Environment and Ecology

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Interlinking of Rivers
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5 Climate Change

Introduction which can alter global climate patterns, is

referred to as global warming.
Climate change refers to long-term changes in
y Global warming is nothing but heating of the
a region’s temperature and weather patterns.
surface-atmosphere due to the emission
Temperature and weather patterns may change
of greenhouse gases, thereby increasing
due to natural events, such as fluctuations in
global atmospheric temperature over a long
the solar cycle.
period of time.
y However, since the 1800s, human activities
y Climate change refers to long-term
have been the dominant source of climate
changes in surface air temperature and
change, primarily the combustion of fossil
their resulting negative impact on rainfall.
fuels such as coal, oil, and gas. Climate
y A variety of natural and artificial factors can
change, on the other hand, differs from
contribute to global warming. The natural
natural weather variability in that it is the
causes include:
cumulative shift of long-term weather
⚪ Volcanic eruptions: One of the most
patterns rather than a change in the weather
significant natural sources of global
on a single day.
warming are volcanoes. During volcanic
y Climate change presents itself in a
eruptions, ash and smoke are sent
multitude of ways and has varying degrees
into the atmosphere, affecting the
of impact on all living things.
temperature.
y It damages livelihoods, displaces families,
⚪ Permafrost melting: Permafrost is
and drives many people into poverty.
found where glaciers exist. It’s a
y Furthermore, those who have made the
frozen earth that’s been trapped in
least contribution to climate change’s root
environmental gases for years. As
causes—the economically disadvantaged—
permafrost melts, gases are released
are the ones most likely to be hit by its
back into the atmosphere, raising global
severe effects around the world.
temperatures.
y Global warming is the long-term warming
⚪ Water vapour: It is an example of
of earth’s climate system that has been
a greenhouse gas. As the earth’s
seen since the pre-industrial period,
temperature rises, more water
principally as a result of human activity,
evaporates from water bodies and
particularly fossil fuel combustion, which
remains in the atmosphere, contributing
raises heat-trapping greenhouse gas
to global warming.
levels in the atmosphere. The terms
y The influence of natural causes to global
“global warming” and “climate change”
warming is too small, or they occur too slowly
are commonly interchanged, though the
as compared to man-made causes. The
latter refers to both human- and naturally-
most prominent causes of modern global
caused warming, as well as the impact it
warming are man-made. The following are
has on our world. The average increase in
examples of man-made causes:
Earth’s global surface temperature is often
⚪ Combustion of fossil fuels: This
used to estimate global warming.
category includes most of the heat-
Global Warming trapping emissions from factories and
cars burning coal, gas, and oil, as well
y A rise in the temperature of the atmosphere as extensive deforestation and rising
at the Earth’s surface and in the troposphere, amounts of black carbon pollution or

Climate Change 101

 ‘soot’ in the form of aerosols influencing and the disappearance of glacial rivers have
the earth’s albedo. Carbon dioxide, which wreaked havoc on agriculture.
is influenced by expanding populations, y Health factors: Crop failures have a variety
is also the major gas responsible for of indirect repercussions, such as starvation.
global warming. Due to global warming, insufficient rainfall
⚪ Emissions due to agriculture: that leads to desertification can potentially
Agricultural activities from crops and cause a variety of diseases. Due to the shift
livestock production release significant of weather patterns towards the poles,
amounts of non-CO2 emissions such many diseases like Malaria will spread in
as methane and nitrous oxide (N2O), mid-latitude.
both are powerful greenhouse gases, y Flooding in low-altitude areas: Sea level
resulting in global warming. rise and significant flooding tendencies
⚪ Emissions from industries and power can cause harm to human settlements and
plants, transportation and use of vehicles, mass disaster.
emissions from Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), etc., are also the man-made
causes of global warming. Global Warming Potential
y Greenhouse gases (GHGs) absorb
Impacts of Global Warming energy and slow the rate at which
y Increased frequency of heatwaves and it escapes into space, warming the
extreme weather conditions in the mid- Earth. GHGs act as a blanket that
latitudes due to melting glaciers and protects the Earth from the elements.
snowmelt: Melting glaciers and snowmelt Different GHGs have different effects
will produce severe water shortages and on global warming. These gases differ
droughts, with increased frequency of in two important ways: their ability to
heatwaves and extreme weather events. absorb energy and the length of time
As the ice in the northern-seas melts, the they spend in the atmosphere.
atmospheric conditions will become more y The Global Warming Potential (GWP) of
difficult to control. each gas is a measure of how much it
y Ecological risks: Global warming has aided contributes to global warming. It is a
the spread of drier climatic zones in the measure of how much energy 1 tonne
subtropics, such as deserts. Higher carbon of a gas will absorb over a specific
dioxide levels and global temperatures will length of time in comparison to 1 tonne
have an impact on most ecosystems and of carbon dioxide emissions (CO2).
animal life, resulting in the extinction of y The greater the GWP, the more a given
many species and a reduction in ecological gas heats the Earth over time when
diversity. compared to CO2.
y The threat to marine life: Underwater, y The most common time period for
global warming has the potential to destroy GWPs is 100 years.
marine and coral life. Carbon dioxide levels y GWPs provide a single unit of
in the ocean are rising, causing damage to measurement that allows analysts
precious natural resources. to combine emissions estimates
y Loss of settlements: As a result of rising for various gases (for example, to
sea levels, global warming may cause construct a national GHG inventory)
inundation, posing a further threat to and policymakers to evaluate
infrastructure and human populations. emissions reduction prospects across
This has a significant impact on the human sectors and gases.
population. Droughts, rising temperatures,

102 Climate Change

Greenhouse Effect
y The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that warms and blankets the
Earth’s lower atmosphere, holding it at a temperature appropriate for life.

Fig. 5.1: Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse Gases and their Contribution

Greenhouse
Description
Gases

The presence of this substance in the atmosphere is unavoidable. The

Water Vapour most significant contributor to the greenhouse effect, yet it does not
linger in the atmosphere for long.

In addition, it is naturally present in the atmosphere.

It is the most frequent greenhouse gas produced by human activities
Carbon Dioxide
like transportation, fossil fuel combustion for electricity generation, and
industrial processes.

In addition, it is naturally present in the atmosphere. Paddy cultivation

is the major source of methane emissions. Natural sources, such as
Methane
wetlands, as well as human activities, such as natural gas pipeline leakage
and livestock husbandry, emit it.

Climate Change 103

 It is naturally present in the atmosphere.
Nitrous Oxide The increase of N2O in the atmosphere is caused by fossil fuel burning,
agriculture, manufacturing, and wastewater treatment.

Hydrofluorocarbons are a type of hydrofluorocarbon (HFCs)

Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are a type of perfluorocarbon (by-product
in industrial processes associated with the aluminium product and
semiconductors)
Fluorinated SF6 (Sulphur Hexafluoride) (used in magnesium processing).
Gases These gases have extremely high global warming potentials (GWP) and are
only removed when sunlight destroys them in the far upper atmosphere.
Because HFCs do not degrade the stratospheric ozone layer, they were
created as a replacement for CFCs and HCFCs.
They do, however, act as strong greenhouse gases.
Table 5.1: Contribution of Various Greenhouse Gases

y Ozone is technically a greenhouse gas, but life, from reaching the Earth’s surface. The
ozone is helpful or harmful depending on protective benefit of stratospheric ozone
where it is found in the Earth’s atmosphere. outweighs its contribution to the greenhouse
Ozone occurs naturally at higher elevations effect and to global warming. However, at
in the atmosphere (the stratosphere), where lower elevations of the atmosphere (the
it forms a layer that blocks ultraviolet (UV) troposphere), ozone is harmful to human
light, which is harmful to plant and animal health.

Other Contributors to Global Warming

Soot is a type of particle air pollution that is produced when incomplete

combustion occurs. It’s made up of pure carbon in a variety of shapes and
Black Carbon
sizes.
(Soot)
It absorbs the most sunlight and heats the air immediately.
It only lasts a few days to weeks in the environment.

It is a type of carbon that is produced.

It’s an unidentified component of organic aerosol that’s found everywhere.
Brown Carbon Particles originating from impure combustion, such as soot and dust, are
commonly referred to as soot. Biomass combustion is the primary source
of brown carbon emissions.
Table 5.2: Black and Brown Carbon

104 Climate Change

Share of Greenhouse Gases Emission Worldwide

Fig. 5.2: Share of GHGs in Global Warming

Global Warming
Atmospheric
Greenhouse gas Chemical formula Potential, 100-year
Lifetime (years)
time horizon

Carbon Dioxide CO2 1 100

Methane CH4 25 12

Nitrous Oxide N2O 265 121

Chlorofluorocarbon-12
CC12F2 10,200 100
(CFC-12)

Hydrofluorocarbon-23
CHF3 12,400 222
(HFC-23)

Sulfur Hexafluoride SF6 23,500 3200

Nitrogen Trifluoride NF3 16,100 500

Table 5.3: Global Warming Contribution of Different Greenhouse Gases

Ozone Hole and Global Warming Earth.

y Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) contribute to y They are broken down into chlorine radicals
both global warming and the formation of in the stratosphere by high-intensity
ozone holes. They act as greenhouse gases ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, which
in the troposphere. has the ability to destroy ozone.
y They absorb infrared radiation from the y Other greenhouse gases, such as carbon
Earth’s surface and contribute to global dioxide and methane, play no role in ozone
warming by trapping this heat close to the depletion.

Climate Change 105

 y Because ozone prevents high-intensity
ultraviolet radiation from reaching the north, 25000-30000 feet above the
Earth’s surface and causes stratospheric ground, separating cold and warm air
warming, it is reasonable to assume that and bending around high and low-
the formation of the ozone hole alters the pressure weather systems. A high and
Earth’s total radiation budget. However, low-pressure system pushes the jet
ozone depletion and the formation of polar stream in a wavy manner, pushing the
ozone holes result in a slight cooling of the polar vortex much further south than
troposphere rather than further warming. It normal.
can be discussed as follows: y This brought a component of the
⚪ The absorption of ultraviolet radiation by vortex into North America, causing
ozone molecules causes stratospheric temperatures to plummet below zero
warming. in the Midwest and the eastern United
⚪ Some of the heat emitted in the States. Arctic Invasion was the name
stratosphere is transferred to the given to this occurrence.
troposphere, resulting in minor y Generally, the polar vortex slips south
tropospheric warming. This warming is when the jet stream weakens and the
mitigated by the creation of an ozone temperature difference between the
hole. warm and cold air fronts decreases.
⚪ Ozone can still operate as a greenhouse
gas and absorb infrared radiation
from the Earth’s surface in the lower
stratosphere. Feedback Effects
 Absorption of both ultraviolet and y When the Earth warms, lots of new changes
infra-red radiation by ozone leads to occur in the atmosphere, oceans, and the
a warming of the upper troposphere. land surface. Some of these changes may
 If ozone levels decrease, the upper have an impact on the temperature. These
troposphere will, therefore, get are known as feedback effects. Some of
cooler. these feedback effects contribute to global
⚪ Solar radiation backscattering is warming, while others have the opposite
extremely significant over the Antarctic, effect.
which has the most severe ozone ⚪ Feedback from water vapour: One of
depletion. This is due to the high the most important feedback effects
reflectivity of snow and ice-covered is water vapour. A slight increase in
ground. Because of the significant the amount of water vapour in the
backscattering, only a small fraction of atmosphere will result from slight
the extra ultraviolet light that enters the warming of the Earth due to more
troposphere as a result of ozone loss sunlight or an increased greenhouse
heats the atmosphere. effect. Because water vapour is also a
greenhouse gas, the additional water
vapour will amplify the greenhouse
Polar Vortex effect, causing even more warmth. As
y The polar vortex is a low-pressure a result, water vapour contributes to
area of the cold, rotating air, that global warming.
is normally found around the polar ⚪ Feedback from snow and ice cover:
regions and is held in place by a jet Ice and snow-covered surfaces have
stream that passes around 65 degrees similar feedback effects. On Earth,
there is a lot of ice and snow when the

106 Climate Change

 environment is cold. These gleaming y Related effects now being detected include
surfaces reflect sunlight away from the warming sea-surface temperatures, melting
ground, decreasing the temperature. sea ice, greater evaporation, and changes in
Less ice and snow suggest a warmer the marine food web.
environment. As a result, less solar y Models project that sea levels will rise
radiation is reflected into space, another 9 to 88 cm by the year 2100. This
resulting in increased heat. will occur due to the thermal expansion
⚪ Feedback from clouds: As the Earth of warming ocean water and an influx of
warms, the amount of water vapour freshwater from melting glaciers and ice.
in the atmosphere rises, perhaps y Small islands and coastal areas are
resulting in more clouds. Depending particularly vulnerable. Flooding and
on the nature of clouds, this can either erosion of the coast will worsen.
boost or decrease warmth. Clouds, like y The quality and quantity of freshwater
greenhouse gases, both chill the Earth sources would be affected as a result of
by reflecting sunlight back into space saltwater intrusion. Extreme events like
and warm it by absorbing heat from the high tides, storm surges, and seismic sea
surface. When the weather is nice, thin waves (tsunamis) could all be exacerbated
cirrus clouds (which appear high in the by the sea levels.
atmosphere when the weather is nice)
have a warming impact. Low cumulus Water Stress and Water Insecurity
and stratus clouds, on the other hand, y Warming has resulted in a loss of
chill the atmosphere. mountain glaciers and snow cover in both
hemispheres, which is likely to worsen
Impacts of Climate Change during the twenty-first century.
y As a result, water availability, hydropower
Agriculture and Food Security potential, and seasonal river flow in
y Temperature rises induced by rising locations fed by major mountain range
greenhouse gas levels are likely to affect meltwater will be diminished (e.g., Hindu-
crops differently in different parts of the Kush, Himalaya, Andes). Initially, the flow in
world. the river will increase, but eventually, it will
y For example, mild warming (an increase decrease consistently.
of 1°C to 3°C in mean temperature) is y Freshwater availability is anticipated to drop
projected to enhance crop production in across South, Central, East, and Southeast
temperate regions, whereas even moderate Asia by 2050, particularly in big river basins.
temperature increases (1°C to 2°C) are likely y The hydrologic cycle will be accelerated by
to harm key grain crops in lower latitudes, a warmer atmosphere, affecting rainfall,
particularly the seasonally dry tropics. runoff severity, and timing.
y In all places, warming of more than 3°C is y Extreme flooding in big river basins has
projected to have a detrimental impact on become more common in the twentieth
production. century. Flooding is growing more common,
causing societal, infrastructure, and water
Sea Levels, Oceans and Coastal Areas and quality issues.
Marine Life y Rising temperatures would have a stronger
y The global average sea level has risen by 10 impact on the chemical, physical, and
to 20 cm over the past 100 years. The rate biological aspects of freshwater rivers and
of increase has been 1 – 2 mm per year – lakes, negatively affecting the majority of
some 10 times faster than the rate observed freshwater populations, species, and water
for the previous 3,000 years. quality.

Climate Change 107

 Fig. 5.3: Water Stress and Water Insecurity

Biological Diversity predicted to rise as a result of increased

y According to the International World Wildlife frequency and intensity of heatwaves and
Fund, species from the tropics to the poles other severe weather events.
are endangered (WWF). y Climate change plays an important role in
y Many animals may not be able to shift the spread of infectious illnesses. Diseases
quickly enough to avoid the consequences that had previously been confined to a
of rising temperatures in their natural single geographical area began to spread to
habitats. other areas. For instance, Malaria in mid-
y According to WWF, one-fifth of the world’s latitude and high latitude regions.
most vulnerable natural places might
face a “catastrophic” loss of biodiversity. Impact on Cryosphere
The effects on marine ecosystems will y The cryosphere refers to the frozen
be severe. They will be affected not just components of the Earth’s system that
by rising sea temperatures and changes exist at or below the surface of the land
in ocean circulation but also by growing and oceans.
dissolved carbon dioxide (carbonic acid) y These include things like snow, glaciers, ice
concentrations, which will result in ocean sheets, ice shelves, icebergs, sea ice, lake
acidification, which will harm shell-forming ice, river ice, permafrost, and seasonally
organisms, corals, and the ecosystems that frozen terrain.
rely on them. ⚪ Permafrost is described as “ground (soil
or rock containing ice and frozen organic
Health material) that has remained at or below
y A warmer, more unpredictable climate 0 degrees Celsius for at least two years.”
would result in higher levels of some air ⚪ Permafrost covers three times the
pollutants, as well as increased disease area of Antarctica in the northern
transmission through polluted water and hemisphere.
food. Climate change has a direct impact ⚪ It can be found on land in polar and
on human health. high-mountain locations, as well as in
y As the environment warms, the likelihood shallow parts of the Arctic and Southern
of a negative influence on human health oceans as undersea permafrost.
grows, and the number of deaths is ⚪ Permafrost thickness varies from less

108 Climate Change

 than a metre to more than a kilometre. Impact on Gender and Security
It usually resides beneath an “active y The UN Environment Programme (UNEP), UN
layer” that freezes and thaws every year. Women, the UN Development Programme
⚪ There is roughly twice as much carbon (UNDP), and the UN Department of Political
in permafrost as there is in the and Peacebuilding Affairs (UNDPPA)
atmosphere right now. produced Sustaining Inclusive Peace on the
⚪ As permafrost thaws, a rising Frontlines of Climate Change. Outcomes
temperature increases CO2 and of climate change threatening security and
methane emissions, “accelerating the disrupting peace:
speed of climate change.” ⚪ Increased loss of livelihoods, food
y According to various forecasts, near-surface insecurity, competition for precious
permafrost area will drop by 2-66 percent resources, migration and displacement,
and 30-99 percent by 2100, releasing up and political and economic instability
to 240 (gigatons) of permafrost carbon as are all being worsened by rising
CO2 and methane into the atmosphere, temperatures, protracted droughts,
potentially speeding up climate change. heavier rainfall, and stronger storms.
y Warmer temperatures and CO2 fertilisation ⚪ Community capacity to cope with
may boost plant growth in permafrost climate change is being harmed by
locations, allowing additional carbon to be violence. Communities are poorer, less
sequestered in plant biomass and increased resilient, and unprepared to deal with
carbon inputs into the surface soil. the repercussions of climate change as
a result of violent conflict and political
Impact on High Mountains Regions instability.
y A tenth of the world’s population lives in ⚪ Men and women are affected differently
high-mountain regions. Critical cryosphere by climate-related security issues.
changes occur in their glaciers, permafrost, ⚪ Inequality can be exacerbated by pre-
and snow. existing inequities, gender-related
y Under a high-emissions scenario, glaciers duties and expectations, and unequal
are expected to lose roughly 33% of their access to resources, which can leave
mass by the end of the century, with a some groups disproportionately
200mm sea-level rise as a result of these vulnerable.
glaciers. y Traditional and expanded obligations as
y By 2100, non-polar regions with limited ice a result of climate change might expose
cover, such as Central Europe and North women to new security threats, such as
Asia, are expected to lose more than 80% sexual and gender-based abuse, additional
of their current glacier mass on average. educational impediments, and increased
y Even if there is no further climate change, family chores, such as collecting water or
glaciers will continue to melt due to a fuelwood in degraded surroundings.
“pronounced mismatch” between present y New avenues for women to participate in
glacier mass and climate, according to the peacebuilding, conflict resolution, and
IPCC AR5 results. climate change adaptation: Women’s
y Loss of Alpine Glaciers: Over 500 Swiss particular expertise in natural resources –
glaciers have vanished altogether since as providers of food, water, and energy – can
1850. According to a recent study, the Alps’ help to improve the design and execution
largest glacier, the enormous Aletsch, could of climate change adaptation programmes.
vanish completely within the next eight
decades.

Climate Change 109

 Important Terminologies and their Meanings

y Carbon sequestration is the technique of trapping carbon dioxide

(CO2) gas from new and existing power plants and companies before
it is released into the atmosphere.
y After the CO2 gas has been confined, it is stored for the long term in
Carbon one of two ways.
Sequestration y Terrestrial Sequestration plants and trees store CO2 in their bodies
and roots.
y Geologic Sequestration buries the CO2 thousands of feet underground.
y By disrupting the carbon cycle, carbon sequestration tries to remove
hazardous human-introduced carbon from our atmosphere.

y Anything that takes more carbon than it releases as carbon dioxide is

Carbon Sink
referred to as a carbon sink.

y A carbon credit is a tradable certificate that represents the right to

emit one tonne of CO2 equivalent.
Carbon Credit y An organisation can earn carbon credits by emitting one tonne less
CO2 equivalent than the standard amount of carbon emission allowed
for their activities.

y Carbon offsetting is the technique of making up for one’s carbon

dioxide emissions by preventing a similar quantity of pollution from
occurring elsewhere.
y One carbon offset involves compensating for the release of one tonne
of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere by stopping another
tonne of CO2 from entering the atmosphere else on the earth (e.g.,
investing in renewable energy) or by eliminating a tonne of CO2 that
Carbon Offsetting is already in the atmosphere (by promoting tree planting, which pulls
CO2 from the air as it grows).
y Under the Kyoto Protocol, governments are permitted to assist one
another in reducing their combined emissions (the key global piece
of legislation addressing climate change). The Clean Development
Mechanism is what it’s called (CDM).
y The basic principle is that developed countries pay developing
countries to minimise global pollution on their behalf.

y It is a kind of pollution tax.

y It levies a cost based on the quantity of carbon emitted during
combustion for the sale, production, and use of fossil fuels.
Carbon Tax y The government sets a carbon price per tonne, which is then converted
into a tax on natural gas, electricity, or oil, incentivising businesses,
utilities, and individuals to cut consumption and improve energy
efficiency by increasing the cost of dirty fuels.

110 Climate Change

 y Using a variety of engineering methods, it aims to modify and cool the
Earth’s environment.
y It’s a collection of potential technologies that, in theory, might reduce
global warming by reflecting more sunlight away from the Earth’s
Geo-engineering
surface.
y The breadth of proposed techniques, from sending a mirror into space
to spraying aerosols in the stratosphere, all come with their own set
of technical, ethical, and political obstacles.

y Coastal, terrestrial, and marine carbon sinks maintained by the

indicated plants, marine creatures, and sediments are referred to as
Blue and Green
blue carbon.
Carbon
y Green Carbon is the carbon absorbed by photosynthesis and stored in
plants and soil of natural ecosystems.
Table 5.4: Important Terminologies

Fig. 5.4: Geo-Engineering to Combat Climate Change

Climate Change 111

 Previous Years’ Question (PYQ) help developed countries and the private
(2014, Mains) sector to continue with business while
meeting their emission targets, is now on
Should the pursuit of carbon credits the brink of disappearing into oblivion.
and clean development mechanisms set
up under UNFCCC be maintained even Reasons for decline in value of carbon
though there has been a massive slide credits:
in the value of a carbon credit? Discuss y Fallen demand in the European
with respect to India’s energy needs market: There has been decreasing
for economic growth. (200 Words, 12.5 demand in European countries for
Marks) carbon credit which leads to a massive
Decoding the question: price decrease of carbon credit.
y In intro try to define carbon credits y Domestic market: Countries like
and also in brief write about clean Canada, China, Brazil, have set up
development mechanism. independent carbon markets they
y In Body, can trade in, without the prices being
⚪ Discuss reasons for reduced value influenced by global circumstances.
of carbon credits. This led to a fall in prices of global
⚪ In the second part, justify whether carbon credit.
India should pursue for carbon y Restrictions of purchase: European
credits or fulfill domestic energy countries and countries like Australia
demand. (Balanced answer have put restrictions and put a cap
needed, write need of energy for on purchase of carbon credits from
India, and also need of carbon developing countries like India.
credits) y No commitment under Kyoto Protocol:
y Try to conclude the answer with a The talks to extend the commitment
balanced opinion. made under Kyoto Protocol have not
Answer: been materialised into any agreement.
A carbon credit is a permit that allows This has hurt business sentiments and
the company that holds it to emit a dissuaded businesses from opting for
certain amount of carbon dioxide or other a clean energy mechanism.
greenhouse gasses. One credit permits India, the second largest populated
the emission of a mass equal to one ton nation in the world with more than a
of carbon dioxide. The Clean Development billion people has an economy which is
Mechanism (CDM9 established under the growing at nearly 8% over the last decade
UN's Kyoto Protocol has two main goals: and about 6% on the average since her
First, to assist countries without emissions independence in 1947. India’s economy is
targets (i.e. developing countries) in already very energy hungry, and demand is
achieving sustainable development set to grow enormously.
and Second, help those countries with
emission reduction targets under Kyoto
(i.e. developed countries) in achieving Should India Pursue for Carbon Credits and
compliance by allowing them to purchase CDM
offsets created by CDM projects.
y Demand of Energy: Due to increasing
Carbon credit trading, once seen as one
demand for energy, India has put a lot of
of the most successful mechanisms to
emphasis on improving energy efficiency.
The continued pursuit for carbon credit will

112 Climate Change

 be very negative for India’s energy sector basis, resulting in a dynamic equilibrium.
and this can compromise India’s energy y Briefly, the process is:
needs. ⚪ After absorbing an ultraviolet photon
y Manufacturing hub: India’s quest for carbon with a wavelength less than 240 nm,
credits can be harmful to make India a oxygen molecules photo dissociate.
manufacturing hub and improve quality of This splits a single molecule of oxygen
life. As carbon credit may prove detrimental into two atomic oxygen radicals.
for growth in the energy sector and even ⚪ After that, the atomic oxygen radicals
harms newer investments. unite with two O2 molecules to form
y Huge population: India can not depend two O3 molecules.
on clean energy completely for fulfilling ⚪ These ozone molecules absorb UV
its energy needs. As India has a huge radiation between the wavelengths of
population and is going to become number 310 and 200 nm, causing ozone to split
one in terms of population size and to into an O2 molecule and an oxygen
achieve Sustainable Development Goals atom.
India needs huge investments in the energy ⚪ The oxygen atom joins with an oxygen
sector. molecule to regenerate ozone. The
y Use for own benefit: Indians need to use addition of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
surplus carbon credit for its own benefits to the atmosphere as a result of human
by selling it domestically. It will achieve twin activities has upset this equilibrium.
objectives of fulfilling generation of energy ⚪ As refrigerants, CFCs were widely
especially from coals and fossil fuel-based employed. CFCs released in the lower
energy and keeping carbon footprints low. atmosphere travel higher and into the
But if India completely abandons the carbon stratosphere.
credit policy it could face backlash from the
international community on the issue of Role of Volcanoes and Ocean in Ozone
climate change. Hence instead of completely Depletion
abandoning carbon credit policy India needs to y The main reasons for occurrences that
moderate it policy as per global demand and pump extra chlorine and ODS (Ozone
domestic energy demands. Depleting Substances) into the stratosphere
are human-caused events.
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion ⚪ Volcanoes and oceans have a part,
y The Ozone layer, which has a higher-than- although these are natural phenomena
normal concentration of Ozone molecules, that are minimised by ozone production
is located in the stratosphere. in the stratosphere.
y It acts as a barrier, absorbing UV rays from y Most volcanic eruptions are too weak to
the Sun. UV rays are particularly dangerous reach the stratosphere, which is roughly 10
to living things because they absorb DNA kilometres above ground level.
and proteins preferentially, and their high y As a result, any HCl released by the eruption
energy breaks chemical bonds inside begins its journey in the troposphere.
these molecules. Dobson units are used y At a very low level, ocean salt is also
to measure the thickness of ozone in a discharged into the atmosphere. To reach
column of air from the ground to the top of the stratosphere, these compounds would
the atmosphere (DU). have to remain in the atmosphere for 2-5
y 1 DU is equal to a layer of pure ozone years. Unlike CFCs, however, sea salt and
molecules 0.01mm thick. HCl are extremely water-soluble.
y UV light interacts with molecular oxygen to y Other chlorine sources, such as swimming
make and destroy ozone gas on a continuous pools, industrial facilities, sea salt, and

Climate Change 113

 volcanoes, have also been studied for and growth, as well as the fish that eat
their possible effects. However, chlorine them.
compounds from these sources quickly ⚪ Fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians, and
react with water and rain as they exit other species have all been documented
the troposphere, preventing them from to be influenced by UV light at various
reaching the stratosphere. phases of life. Animals in the upper
⚪ CFCs, on the other hand, are extremely food chain that eat these little fish are
stable and do not disintegrate in the all affected when this happens. The
rain. CFCs are not removed from the skin of whales is likewise harmed by UV
lower atmosphere by natural processes. radiation of high intensity.
Winds carry CFCs into the stratosphere ⚪ Higher UV levels have an impact on
over time. the natural balance of gases in the
biosphere, particularly greenhouse
Consequences of Ozone Depletion gases.
y Non-melanoma skin cancer is caused by ⚪ Changes in UV levels can result in
high quantities of UV rays, according to biosphere atmospheric feedback due
research. It also plays a key function in to the build-up of these gases in the
the development of malignant melanoma. atmosphere.
Cataracts have also been linked to UV
exposure. Remedial Measures to Prevent Ozone
y Increased tropospheric ozone is caused Depletion
by increased surface UV. Because ozone y Limiting or reducing the quantity of driving
is hazardous due to its powerful oxidant is a simple strategy to regulate ozone
capabilities, ground-level ozone is well depletion because automotive emissions
recognised as a health hazard. eventually result in smog, which is a major
⚪ Young children, the elderly, and contributor to the deterioration of the
individuals with asthma or other ozone layer.
respiratory problems are especially y For home activities, utilise eco-friendly
vulnerable. and natural cleaning products; many of
⚪ The action of UV radiation on combustion these cleaning solutions include hazardous
gases from car exhausts is the primary compounds that deplete the ozone layer.
source of ozone at ground level. y Using biocontrol agents instead of
⚪ Plant growths, as well as their insecticides or looking into pest-resistant
physiological and developmental GM crops.
processes, are all affected negatively. y According to a study, the damage caused
⚪ These factors include plant formation, by rocket launches would outweigh the
development and growth time, nutrient damage caused by CFCs. At the moment,
distribution, and metabolism, among global rocket launches do not contribute
others. Plant competitive balance, much to ozone layer depletion, but over
animals that eat these plants, plant time, they will become a significant
diseases, and biogeochemical cycles contributor. All types of rocket engines
may all be affected by these changes. produce ozone-depleting substances that
y Aquatic food webs are built on the base are ejected directly into the stratosphere’s
of phytoplankton. Where there is enough middle and upper layers.
sunshine, they normally develop closer to y Including N2O in the Montreal Protocol
the water’s surface. because it is a current major contributor to
⚪ Changes in UV levels have been shown ozone depletion, whereas other contributors
to alter phytoplankton development have declined gradually.

114 Climate Change

Climate Change Mitigation Strategies countries that have ratified the Convention
are known as Parties to the Convention.
y A mitigation strategy, by definition, is
y The UNFCCC is a “Rio Convention,” one of
taking steps to reduce the risk (the severity
two that were signed at the 1992 “Rio Earth
of the impact and/or probability of the
Summit.”.
occurrence).
y The UN Convention on Biological Diversity and
y Mitigating climate change entails lowering
the Convention to Combat Desertification
the amount of greenhouse gas emissions
are its sister Rio Conventions, and the
that contribute to global warming.
three are closely linked. In this regard,
y Retrofitting buildings to make them more
the Joint Liaison Group was founded to
energy efficient; embracing renewable
improve coordination between the three
energy sources such as wind, solar, and
Conventions, with the ultimate goal of
small hydro; and assisting communities in
generating synergies in their actions on
creating more sustainable transportation
mutually important issues.
solutions such as electric cars, bus rapid
y The Secretariat is located in Bonn, Germany.
transit, and biofuels are all examples of
y Its goal is to keep greenhouse gas levels
mitigation strategies, and promoting more
in the atmosphere stable. Under the
sustainable uses of land and forests.
Convention, developed countries agree to
y The Special Report on 1.5 Degrees of Warming
support climate change activities in poor
released by the Intergovernmental Panel on
countries by giving financial support for
Climate Change (IPCC) in 2018 stresses the
climate change action in addition to any
urgency of climate action: global emissions
other financial help they provide to these
must peak by 2030 and quickly fall to zero
countries.
by 2050 if we are to remain within the Paris
⚪ The Convention established a system of
Agreement’s safety limits.
grants and loans, which is overseen by
Global Response to Climate Change the Global Environment Facility.
⚪ Developed countries also agree to share
y Climate change has become a defining technology with developing countries.
concern in recent years, and the entire y The Kyoto Protocol requires industrialised
planet is at a turning point. countries (Annex I) to report on their climate
y The repercussions of climate change are change policies and actions on a regular
worldwide in scope and unprecedented basis (for countries that have ratified it).
in scale, ranging from changing weather ⚪ They must also provide an annual
patterns that threaten food production inventory of their greenhouse gas
to rising sea levels that raise the risk of emissions, which must include data
catastrophic flooding. from the base year (1990) and all
y Adapting to these repercussions in the subsequent years.
future will be more difficult and costly if y Developing countries (Non-Annex I Parties)
dramatic action is not taken today. In this report in broader terms on their actions
backdrop, the world has come together to to address climate change and adapt to
combat climate change and its evil effects. its effects, but less frequently than Annex
I Parties, and their reporting is contingent
UNFCCC: United Nations Framework on them receiving funding to prepare the
Convention on Climate Change reports, especially in the case of the Least
y On 21st March, 1994, the United Nations Developed Countries.
Framework Convention on Climate Change y India is a non-Annex party (refers to
(UNFCCC) was established. Its membership countries that have ratified or acceded to
is now practically universal. The 197 the UNFCCC but are not included in Annex)

Climate Change 115

 y
6
to UNFCCC.
Earth Summits
Kyoto Protocol was negotiated under this
framework.

Earth Summits United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

Introduction:

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) or Earth

Summit has one of the largest gatherings of world leaders.
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 5-16 June 1972, Stockholm
The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Environment in Stockholm was the first
world conference to make the environment a major issue. The participants adopted
a series of principles for sound management of the environment including the Stoc-
kholm Declaration and Action Plan for the Human Environment and several resolutions.
The Stockholm Declaration marked the start of a dialogue between industrialized
and developing countries on the link between economic growth, the pollution of the
air, water, and oceans and the well-being of people around the world.
The Action Plan contained three main categories: a) Global Environmental Assessm-
ent Programme (watch plan); b) Environmental management activities; (c) Internati-
onal measures to support assessment and management activities carried out at the
national and international levels. In addition, these categories were broken down
into 109 recommendations.
One of the major results of the Stockholm conference was the creation of the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

First Earth Summit: 1992,

Rio de Janeiro

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also

called the Rio Summit, was held in 1992.
It was created as a response from member states to cooperate on international issues.
Outcome of first Earth Summit: It resulted in the following documents.

Rio Declaration: This includes principles which guide countries for future sustainable
development.
Agenda 21: Non-binding action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable
development.
Forest principles: This was a non-legally binding document on Conservation and Sus-
tainable developments of all types of forests.

116 Climate Change

Earth Summits: 1
 First Earth Summit: 1992,
Earth Summits Rio de Janeiro

Landmark Agreements:

Convention on Biological Diversity

United Nations Framework of Convention on Climate Change.
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.

Rio+5 (1997):

The United Nations General Assembly convened a special session in 1997 to assess
the status of Agenda 21 (Rio +5).
The Assembly labeled progress as "uneven" and described key developments such
as increased globalization, widening income gaps, and continued
environmental degradation.

World Summit on Sustainable Development,

26 August-4 September 2002, Johannesburg

Also called as Rio+10

It a�rmed UN commitment to Agenda 21 alongside Millennium Development Goals.
The outcome was the Johannesburg declaration which asks governments for
commitments to sustainable development.
The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg adopted
a Political Declaration and Implementation Plan which included provisions
covering a set of activities and measures to be taken in order to achieve
development that takes into account respect for the environment.
United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development, 20-22 June 2012, Rio de Janeiro

Twenty years after the 1992 'Earth Summit' in Rio de Janeiro, the 2012 United
Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio (also known as Rio+20)
resulted in a document containing clear and practical steps for the implementation
of sustainable development.
At the Conference, Member States decided to launch a process to develop a set of
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), building on the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) and converging with the post-2015 development agenda.

Earth Summits: 2

Climate Change 117

 United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Earth Summits: Development, 20-22 June 2012, Rio de Janeiro

The Conference also adopted innovative guidelines on green economy policies, and put
in place a strategy for financing sustainable development.
Governments adopted a 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption
and production patterns.
The Conference also took forward-looking decisions in a number of thematic areas,
including energy, food security, oceans and cities, and decided to convene a third
international conference on small island developing States in 2014.

Partnership for Action on Green

Economy (PAGE)

It was launched in 2013.

PAGE supports nations in reframing economic policies and practices around sustainability.
PAGE seeks to assist countries in achieving SDG (2030 Agenda).
PAGE brings together five UN agencies-UNEP,ILO,UNIDO, UNDP and UNITAR.

Stockholm 2022

In June 2022, a crucial international environmental meeting will be held in Stockholm,

Sweden. Anchored in the Decade of Action, under the theme “Stockholm+50: a healthy
planet for the prosperity of all – our responsibility, our opportunity,” this high-level meeting
will follow months of consultations and discussions with individuals, communities,
organizations and governments around the world.
Stockholm+50 will commemorate the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Environment
and celebrate 50 years of global environmental action.

Kyoto Protocol Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) and Nitrous

y Adopted in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and came Oxide (NO2)
into force in 2005. ⚪ Two groups of gases: Hydrofluorocarbons
y Parties: 192 (191 States and 1 regional (HFCs), and Perfluorocarbons (PFCs).
economic integration organisation) y It includes “flexible mechanisms” that allow
y It set binding goals for Annex I countries and Annex I economies to meet their GHG targets
aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through financial exchanges (International
to combat global warming. Emissions Trading Scheme); projects that
y The Protocol is built on the idea of shared reduce emissions in non-Annex I countries
but distinct obligations. under the Clean Development Mechanism
y The following GHGs are included in the (CDM); and projects that reduce emissions
protocol’s goal: in other Annex I countries under the Joint
⚪ Summits:
Earth Methane (CH4), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Implementation Mechanism (JI). 3

118 Climate Change

y It commits 37 industrialised countries encompassing Africa, Asia-Pacific, and
and the European Union to the so-called Latin America-Caribbean.
Kyoto targets of reducing their greenhouse
gas emissions by an average of 5 percent REDD+
against 1990 levels, over 2008-12 period. y REDD+ (or REDD-plus) stands for “reducing
y This method can only be used to buy and emissions from deforestation and forest
sell CDM Executive Board-accredited degradation in developing countries,
Certified Emission Reductions (CER). and the role of conservation, sustainable
y India has ratified the Kyoto Protocol’s management of forests, and enhancement
second commitment, also known as the of forest carbon stocks in developing
Doha Amendment. countries”.
y The Paris agreement is not an upgradation y REDD+ is a method that rewards developing
of the Kyoto Protocol but rather a separate countries for their proven efforts to cut
instrument alternative. emissions and boost greenhouse gas
y Criticism of kyoto protocol removals through a variety of forest
⚪ Many countries were permitted to raise management options.
emissions under CBDR (common but y India favours REDD+ as it offers a broad
differentiated responsibilities). range of social, environmental, and
⚪ The most polluting nations, such as economic benefits to developing countries
China and India, were exempted. and forest communities.
y REDD+ aims to encourage developing
UN-REDD countries to participate in climate change
y In response to the UNFCCC decisions mitigation actions in the forest sector
on the Bali Action Plan and REDD at the by reducing carbon emissions from
United Nations Framework Convention deforestation, reducing carbon emissions
on Climate Change, the United Nations from forest degradation, conserving
Programme on Reducing Emissions from forest carbon stocks, sustainable forest
Deforestation and Forest Degradation (UN- management, and improving forest carbon
REDD Programme) was established in 2008 stocks.
as a collaboration between the FAO, UNDP, y Countries interested in REDD+ have to
and UNEP (UNFCCC). progress through 3 different phases, which
y It should not be confused with REDD+, are closely linked with one another:
which is a UNFCCC Parties-led voluntary ⚪ The formulation of national policies
climate change mitigation approach. or action plans, REDD+ mitigation
y The Program’s overarching development goal initiatives, and capacity building are all
is to “lower forest emissions and increase part of the readiness phase.
forest carbon reserves while contributing to ⚪ REDD+ actions and national strategies
national sustainable development.” or plans to be implemented, which
y The UN-REDD Programme encourages all could include extra capacity building,
stakeholders, including indigenous peoples technology development and transfer,
and other forest-dependent communities, and results-based demonstration
to participate in national and international activities.
REDD+ implementation in an informed and ⚪ Actions that must be adequately
meaningful way. measured, recorded and validated to
y Since its inception, the Program has achieve the desired results.
grown gradually, with 65 Partner Countries

Climate Change 119

 Fig. 5.5: REDD VS REDD+

Global Environment Facility (GEF) Green Climate Fund (GCF)

y The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was y It is a UNFCCC-sponsored fund that was
founded on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth developed to assist developing countries
Summit to assist in the resolution of the with climate change adaptation and
world’s most serious environmental issues. mitigation strategies.
y Climate change, biodiversity, soil loss, y The general concept for GCF was first
international waters, persistent organic proposed in 2009 at the UNFCCC COP-15 in
pollutants, and ozone layer protection Copenhagen, Denmark.
are among areas where the GEF supports y It was established under the Cancún
programmes. Agreements in 2010 at COP-16 in Mexico.
y It provides funds to developing countries y The World Bank would serve as the fund’s
and countries with economies in transition trustee temporarily.
to meet the aim of the international y Incheon, South Korea, is the headquarters.
environmental conventions and agreements. y A key GCF philosophy is to have a country-
y Government agencies, civil society led approach, which implies developing
organisations, private sector enterprises, countries are in charge of GCF programming
and academic institutes are among the and implementation.
many potential partners who receive y The GCF is mandated to dedicate 50%
GEF funding to undertake projects and of its resources to mitigation and 50% to
programmes in recipient countries. adaptation in the grant equivalent.
y The GEF also functions as a funding source y At least half of its adaptation funds must
for environmental conventions given below: go to the countries which are more prone
⚪ Minamata Convention on Mercury to climate change (SIDS, LDCs, and the
⚪ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) African States).
⚪ UN Convention to Combat Desertification y It was planned to be the focal point of efforts
(UNCCD) to mobilise $100 billion in climate finance
⚪ United Nations Framework Convention annually by 2020. This is not, however, an
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) official estimate of the Fund’s size.
⚪ Stockholm Convention on Persistent y Even after committing, developed countries
Organic Pollutants (POPs) have contributed relatively little to it.

120 Climate Change

 3 Climate Financing

Climate Financing: Introduction:

It is the local, national or international financing that supports adaption against

climate change.
It is usually drawn from public, private institutions or any other source of funding.

Clean Development Mechanism: Green Climate Funds:

It is defined under the Kyoto Protocol Consensus reached Durban CoP.

Provides finance for Emission It committed to a 50: 50 balanced
Reduction Projects. allocation of finance for adaptation
and mitigation.

The Climate Investment Fund:

Administered by the World Bank.

Includes Climate Technology Fund (CTF), Strategic Climate Fund (SCF), and Forest
Investment Program (FIP).

UNFCCC and Financing of Climate:

UNFCCC has developed a financial mechanism to provide financial resources to

developing countries.
Adaptation Fund under the Kyoto protocol. It finances projects and programs that
help vulnerable countries that are parties to Kyoto Protocol.
Green Climate Fund. It is a financial mechanism of UNFCCC.
Global Environment Fund. It provides a private equity fund for long term financial
returns by investing in clean energy for climate change. It has two funds within
itself; Special Climate Change Fund and Least Developed Countries Fund.

Multilateral Climate Funds:

Forest Carbon Facility by World Bank

The EU Global Energy E�ciency and Renewable Energy Fund by European
Investment Bank.
Africa Climate Change Fund.

Climate Financing 1

Climate Change 121

 Climate Financing: Climate Financing in India:

The Climate change finance unit in the finance ministry was established in 2011.
NITI Aayog estimates the finance requirements in the country.

National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC). Established in 2015, to meet
the cost of adaptation to climate change.
National Clean Energy Fund. It was created to promote clean energy; it provides
financial support for research and development in clean energy technology.
National Adaptation Fund. Its objective is to bridge the gap between the need and
available funds. It is operated under MoEFCC.
Union and State Budget
The Compensatory A�orestation Fund.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Nobel Peace Prize for their contributions to
(IPCC) human understanding of climate change.
y The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Members of the IPCC elect a scientific
Change (IPCC) is a United Nations bureau to serve for the duration of each
intergovernmental group charged with assessment cycle (usually six to seven
developing knowledge on human-caused years).
climate change. It was founded in 1988 y The IPCC’s Physical Science Working
by the World Meteorological Organisation Group released their contribution to the
(WMO) and the United Nations Environment Sixth Assessment Report in August 2021,
Programme (UNEP), and it was later describing it as the “sharpest warning yet” of
adopted by the United Nations General “major, irreversible, and irreversible climatic
Assembly. It has 195 member nations and is changes,” a theme repeated by numerous
headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. newspapers around the world.
y The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate y Several special reports from the IPCC were
Change (IPCC) is a non-profit organisation released during this time, including the
that does research on climate change. The Special Report on 1.5°C Global Warming,
IPCC was created to provide periodical the Special Report on Climate Change and
scientific assessments of climate change, Land (SRCCL), and the Special Report on
its impacts, and potential future risks the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing
to policymakers, as well as to propose Climate (SROCC), making the IPCC’s sixth
adaptation and mitigation solutions. assessment cycle the most ambitious in
y The IPCC is a worldwide recognised the organisation’s history.
authority on climate change, and its findings
are widely accepted by prominent climate Paris Agreement on Climate Change
scientists as well as governments. The UN y The Paris Agreement on climate change is
Framework Convention on Climate Change a legally enforceable international treaty.
(UNFCCC) relies on its assessments, with It was accepted at the United Nations
the Fifth Assessment Report shaping the Conference on Climate Change (COP 21)
historic Paris Agreement in 2015. In 2007, in Paris on 12th December 2015 and came
Climate Financing 2
the IPCC and Al Gore were awarded the into force on 4th November 2016. Currently,

122 Climate Change

 there are 192 Parties (191 countries plus sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2
the European Union) have joined the Paris equivalent.
Agreement. y In order to meet this long-term temperature
y From the year 2020, the agreement deals goal, countries aspire to reach the global
with the reduction of greenhouse gas peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as
emissions, its adaptation, and its financing. soon as possible, resulting in a climate-
y The contribution that each country called neutral world by mid-century.
“nationally determined contributions” y The Paris Agreement is a watershed point
(NDCs) in the worldwide climate change process
y It aims to limit global warming to well because it is the first legally binding pact
below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, that brings all nations together in a common
compared to pre-industrial levels. cause to combat climate change and adapt
y In 2023, the NDCs will be reviewed after 5 to its repercussions.
years. y Countries adopted a more transparent
y It was signed by India. India’s contribution framework with the Paris Agreement (ETF-
to global greenhouse gas is 4.10% in 2015. Enhanced Transparency Framework).
y India’s proposed targets: y Starting in 2024, countries will be required
⚪ Reduce its GDP emissions intensity by to report honestly on their activities and
33-35 percent by 2030, compared to progress in climate change mitigation,
2005 levels. adaptation, and support offered or received
⚪ With the support of technology transfer under the ETF.
and low-cost international finance, y It also establishes worldwide protocols for
roughly 40% of electric power installed the examination of reports provided.
capacity from non-fossil fuel-based y The data obtained by the ETF will be fed
energy resources by 2030. into a global stocktake that will measure
⚪ Increase forest and tree cover by 2.5 how far we’ve come toward achieving our
to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent long-term climate goals.
by 2030, resulting in an extra carbon

Climate Change 123

124 Climate Change
Climate Change 125
 International Solar Alliance represent emission reductions.
y The ISA was launched at the 2015 Paris y Trading allows entities that can cut
Climate Change Summit by the PM of India emissions at a reduced cost to be
and the President of France. compensated for their efforts by higher-
y Headquarters is at Gurugram, India. cost polluters, lowering the economic cost
y It seeks to empower solar-rich countries of doing so.
located in between the tropic of Cancer y After that, the number of metric tonnes
and Capricorn to make collaborative efforts of CO2 a company can emit is calculated.
to harness solar energy for generating Those who pollute less than their quota
electricity. can sell the excess to other businesses,
y Its main goals include the global deployment motivating everyone to cut emissions faster.
of over 1,000 GW of solar generation capacity y The main international carbon market
and the mobilisation of over $1000 billion in plan in use today was established as part
solar energy investment by 2030. of the United Nations’ Kyoto Protocol
on Climate Change in 1997. Under that
Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) treaty, developed countries had targets to
y Since 1990, AOSIS has represented the reduce greenhouse gas emissions, while
interests of the 39 small island and low- underdeveloped countries did not. So, if a
lying coastal developing member states in developing country reduces its emissions
international climate change, sustainable by, say, building a solar panel facility or
development negotiations and processes. planting trees, it may sell a “credit” to a rich
It also has 5 observer states. country, which can use it to meet its own
y The alliance’s mission is to unite the voices emissions targets.
of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in
Carbon Financing
the fight against global warming. Climate
change has put several AOSIS states’ lives y Carbon finance is a subset of environmental
in jeopardy; hence AOSIS has threatened to finance that includes financial techniques
sue. such as carbon emission trading to lessen
y In the Indian Ocean 4 states are a member: the environmental impact of greenhouse
⚪ Comoros gases (GHG) by putting a price on them.
⚪ Maldives y Corporate balance sheets are impacted
⚪ Mauritius by financial risks and possibilities, and
⚪ Seychelles market-based instruments can be used
y India is not a member. to transfer environmental risk and achieve
y The Talanoa Dialogue was launched at COP environmental goals.
23 under the Presidency of the Republic of y Climate change and greenhouse gas
Fiji. emissions must be handled as part of
y The dialogue will help countries implement strategic management decisions.
their Intended Nationally Determined y Investments in GHG emission reduction
Contributions and reduce the impact of projects and the production (origination) of
climate change on SIDS. financial instruments that may be traded
on the carbon market are both referred to
Carbon Markets as “carbon finance.”
y Carbon markets strive to reduce greenhouse y Since its inception in 1996, the market for
gas (GHG, or “carbon”) emissions in a cost- carbon purchasing has grown at a breakneck
effective manner by establishing emission pace.
limitations and allowing the trading y The value of traded global markets for
of emission units or instruments that carbon dioxide (CO2) permits grew by 164

126 Climate Change

 percent to a record 760 billion Euros ($ 851
billion), last year, an analyst at Refinitiv said. to sell their unused allowances to
y The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) higher-emitting businesses.
was established by the Kyoto Protocol in y An ETS creates supply and demand
1997, and it allows industrialised countries for emission allowances, resulting
to offset their emissions by investing in in a market price for greenhouse gas
emission reduction initiatives in emerging emissions.
countries such as China, India, and an Latin y The cap ensures that emitters meet
America. the required emission reductions in
y Another technique, Joint Implementation order to stay within their pre-allocated
(JI), allows investments in developed carbon budget (in aggregate).
countries to earn emission credits for the y A carbon tax is a tax on greenhouse
same or a different developed country. gas emissions or, more typically, the
carbon content of fossil fuels that
imposes a direct price on carbon.
Carbon Pricing y It varies from an ETS in that the
y The expression “put a price on emission reduction effect of the carbon
carbon” has become well-known, with tax is not predetermined, whereas the
countries and businesses increasingly carbon price is.
committing to putting a price on carbon
pollution as a means of reducing
emissions and encouraging investment
Cities and Climate Change (C40)
in cleaner alternatives.
y A carbon price serves to reassign y C40 is a global network of megacities
blame for the damage to those dedicated to combating climate change.
who are responsible for it and can C40 encourages communities to work
mitigate it. A carbon price, rather together effectively, share information,
than dictating who and how to reduce and take real, quantifiable, and long-term
emissions, delivers an economic signal climate action.
to polluters, allowing them to choose y C40 Cities draws together 97 of the world’s
whether to cease polluting, reduce most crucial cities to take significant
emissions, or continue polluting and climate action, paving the way for a more
pay the price. As a result, society’s healthy and sustainable future.
overall environmental goal is achieved y Mayors of the C40 cities, which represent
in the most flexible and cost-effective 700 million people and a quarter of
way feasible. the global economy, are committed to
y The carbon price also encourages clean implementing the Paris Agreement’s most
technology and market innovation, ambitious targets at the local level, as well
allowing for the development of new, as cleaning up the air.
low-carbon economic growth engines. y 6 Indian cities are currently members of
y There are 2 types of carbon pricing: C40: Bengaluru; Chennai; Delhi NCT; Jaipur;
ETS (emissions trading systems) and Kolkata and Mumbai.
carbon taxes.
y An ETS, commonly known as a cap- Impacts of COVID-19 Lockdown on
and-trade system, establishes a limit Environment
on overall greenhouse gas emissions y It has a mixed impact on the environment.
and allows low-emitting businesses y Reduced pollution: There was a significant

Climate Change 127

 reduction in air pollution (lower NO2 and climate action as per their commitments,
PM 2.5 concentrations), as well as clean despite the fact that the plans they
beaches due to a dearth of tourists and presented in 2015 might still allow global
less noise pollution. temperatures to climb by a potentially
⚪ For example, before the lockout, the disastrous 3°C.
average Air Quality Index (AQI) for major y While the urgency for countries to act on
Indian cities ranged from 300 to 500; climate change has never been greater,
after the shutdown, it fell from 50 to the failure to bring international leaders
100. together to do so could make it even more
y Decline in carbon emissions: Due to the difficult.
COVID-19 lockdown, massive reductions ⚪ Less money for climate resilience
in transportation and industrial activity and renewable energy: Governments’
resulted in a 17 percent reduction in daily efforts have been hampered by the
worldwide carbon emissions in April. demand for more emergency services
⚪ CO2 levels in the atmosphere, on the combined with a loss in tax revenue. As
other hand, achieved their highest a result, certain climate resilience and
monthly average ever in May, at 417.1 renewable energy projects have had to
parts per million. be delayed or diverted financially.
⚪ Because carbon dioxide that has ⚪ Scientific research has been hampered:
already been emitted can remain in the Scientists have been unable to travel
atmosphere for prolonged lengths of to do fieldwork due to lockdowns and
time, this is the case. travel bans, and there is a limit to how
y Increased waste and more plastic: COVID-19 much can be accomplished just through
has resulted in a significant increase in our data and computers.
use of plastic, such as gloves, masks, and ⚪ Deforestation and illegal poaching:
PPE kits, as well as throwaway shopping While Brazil, which has been affected
bags. Ecommerce has also resulted in more hard by COVID-19, focuses on containing
packaging materials, which has increased the virus, illegal loggers and miners
e-commerce carbon footprint. are seizing the opportunity to clear
⚪ Authorities are especially concerned enormous sections of the Amazon.
about the potential of COVID-19
spreading in recycling centres; therefore, Learnings from COVID-19 for Environment and
waste recycling has decreased. Climate Change
y As the globe grapples with the rapid
Effects of COVID-19 on Climate Change Efforts emergence of the COVID-19 catastrophe,
y Prior to the pandemic, public support for the following are some lessons on how
action on climate change reached a high to guarantee that the 2030 Agenda and
point, and government and corporate action the Paris Agreement are prioritised in the
was gaining traction. This momentum has recovery.
definitely slowed as a result of COVID-19. y In the instance of COVID-19, collaborative
y International talks have been postponed: networks of scientists across political lines
2020 was intended to be “a critical year” and country borders have boosted the
for climate change initiatives. All UNFCCC efficiency and speed of research to develop
COP26 meetings, as well as the World a solution.
Conservation Congress, the Convention on ⚪ In addition to multilateral political
Biological Diversity, and the 2020 UN Ocean negotiations, well-informed climate
Conference, have been postponed. negotiations imply unrestricted
y Many countries are planning to ramp up transparency and scientific

128 Climate Change

 cooperation, such as that given by the face of climate change. These and other
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate vulnerable communities should be at
Change (IPCC). the centre of attention and response
y Mobilising financial resources: In response in climate mitigation and adaptation
to the COVID-19 epidemic, governments activities.
immediately mobilised financial resources y Create climate-resilient global value
to support enterprises and enhance social chains: COVID-19 caused rapid and
benefits. severe disruption in industries such as
⚪ Global financing must overcome transportation, medical, and tourism.
challenging discussions and political ⚪ Because of the low on-set qualities of
issues to avoid a climate disaster. the climate issue, it will have at least
Climate investments are also financially equivalent, if not larger, consequences
sound. For example, it’s predicted that throughout the value chains of major
every dollar spent on climate-resilient industries. There is an opportunity to
infrastructure saves six dollars. design mechanisms that will strengthen
y Defending and improving public goods: the resilience of value chains in climate-
Overexploitation of common goods without sensitive industries, as well as ensure
regard for future generations’ needs has that key commodities and services are
resulted in the “tragedy of the commons”, available to everyone during climate-
which has had significant environmental related disasters.
consequences, including the zoonotic ⚪ This will have an impact on the supply
origins of the COVID-19 pandemic. of funds and finances, which must be
⚪ Case studies of countries’ responses focused on emergency situations rather
to the present pandemic reveal that than bailing out polluting businesses
prior investments in public health and in decline, in order to provide an
welfare systems resulted in better immediate stimulus for sustainable and
outcomes. Investments in clean air and low-carbon commodities and services.
water, healthy ecosystems, and other
environmental and climate products Indian Initiatives for Climate Change
that contribute to planetary health are National action plan on climate change
also critical. (NAPCC):
y Concentrate on people who have already y On 30th June, 2008, the NAPCC was formally
been abandoned: The COVID-19 pandemic released. It defines policies that advance
struck quickly, affecting the most development goals while also providing co-
vulnerable, including individuals with little benefits for effectively addressing climate
financial resources and access to health- change.
care facilities, as well as those in nursing y There are 8 “National Missions” which make
homes and homes for the disabled. the core of the National action plan.
⚪ Poor farmers, individuals without access y Climate change awareness, adaptation, and
to essential amenities, people living in mitigation, as well as energy efficiency and
slums, and climate migrants are among resource conservation, are all promoted.
those who have been left behind in the

Climate Change 129

 National Missions Descriptions

y The mission’s goal is to increase the amount of solar energy in

the country’s entire energy mix while simultaneously broadening
the scope of other renewable energy sources.
y Mission increased its goal of deploying 20,000 MW of grid-
National Solar Mission
connected solar power by 2022 to 1,00,000 MW by 2022 in June
2015.
y The target will primarily be 40 GW of rooftop solar and 60 GW of
large and medium-scale grid-connected solar power projects.

y To improve the energy efficiency market by developing a

favourable regulatory and policy setting.
y Initiatives:
National Mission for
⚪ Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT)
Enhanced Energy
⚪ Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency
Efficiency (NMEEE)
⚪ Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEP)
⚪ Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development
(FEEED)

y The Mission’s purpose is to make surroundings more sustainable

through a three-pronged strategy that includes: improving
National Mission on building energy efficiency in the residential and commercial
Sustainable Habitat sectors.
⚪ Management of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
⚪ Promote urban public transport

y Creating a framework for efficient water use through integrated

water resource management for water conservation, waste
National Water Mission reduction, and equitable distribution.
y The Water Mission will create a framework for a 20% increase in
water efficiency.

y The mission’s main goal is to develop a long-term national

National Mission on capacity to assess the health of the Himalayan Ecosystem on a
Sustainable Himalayan regular basis, as well as to assist States in the Himalayan Region
Ecosystem in implementing actions chosen for sustainable development by
empowering policy bodies in their policy making.

y Increased forest cover on five million hectares (ha) of forest/

non- forestlands.
National Mission for a y On another five million hectares of forest/non-forest areas,
Green India the forest cover quality has improved. Carbon sequestration,
biodiversity, and hydrological service have all improved as a
result of improved ecosystem services.

130 Climate Change

 y It has identified ten major adaptation and mitigation dimensions:
⚪ Improved Crop Seeds, Livestock and Fish Culture
⚪ Water Efficiency
⚪ Pest Management
⚪ Improved Farm Practices
National Mission for
⚪ Nutrient Management
Sustainable Agriculture
⚪ Agricultural Insurance
⚪ Credit Support
⚪ Markets
⚪ Access to Information
⚪ Livelihood Diversification

y To get a better understanding of climate science, impacts, and

problems, the strategy predicts a new Climate Science Research
National Climate Change
Fund, improved climate modelling, and increased international
Strategic Knowledge
collaboration. It also encourages private sector actions to create
Mission
adaptation and mitigation technology through venture capital
funds.
Table 5.5: Components of National Action Plan on Climate Change

Intended Nationally Determined Contribution Panchamrit Sutra

(INDC) y India’s Panchamrit Sutra at the COP26
y The Intended Nationally Determined Conference in Glasgow in 2021 to deal with
Contribution (INDC) of India to the United the challenge in the midst of this global
Nations Framework Convention on Climate brainstorming on climate change:
Change has been filed. ⚪ To raise the non-fossil fuel-based
y The following points are highlighted in the energy capacity of the country to 500
INDC: GW by 2030.
⚪ In comparison to 2005, the country’s ⚪ By 2030, 50% of the country’s energy
GDP emissions intensity would be requirements would be met using
reduced by 33 to 35 percent by 2030. renewable energy sources.
⚪ By 2030, non-fossil fuel-reliant energy ⚪ The country will reduce the total
resources will account for around 40% projected carbon emission by one billion
of total installed capacity, owing to tonnes between now and the year 2030.
technological transfer and low-cost ⚪ The carbon intensity of the economy
foreign investment, especially from the would be reduced to less than 45% by
Green Climate Fund. Increased forest 2030, Modi said as the fourth point.
and tree cover will have provided an ⚪ The country would become carbon
additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion neutral and achieve net-zero emissions
tonnes of CO2 equivalent by 2030. by the year 2070.

Climate Change 131

 Initiatives Description

Indian Network on y Launched in 2009, under MoEFCC.

Climate Change y It is a network-based programme, which consists of over 120
Assessment institutions and over 250 scientists countrywide

y National Communication (NATCOM) to the UNFCCC was initiated in

2002 and funded by the Global Environment Facility.
y The project is implemented and executed by the Ministry of
National Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
Communication y All GHGs not regulated by the Montreal Protocol require a national
(NATCOM) inventory of anthropogenic emissions by source and removal by the
sink.
y To communicate the information to the Conference of Parties
Secretariat.

y In 2006, the Integrated Energy Policy was introduced.

y Energy efficiency promotion in all industries, with a concentration
India’s Policy
on mass transportation and renewables like biofuel crops.
Structure Relevant
y Where grid access is neither practical nor cost-effective, the
to GHG Mitigation
Rural Electrification Policy of 2006 promotes renewable energy
technology.

y Buildings are a substantial source of toxins that impair air quality

in metropolitan areas and lead to global warming. While green
buildings are more expensive to arrange and build, they are less
expensive to operate.
Green Building
y It attempts to reduce demand for non-renewable resources,
increase the efficiency with which these resources are used while
they are available, and maximise the reuse and recycling of existing
resources.

y GRIHA is a Sanskrit word. The meaning of GRIHA is ‘Abode’ or ‘Home’.

y Devised by the MNRE and TERI, it is a voluntary scheme.
y To assist in the construction of green buildings and, as a result, to
GRIHA
assist in the assessment of the buildings’ “greenness.”
y GRIHA is a rating system that allows people to evaluate their
building’s efficiency.

y In 2011-12, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research launched the

National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA), with a
budget of Rs.350 crores for the XI Plan.
National Initiative y It will largely improve Indian agriculture’s resilience, including crops,
on Climate Resilient livestock, and fisheries.
Agriculture y Strategic research on adaptation and mitigation.
y Demonstration of technology on farmers’ fields to deal with current
climate variability.
y Vulnerability assessment of major production zones.

132 Climate Change

 y Cap Weighted Free-Float Market Capitalisation Weighted
y Index composed from the list of BSE-100 Index.
y 1st October 2008 (Base Date) with the base index value of 1000.
BSE-GREENEX
y gTrade Carbon Ex Ratings Services Private Limited (gTrade) is a
company based in India, which has co-developed the BSE-GREENV
Index in close association with the BSE.

y Government removed subsidies for mild hybrid vehicles.

y The (FAME-India) Scheme Phase-II promises to provide electric
vehicles (EVs) a boost in public transportation, with the goal of
Faster Adoption and
encouraging adoption through market development and demand
Manufacturing of
aggregation.
(Hybrid &) Electric
y Supports the development of the hybrid/electric car market and
Vehicles (FAME)
the industrial environment.
-India Programme
y The FAME India Scheme aims to incentivise all vehicle sectors,
including two-wheelers, three-wheelers, passenger four-wheelers,
light commercial vehicles, and buses.

y LTEO to study Climate Change is one of the components of the

‘Climate Change Action Program,’ which receives a budget of Rs. 40
crores during the 12th Plan Period.
Long Term y The goal is to study the anthropogenic and biophysical drivers of
Ecological ecosystem change in the selected biomes, as well as their impact
Observatories on social-ecological responses, through a network of scientific
(LTEO) institutions.
y Identifying patterns and drivers of change in natural ecosystems,
as well as assessing changes in natural ecosystem structure and
function. In natural ecosystems.

y NAFCC was operationalised in 2015-16.

y The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
has been designated as the National Implementing Entity for this
National Adaptation scheme (NIE).
Fund for Climate y The fund’s goal is to support state and national-level activities and
Change cover the costs of adaptation initiatives in areas that are particularly
vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change. The fund’s
overall goal is to support concrete adaptation activities that are not
covered by existing state and national government schemes.

y Biomass from agricultural and agro-industrial waste has the

potential to generate 25,000 Megawatts of electricity in India.
National Bio-Energy y To boost the use of biomass for power generation, a renewable
Mission energy source plentiful in India.
y Proposed a National Biomass Resource Atlas based on GIS to map
potential biomass regions across the country.

Energy Efficiency in y Supercritical technologies.

Power Generation y Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC).

Climate Change 133

 y Natural Gas-based Power Plants.
y Closed Cycle Three Stage Nuclear Power Programme.
y Efficient Transmission and Distribution.
y Hydropower.
Renewable Energy
y RETs for power generation.
Technologies
y Biomass-based popup generation technologies.
Programmes
y Small scale Hydropower.
y Wind Energy.
y Grid-connected systems.
y RETs for transportation and industrial fuels

y Undertake measures for coastal protection and set up an Early

Warning System.
y Development of a regional ocean modelling system.
y High resolution coupled ocean-atmosphere variability studies in
tropical oceans.
Protection of y Development of a high-resolution storm surge model for coastal
Coastal Areas regions.
y Development of salinity-tolerant crop cultivars.
y Community awareness on coastal disasters and necessary action.
y Timely forecasting, cyclone, and flood warning systems.
y Enhanced plantation and regeneration of mangroves and coastal
forests.

Disaster
Management y Reducing risk to infrastructure through better design.
Response to y Strengthening communication networks and disaster management
Extreme Climate facilities.
Events

y Providing improved public health care facilities and evaluating the

Health Sector
increased disease burden caused by climate change.

Creating appropriate
capacity at y Building capacity in the Central, State, and others at the local level
various levels of to assimilate.
Government
Table 5.6: Initiatives to Tackle Climate Change

134 Climate Change

 Previous Years’ Question (PYQ) y Balanced regional development:
(2017, Mains) Water is very essential for any
economic activities to take place.
Not many years ago, river linking was a In the peninsular region, during the
concept, but it is becoming reality in the summer season shortage of water
country. Discuss the advantages of river makes some industries shut down
linking and its possible impact on the for a temporary period. Availability of
environment. (150 Words, 10 Marks) water throughout the year helps in
Decoding the question: even distribution of industries and
y In Intro, Write about the need/ development of backward regions.
significance of river linking projects. y Potential hydroelectricity: Interlinking
y In Body: of rivers will surely increase potential
⚪ Discuss advantages and possible hydropower generation capacity. This
impacts on the environment. power generation capacity will help
y Try to conclude the answer with a to set up industries in regions like
balanced opinion. Marathwada, Vidharbha, Hyderabad
Answer: region, and the rain shadow region of
India has vast diversity in its water western ghats.
availability throughout the country. y Inland waterways: Inland waterways
Northern part of India has ample amount are most effective, Cost-effective,
of water resources available but southern environment friendly and have a
part face water scarcity during summer higher capacity to transport goods.
season, this part includes deccan plateau Interlinking of rivers to the peninsular
and peninsular region. Northern rivers region may increase trade and again
have perennial flow of water and southern help to achieve balanced regional
rivers have seasonal flow and show the development. It has the potential to
need of connecting rivers for diverting produce more than 34000 megawatts
overflow of water from northern rivers to of Electricity.
southern rivers. Riverlinking refers to the y Inter-state water dispute: It is one
water transfer from water surplus rivers of the bones of contention in good
to the water deficit rivers or regions. relations between states in India. The
sharing of water of rivers of drought-
Advantages of Interlinking Rivers prone regions is quite a challenging
y Surpluses to deficit regions: Usually task and every year in summer month
Himalayan rivers have surplus water and especially during drought year it
throughout the year but in southern or becomes a very hot topic and increases
peninsular rivers have high variability friction between states. Interlinking
in water availability. Transfer of water rivers may potentially solve this issue.
from surplus region to deficient region. Though there are numerous advantages
y Mitigate to droughts: River interlinking of interlinking rivers, it has a significant
will help in mitigating droughts impact on the environment too. These
of peninsular region and increase impacts include:
agricultural productivity on a large y Geological-ecological imbalance:
scale. Every million people face severe With a study on the impact of Three
drought which results in distress Gorges Dam of China it is concluded
migration towards cities. big dams can bring change in earth’s

Climate Change 135

 rotation. Big dams also cause serious by climate change.
damage to ecology in the region. ⚪ How Himalayan and coastal states
y Mangroves: Mangroves need fresh of India will be affected by climate
water influx in sea, and it creates a change.
favourable condition of forming deltas. y Try to conclude with highlighting
These deltas are the main home for India’s efforts to combat climate
deltas and related ecosystems and change.
rich biodiversity. Diversion of rivers will Answer:
surely impact growth of mangroves. Climate change is a long-term change
y Inundate Large Tract of Land: Building in the average weather patterns and
of large canals, dams, water lifting characteristics at local, regional, and
facilities etc. Inundating thousands of global levels. These changes have a broad
hectares of land, especially agricultural range of observed effects. These changes
land can create pressure on existing in climate are observed due to greenhouse
limited agricultural and for production. gasses such as CO2, methane etc. These
y Ecological Flow: Ecological flow of the gasses settle in the Troposphere and
river may get impacted due to building trap heat which results in increased
of dams, reservoirs, canals affecting temperature.
ecological flow which is essential for Climate change has attracted great
sustenance of river ecosystem and attention in the mid-20th, century and
biodiversity. these changes happened due to burning
Therefore, river interlinking is essential, up of fossil fuel. This climate change is
but it should be carried forward only now the biggest challenge for human
after Environmental Impact Assessment existence and sustenance of biodiversity
and Social Impact Assessment. At the on planet earth.
same time financial resources need to be Impact on India: Climate change has
considered as interlinking rivers needs started showing impacts on India. Its
huge amounts of investment and India is effects in India can be seen in following
already facing resource crunch. manner-
y Impact of Monsoon: Impact of climate
change on changing monsoon regime
has been observed in terms of rising
Previous Years’ Question (PYQ) irregularity in monsoon. India’s more
(2017, Mains) than half of agriculture is considered
as rainfed agriculture and changing
‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How monsoon will result in a threat to food
will India be affected by climate change? security.
How Himalayan and coastal states of y Impact on Development: India has
India are affected by climate change? been witnessing high growth, but
(250 Words, 15 Marks) developmental needs are suffering
Decoding the question: because of climate change as it is
y In Intro, try to define the term climate causing extreme events, impacting
change and justify it as a global the work days of labour, increasing the
problem. cost of development and bringing new
y In Body, challenges like wide-spread diseases.
⚪ Discuss how India will be affected y Geography and Climate of India: India

136 Climate Change

 also responsible for ensuring the energy
is situated in the South -Asia region security of the country, due to their role in
and the tropic of cancer divides the supporting the production of both hydro as
country in two parts, and it gives well as thermal electricity through dams/
rise to differential climate to north power plants located in the Indo-Gangetic
and south. So, a very vast strategy is plains.
required and approaches to develop y Floods and glacial lake outburst: Increased
fails more frequently due to climate temperature in Himalayan region especially
change. Hindu Kush Himalayas resulted in fast
y Increased frequencies of droughts: melting of glaciers which resulted in natural
Erratic and unpredictable monsoon lakes being formed on higher sides once
resulted into drought in some parts these lakes crossed their water carrying
and flood like situation in other parts capacity leading to outburst. Also, flash
of the country. These extreme events floods are frequent in Himalayan region.
led to destruction of normal life and For example, 2013 Kedarnath flood, recent
loss of life and wealth. flood in floods in Uttarakhand.
y Fall in agricultural productivity: y Forest fires in himalayan states: Every
Climate change is expected to trigger a year thousands of hectares of forest land
steep fall in production of cereals as a get burnt due forest fires. Climate change
rise of 0.5-degree Celsius temperature is one of the major reasons behind rise in
in winter months could cause a temperature and elongated drier season
decline of 0.45 tonnes fall in wheat causing increased incidence of forest fires.
production.
There are a number of issues and Impact on Coastal States
problems that will also appear due to y Intrusion of seawater: Rising sea water will
climate change such as vector borne intrude in coastal areas and even make
diseases, heat waves, urban heat island, potable water resources salty like wells,
melting glaciers, loss of biodiversity, forest rivers etc. If this continues, water scarcity
fires etc. In India owing to differences in will be another problem facing coastal
geographical features, different regions communities and agriculture.
face different impacts. y Submergence of coastal areas: Global sea
levels are set to rise by at least 1m by
2100 if carbon emissions go unchecked,
submerging hundreds of cities, including
Impact on the Himalayan States Mumbai and Kolkata, and in some cases
y Change in river runoff: Climate change has entire countries, warned a UN report.
a strong influence on the precipitation over y Impact on coastal communities: Coastal
the Himalayas as well as melting response communities in Indian states are the most
of glaciers or snow cover in Himalayas. This, vulnerable section of citizens. Rising sea
in turn, affects the runoff pattern of rivers temperature is the reason behind depleting
draining from the glaciated catchments of fishing resources as the whole marine
Himalayas. ecosystem gets affected.
y Life and livelihoods: These rivers support y Impact on mangroves: Submergence
the life and livelihood of more than 500 of coastal land and delta areas led to
million people living downstream in Indo- submergence of mangrove forest. For
Gangetic plains, but also support several example, Sundarban mangroves are facing
industries located in these plains. threats of submergence.
y Energy security: Himalayan rivers are Thus, it is now proven that climate change has

Climate Change 137

 global and regional impacts. India has been agricultural land per person in six of the
working to fight climate change in the form of eight nations between 1980 and 1990.
Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (14 percent for India and 21 percent for
(INDC) and National Action Plan on Climate Pakistan).
Change. It is this holistic approach of India as a y Inappropriate irrigation and over drafting
responsible nation that can reduce the impact y Urban sprawl and commercial development
of climate change. y Other mechanisms are also at work when it
comes to population pressure. Population
Land Degradation pressure restricts improper agricultural
y The loss of life-sustaining land resources practices. This drives the settlers to
due to soil erosion, desertification, cultivate excessively shallow or steep soils,
salinisation, acidification, and other factors plough fallow ground before it regained its
is referred to as land degradation. fertility, or attempt to grow various crops by
y Land degradation is mainly caused by irrigating inappropriate soils.
deforestation, which results in severe soil
erosion, food scarcity, and the depletion of Types of land degradation on the basis of
nutrient-rich soil. its severity (Desertification, Erosion, water
y “About a quarter of the Earth’s ice- logging):
free land surface is prone to human- y In the last 50 years, four new categories of
induced degradation” according to the land degradation have evolved, in addition to
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate the classic types (water, wind, mechanical
Change’s Special Report on Climate Change erosion, physical, chemical, and biological
and Land. degradation).
y Soil erosion from agricultural areas is y Pollution from agricultural, industrial,
estimated to be 10 to 20 times greater than mining, or commercial activities, which is
the rate of soil creation. often chemical in nature; loss of arable land
due to urbanisation, road construction,
Processes of Land Degradation land conversion, agricultural expansion,
y Land degradation is a worldwide issue that and other factors; sporadic artificial
is mostly caused by agricultural practices, radioactivity; land-use restrictions resulting
deforestation, and climate change. Land from armed conflicts.
clearance, such as clearcutting and y In total, more than 36 different categories
deforestation; overcutting of vegetation, of land degradation can be evaluated. Soil
which occurs when people chop forests, erosion, soil pollution, soil acidification,
woodlands, and shrublands at a faster rate sheet erosion, silting, aridification,
than natural regrowth to obtain timber, salinisation, urbanisation, and other human
fuelwood, and other products. activities cause or worsen all of these.
y Agricultural soil nutrient depletion due to
bad farming practises Desertification in India
y Livestock - including overgrazing: y In India, about 76.15% of the total desert area
Overgrazing occurs when natural pastures has resulted from manmade desertification
are grazed at stocking intensities above processes.
the carrying capacity of the livestock; the y Another 19.5% of the total area is subjected
resulting decrease in vegetation cover is a to medium or slight desertification.
major cause of wind and water erosion. In y This area is concentrated mostly along with
Afghanistan, it is a significant factor. the eastern Rajasthan in the northeast to
⚪ Increased population pressure led to southwest zone parallel to the foothills of
reductions in already tiny quantities of Aravali.

138 Climate Change

y The predominant processes of Project for Rainfed Areas
desertification in this belt are the expansion ⚪ Desert Development Programme
of sand cover and shifting sand dunes by ⚪ Fodder and Feed Development
wind erosion. Scheme-components of Grassland
y Desertification and land degradation Development including Grass Reserves,
atlas of India: It is one of the outcomes Command Area Development and Water
of MoEFCC sponsored national project Management programme etc.
entitled, “Desertification Status Mapping of
India”, executed by the Space Applications LDN (Land Degradation Neutrality) and
Centre (SAC), Indian Space Research Sustainable Development Goal
Organisation (ISRO). y LDN is defined by the UNCCD as a state
y This Atlas presents Desertification /Land in which the amount and quality of land
Degradation Status Maps depicting Land resources required to support ecosystem
Use, Process of Degradation and Severity functions and improve food security
Level along with area statistics consolidated remains stable or increases over time and
for the entire country as well state-wise across scales and ecosystems.
for 2011-13- and 2003-05-time frame and y It’s a one-of-a-kind strategy that balances
reports the changes. the loss of productive land with the
y It reveals that 96.40 mha area of the country restoration of degraded areas.
is undergoing a process of land degradation
i.e., 29.32% of the Total Geographic Area Sustainable Land Management (SLM)
(TGA) of the country during 2011-13. y Sustainable land management is a set
y The most significant process of of methods and technologies aimed at
desertification/ land degradation in the integrating land, water, and other natural
country is Water Erosion (10.98%). resources management to meet human
y The second most significant process is needs while also guaranteeing long-
Vegetation Degradation (8.91%), which is term sustainability, ecosystem services,
followed by Wind erosion (5.55 %). biodiversity, and livelihoods.
y Regional planning, soil or environmental
Control Measures for Desertification protection, and property and estate
y India is a signatory to the UN Convention to management are all examples of where the
Combat Desertification (UNCCD). phrase is employed.
y In order to take proper action in tackling
desertification challenges, the National Steps Taken by India to Achieve Land
Action Plan for Combating Desertification Degradation Neutrality
was prepared in 2001. y India is on track to meet its national goal
y Some of the main programmes currently in of achieving land degradation neutrality.
place to resolve problems of land loss and By 2030, 26 million hectares of degraded
desertification include the following: land will have been restored, resulting in an
⚪ Integrated Watershed Management extra carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes
Programme of carbon dioxide equivalent.
⚪ National Afforestation Programme y In India, a Centre of Excellence is being
⚪ National Mission for Green India built to provide a scientific approach to the
⚪ The MGNREGA Scheme challenges of land degradation.
⚪ Soil Conservation in the Catchment of y Better land access and stewardship, as
River Valley Project and Flood Prone well as gender-sensitive transformative
River projects, were among the demands of the
⚪ National Watershed Development 2019 Delhi Declaration. In the previous ten

Climate Change 139

 years, India has gained nearly 3 million covers is combating desertification and
hectares of forest cover. As a result, the land degradation.
country’s overall forest cover has expanded y Desert Development Programme: It
to about a quarter of its total area. was established in 1995 with the goal of
mitigating the negative effects of drought
Government’s Broad Approach Towards and revitalising the natural resource base of
Addressing Land Degradation the identified desert areas. It was created for
y National afforestation programme: This the hot desert areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat,
programme has been in place since 2000 to and Haryana, as well as the cold desert
reforest degraded forest lands. The Ministry areas of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal
of Environment, Forests, and Climate Pradesh. The Ministry of Rural Development
Change is in charge of carrying it out. is in charge of carrying it out. India signed
y Command area development: It was and ratified the United Nations Convention
established in 1974 with the goal of to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in 1994.
increasing irrigation potential usage and
optimising agricultural productivity through Global Policy Responses to Land Degradation
efficient water management. The Ministry of y The link between land degradation and
Water Resources coordinates the program’s socially and economically important
implementation with the different state processes such as poverty, human
governments. pressure, urban–rural migrations, urban
y The national action programme to combat sprawl and densification, and uncontrolled
desertification: was developed in 2001 economic and production development
in order to address the issue of rising has resulted in a relatively broad policy
desertification and to take necessary action. framework to combat desertification risk,
The MoEFCC is in charge of carrying it out. which has subsequently promoted regional
y The integrated watershed management “philosophies” of intervention.
programme: was established in 1989-1990. y Within the context of Agenda 21, 197 nations
It strives to restore ecological balance by have joined the UNCCD, with the goal of
harnessing, conserving, and developing “fighting” desertification and mitigating the
degraded natural resources through rural effects of drought on vulnerable territory.
employment development. In 2003, it was
named the “Hariyali Guidelines.” United Nation Convention to Combat
⚪ Now it is subsumed under Pradhan Desertification
Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (2015-16 to y The UNCCD (United Nations Convention to
2019-20), which is being implemented Combat Desertification in Those Countries
by NITI Aayog. Experiencing Serious Drought and/or
y National Mission on Green India: It is a Desertification, particularly in Africa) is a
component of the National Action Plan on treaty aimed at combating desertification
Climate Change (NAPCC). It was approved and mitigating the effects of drought through
in 2014, with a 10-year deadline, with the national action plans that include long-
goal of protecting, restoring, and improving term strategies backed up by international
India’s diminishing forest cover. The Ministry cooperation and partnership arrangements.
of Environment, Forests, and Climate y The Convention was adopted on 17th June,
Change is in charge of putting it into action. 1994, in Paris, France, and entered into
y Desertification and Land Degradation force in December 1996. It was the only one
Atlas of India: ISRO released an Atlas of coming from a direct suggestion of Agenda
Desertification and Land Degradation in 21 at the Rio Conference.
India in 2016. One of the thrust areas it y It is the world’s only legally mandated

140 Climate Change

 framework for addressing the problem of y To improve the state of biodiversity, protect
desertification. habitats, species, and genetic diversity.
y The Convention is based on the principles y Increase everyone’s access to the benefits
of participation, partnership, and of biodiversity and ecological services.
decentralisation, which are at the heart y Implementation will be aided by participatory
of Good Governance and Sustainable planning, knowledge management, and
Development. It has 197 signatories, capacity building.
making it nearly universally accessible.
The International Year of Deserts and Conclusion
Desertification was established in 2006 Climate change, along with the usage of fossil
to help publicise the Convention, though fuels and the emission of greenhouse gases, is
debates have erupted over its effectiveness. inextricably related to sustainable development.
Limiting global warming makes long-term
Aichi Targets
development goals like poverty eradication
y A set of 20 global targets under the Strategic and inequality reduction simpler to attain.
Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020. The link between the two is acknowledged in
y They are organised into five strategic Sustainable Development Goal 13, which calls
goals: We can address the basic causes for “urgent action to prevent climate change
of biodiversity decline by mainstreaming and its consequences”. Food, clean water, and
biodiversity across government and society. environment protection goals have synergy
y Reduce immediate biodiversity pressures with climate mitigation goals.
and promote long-term use.

Climate Change 141

 List of 20 Books

1. Medieval History
2. Ancient History
3. Indian Geography
4. Modern History
5. Governance
6. Indian Economy
7. Basic Science
8. Post-Independence
9. Indian Society
10. Ethics, Integrity and Aptitude
11. Science and technology
12. Physical Geography
13. World History
14. Indian Polity
15. Human & Economic Geography
16. Disaster Management
17. Internal Security
18. Art and Culture
19. International Relations
20. Environment and Ecology
 Note: This is only a sample copy of Unacademy UPSC Notes 2.0. The entire package comes
with 20 booklets (5500 Pages) which comprehensively cover the UPSC GS (Prelims & Mains
Syllabus)

FAQs (Frequently asked questions)

1. Who will be eligible for Unacademy UPSC Notes 2.0

Ans: Learners who take 1-year or above Unacademy subscription on or after 15th July will be
eligible for Notes 2.0

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Ans: No, currently Notes 2.0 will be available in English only. Although, Hindi Medium Aspirants will
be provided with Notes 1.0

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2.0?
Ans: Learners who have taken the Unacademy subscription before 15th July will not be eligible for
physical copies of Notes 2.0. However, you can access the soft copy of Notes through your Android/
IOS app. The digital copy of the Notes will be uploaded by the 18th July.

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Ans: No, as of now, notes are available with 1 year or above subscription only

5. By when the New Notes will be delivered?

Ans: For English Notes: Delivery will start from Aug 15, 2022.