep.
Santrock, J.W. (2007). A topical approach to life span development. 3rd Edition.
New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.
Snyder, C.R., & Lopez, S.J. (2007). Positive psychology. New Delhi: Sage.
http://parentingmyths.webs.com
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/child-discipline
http://kidshealth.org/parent/positive/family.nine_steps.html
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 MCFT-006 APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Block 1 : Socio-Cultural Influences

Unit 1 : Culture and Socialization
Unit 2 : Personality and Adjustment
Unit 3 : Social Cognition
Unit 4 : Prosocial Behaviour and Aggression
Unit 5 : Karma Theory

Block 2 : Positive Psychology

Unit 6 : Understanding of Self
Unit 7 : Emotions and Well-Being
Unit 8 : Promoting Well-Being
Unit 9 : Positive Parenting

Block 3 : Interpersonal Relationships

Unit 10 : Cohesiveness, Adaptation and Resilience
Unit 11 : Problem Solving and Conflict Resolution
Unit 12 : Interpersonal Communication
Unit 13 : Interface with Family and Workplace

Block 4 Human Sexuality and Couple Relationships

Unit 14 : Sexuality: Issues, Attitudes and Behaviour
Unit 15 : Alternate Sexuality and Sexual Identities
Unit 16 : Intimate Relationships
Unit 17 : Marital Harmony
Unit 18 : Separation, Divorce and Future Options

Manual for Supervised Practicum (MCFTL-006)