UNIT-4

Motivation

Motivation is the word derived from the word ’motive’ which means needs, desires, wants or
drives within the individuals. It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish
the goals. In the work goal context, the psychological factors stimulating the people’s behavior
can be -

• desire for money

• success
• recognition
• job-satisfaction
• team work, etc.

One of the most important functions of management is to create willingness amongst the
employees to perform in the best of their abilities. Therefore the role of a leader is to arouse
interest in performance of employees in their jobs. The process of motivation consists of three
stages: -

1. A felt need or drive

2. A stimulus in which needs have to be aroused
3. When needs are satisfied, the satisfaction or accomplishment of goals.

Motivational Theory:

Classical Theories of Motivation

The motivation concepts were mainly developed around 1950’s. Three main theories were
made during this period. These three classical theories are-

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

• Herzberg’s Two factor theory
• Theory X and Theory Y

These theories are building blocks of the contemporary theories developed later. The working
mangers and learned professionals till date use these classical theories to explain the concept
of employee motivation.

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 1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

Human behavior is goal-directed. Motivation cause goal-directed behaviors. It is through

motivation that needs can be handled and tackled purposely. This can be understood by
understanding the hierarchy of needs by manager. The needs of individual serves as a driving
force in human behaviors. Therefore, a manager must understand the “hierarchy of needs”.
Maslow has proposed “The Need Hierarchy Model”.

Self-
actualization
Needs
Esteem
Needs
Social
Needs
Security
Needs
Physiological
Needs
FIGURE - Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Model

The needs have been classified into the following in order:

1. Physiological needs- These are the basic needs of an individual which includes food,
clothing, shelter, air, water, etc. These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of
human life.
2. Safety needs- These needs are also important for human beings. Everybody wants job
security, protection against danger, safety of property, etc.
3. Social needs- These needs emerge from society. Man is a social animal. These needs
become important. For example- love, affection, belongingness, friendship,
conversation, etc.
4. Esteem needs- These needs relate to desire for self-respect, recognition and respect
from others.
5. Self-actualization needs- These are the needs of the highest order and these needs are
found in those people whose previous four needs are satisfied. This will include need
for social service, meditation.

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Implications of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory for Managers

As far as the physiological needs are concerned, the managers should give employees
appropriate salaries to purchase the basic necessities of life. Breaks and eating
opportunities should be given to employees.

As far as the safety needs are concerned, the managers should provide the employees job
security, safe and hygienic work environment, and retirement benefits so as to retain them.

As far as social needs are concerned, the management should encourage teamwork and
organize social events.

As far as esteem needs are concerned, the managers can appreciate and reward employees
on accomplishing and exceeding their targets. The management can give the deserved
employee higher job rank / position in the organization.

As far as self-actualization needs are concerned, the managers can give the employees
challenging jobs in which the employees’ skills and competencies are fully utilized.
Moreover, growth opportunities can be given to them so that they can reach the peak.

The managers must identify the need level at which the employee is existing and then those
needs can be utilized as push for motivation.

Limitations of Maslow’s Theory

• It is essential to note that not all employees are governed by same set of needs. Different
individuals may be driven by different needs at same point of time. It is always the most
powerful unsatisfied need that motivates an individual.
• The theory is not empirically supported.
• The theory is not applicable in case of starving artist as even if the artist’s basic needs
are not satisfied, he will still strive for recognition and achievement.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioral scientist proposed a two-factor theory or the
motivator-hygiene theory. According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in
satisfaction while there are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction. According to
Herzberg, the opposite of “Satisfaction” is “No satisfaction” and the opposite of
“Dissatisfaction” is “No Dissatisfaction”.

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FIGURE: Herzberg’s view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories-

a. Hygiene factors- Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for existence
of motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction for long-term. But
if these factors are absent / if these factors are non-existent at workplace, then they lead
to dissatisfaction. In other words, hygiene factors are those factors which when
adequate/reasonable in a job, pacify the employees and do not make them dissatisfied.
These factors are extrinsic to work. Hygiene factors are also called as dissatisfiers or
maintenance factors as they are required to avoid dissatisfaction. These factors
describe the job environment/scenario. The hygiene factors symbolized the
physiological needs which the individuals wanted and expected to be fulfilled. Hygiene
factors include:
• Pay - The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable. It must be
equal and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.
• Company Policies and administrative policies - The company policies should not be
too rigid. They should be fair and clear. It should include flexible working hours, dress
code, breaks, vacation, etc.
• Fringe benefits - The employees should be offered health care plans (Mediclaim),
benefits for the family members, employee help programmers, etc.
• Physical Working conditions - The working conditions should be safe, clean and
hygienic. The work equipment’s should be updated and well-maintained.
• Status - The employees’ status within the organization should be familiar and retained.
• Interpersonal relations - The relationship of the employees with his peers, superiors
and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be no conflict or
humiliation element present.

Job Security - The organization must provide job security

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 b. Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded
as motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors are
inherent to work. These factors motivate the employees for a superior performance.
These factors are called satisfiers. These are factors involved in performing the job.
Employees find these factors intrinsically rewarding. The motivators symbolized the
psychological needs that were perceived as an additional benefit. Motivational factors
include:
• Recognition - The employees should be praised and recognized for their
accomplishments by the managers.
• Sense of achievement - The employees must have a sense of achievement. This
depends on the job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.
• Growth and promotional opportunities - There must be growth and
advancement opportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to
perform well.
• Responsibility - The employees must hold themselves responsible for the work.
The managers should give them ownership of the work. They should minimize
control but retain accountability.
• Meaningfulness of the work - The work itself should be meaningful, interesting
and challenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated.

Limitations of Two-Factor Theory

The two-factor theory is not free from limitations:

1. The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.

2. Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But the research
conducted by Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored productivity.
3. The theory’s reliability is uncertain. Analysis has to be made by the raters. The raters
may spoil the findings by analyzing same response in different manner.
4. No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee may find his job
acceptable despite the fact that he may hate/object part of his job.
5. The two-factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural reaction of
employees when they are enquired the sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at
work. They will blame dissatisfaction on the external factors such as salary structure,
company policies and peer relationship. Also, the employees will give credit to
themselves for the satisfaction factor at work.
6. The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these limitations, Herzberg’s Two-
Factor theory is acceptable broadly.

Implications of Two-Factor Theory

The Two-Factor theory implies that the managers must stress upon guaranteeing the
adequacy of the hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction. Also, the managers
must make sure that the work is stimulating and rewarding so that the employees are
motivated to work and perform harder and better. This theory emphasizes upon job-
enrichment so as to motivate the employees. The job must utilize the employee’s skills
and competencies to the maximum. Focusing on the motivational factors can improve
work-quality.
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Theory X and Theory Y
In 1960, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and Theory Y suggesting two aspects of
human behaviors at work, or in other words, two different views of individuals (employees):
one of which is negative, called as Theory X and the other is positive, so called as Theory Y.
According to McGregor, the perception of managers on the nature of individuals is based on
various assumptions.

Assumptions of Theory X

• An average employee intrinsically does not like work and tries to escape it whenever
possible.
• Since the employee does not want to work, he must be persuaded, compelled, or warned
with punishment so as to achieve organizational goals. A close supervision is required
on part of managers. The managers adopt a more dictatorial style.
• Many employees rank job security on top, and they have little or no aspiration/
ambition.
• Employees generally dislike responsibilities.
• Employees resist change.
• An average employee needs formal direction.

Assumptions of Theory Y

• Employees can perceive their job as relaxing and normal. They exercise their physical
and mental efforts in an inherent manner in their jobs.
• Employees may not require only threat, external control and coercion to work, but they
can use self-direction and self-control if they are dedicated and sincere to achieve the
organizational objectives.
• If the job is rewarding and satisfying, then it will result in employees’ loyalty and
commitment to organization.
• An average employee can learn to admit and recognize the responsibility. In fact, he
can even learn to obtain responsibility.
• The employees have skills and capabilities. Their logical capabilities should be fully
utilized. In other words, the creativity, resourcefulness and innovative potentiality of
the employees can be utilized to solve organizational problems.

Thus, we can say that Theory X presents a pessimistic view of employees’ nature and behaviors
at work, while Theory Y presents an optimistic view of the employees’ nature and behaviors
at work. If correlate it with Maslow’s theory, we can say that Theory X is based on the
assumption that the employees emphasize on the physiological needs and the safety needs;
while Theory X is based on the assumption that the social needs, esteem needs and the self-
actualization needs dominate the employees.

McGregor views Theory Y to be more valid and reasonable than Theory X. Thus, he
encouraged cordial team relations, responsible and stimulating jobs, and participation of all in
decision-making process.

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Implications of Theory X and Theory Y

Quite a few organizations use Theory X today. Theory X encourages use of tight control
and supervision. It implies that employees are reluctant to organizational changes. Thus,
it does not encourage innovation.

Many organizations are using Theory Y techniques. Theory Y implies that the managers
should create and encourage a work environment which provides opportunities to
employees to take initiative and self-direction. Employees should be given opportunities
to contribute to organizational well-being. Theory Y encourages decentralization of
authority, teamwork and participative decision making in an organization. Theory Y
searches and discovers the ways in which an employee can make significant contributions
in an organization. It harmonizes and matches employees’ needs and aspirations with
organizational needs and aspirations.

Modern Theories of Motivation

We all are familiar with the classical theories of motivation, but they all are not empirically
supported. As far as contemporary theories of motivation are concerned, all are well supported
with evidences. Some of the contemporary / modern theories of motivation are explained
below:

• ERG Theory
• McClelland’s Theory of Needs
• Goal Setting Theory
• Reinforcement Theory
• Equity Theory of Motivation
• Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

The expectancy theory was proposed by Victor Vroom of Yale School of Management in
1964. Vroom stresses and focuses on outcomes, and not on needs unlike Maslow and Herzberg.
The theory states that the intensity of a tendency to perform in a particular manner is dependent
on the intensity of an expectation that the performance will be followed by a definite outcome
and on the appeal of the outcome to the individual.
The Expectancy theory states that employee’s motivation is an outcome of how much an
individual wants a reward (Valence), the assessment that the likelihood that the effort will lead
to expected performance (Expectancy) and the belief that the performance will lead to reward
(Instrumentality).
In short, Valence is the significance associated by an individual about the expected outcome.
It is an expected and not the actual satisfaction that an employee expects to receive after
achieving the goals.

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Expectancy is the faith that better efforts will result in better performance. Expectancy is
influenced by factors such as possession of appropriate skills for performing the job,
availability of right resources, availability of crucial information and getting the required
support for completing the job.
Instrumentality is the faith that if you perform well, then a valid outcome will be there.
Instrumentality is affected by factors such as believe in the people who decide who receives
what outcome, the simplicity of the process deciding who gets what outcome, and clarity of
relationship between performance and outcomes. Thus, the expectancy theory concentrates on
the following three relationships:

• Effort-performance relationship: What is the likelihood that the individual’s effort be

recognized in his performance appraisal?
• Performance-reward relationship: It talks about the extent to which the employee
believes that getting a good performance appraisal leads to organizational rewards.
• Rewards-personal goals relationship: It is all about the attractiveness or appeal of the
potential reward to the individual.
Vroom was of view that employees consciously decide whether to perform or not at the job.
This decision solely depended on the employee’s motivation level which in turn depends on
three factors of expectancy, valence and instrumentality.
Advantages of the Expectancy Theory

• It is based on self-interest individual who want to achieve maximum satisfaction and

who wants to minimize dissatisfaction.
• This theory stresses upon the expectations and perception; what is real and actual is
immaterial.
• It emphasizes on rewards or pay-offs.
• It focuses on psychological extravagance where final objective of individual is to attain
maximum pleasure and least pain.
Limitations of the Expectancy Theory

• The expectancy theory seems to be idealistic because quite a few individuals perceive
high degree correlation between performance and rewards.
• The application of this theory is limited as reward is not directly correlated with
performance in many organizations. It is related to other parameters also such as
position, effort, responsibility, education, etc.
Implications of the Expectancy Theory

The managers can correlate the preferred outcomes to the aimed performance levels.

The managers must ensure that the employees can achieve the aimed performance levels.

The deserving employees must be rewarded for their exceptional performance.

The reward system must be fair and just in an organization.

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 Organizations must design interesting, dynamic and challenging jobs.

The employee’s motivation level should be continually assessed through various

techniques such as questionnaire, personal interviews, etc.
Leadership Styles

Leadership is a process by which an executive can direct, guide and influence the behavior and
work of others towards accomplishment of specific goals in a given situation. Leadership is the
ability of a manager to induce the subordinates to work with confidence and zeal.

Leadership is the potential to influence behaviors of others. It is also defined as the capacity to
influence a group towards the realization of a goal. Leaders are required to develop future
visions, and to motivate the organizational members to want to achieve the visions.
According to Keith Davis, “Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined
objectives enthusiastically. It is the human factor which binds a group together and motivates
it towards goals.”

Characteristics of Leadership

1. It is a inter-personal process in which a manager is into influencing and guiding workers

towards attainment of goals.
2. It denotes a few qualities to be present in a person which includes intelligence, maturity
and personality.
3. It is a group process. It involves two or more people interacting with each other.
4. A leader is involved in shaping and molding the behaviors of the group towards
accomplishment of organizational goals.
5. Leadership is situation bound. There is no best style of leadership. It all depends upon
tackling with the situations.

Importance of Leadership
Leadership is an important function of management which helps to maximize efficiency and to
achieve organizational goals. The following points justify the importance of leadership in a
concern.

1. Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the policies
and plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts.
2. Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concern’s working.
He motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards and thereby
gets the work from the subordinates.
3. Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role for
the subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the way they have
to perform their work effectively and efficiently.
4. Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved
through expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their
role and giving them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also important to
hear the employees with regards to their complaints and problems.
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 5. Building morale- Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards their
work and getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can be a morale
booster by achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best of their abilities
as they work to achieve goals.
6. Builds work environment- Management is getting things done from people. An
efficient work environment helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human
relations should be kept into mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts with
employees and should listen to their problems and solve them. He should treat
employees on humanitarian terms.
7. Co-ordination- Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal interests
with organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through proper and
effective co-ordination which should be primary motive of a leader.

Leadership Styles - Important Leadership Styles

All leaders do not possess same attitude or same perspective. As discussed earlier, few leaders
adopt the carrot approach and a few adopt the stick approach. Thus, all of the leaders do not
get the things done in the same manner. Their style varies. The leadership style varies with the
kind of people the leader interacts and deals with. A perfect/standard leadership style is one
which assists a leader in getting the best out of the people who follow him.

Some of the important leadership styles are as follows:

Autocratic leadership style: In this style of leadership, a leader has complete command
and hold over their employees/team. The team cannot put forward their views even if
they are best for the team’s or organizational interests. They cannot criticize or question
the leader’s way of getting things done. The leader himself gets the things done. The
advantage of this style is that it leads to speedy decision-making and greater productivity
under leader’s supervision. Drawbacks of this leadership style are that it leads to greater
employee absenteeism and turnover. This leadership style works only when the leader is
the best in performing or when the job is monotonous, unskilled and routine in nature or
where the project is short-term and risky.

The Laissez Faire Leadership Style: Here, the leader totally trusts their
employees/team to perform the job themselves. He just concentrates on the
intellectual/rational aspect of his work and does not focus on the management aspect of
his work. The team/employees are welcomed to share their views and provide
suggestions which are best for organizational interests. This leadership style works only
when the employees are skilled, loyal, experienced and intellectual.

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 Democratize/Participative leadership style: The leaders invite and encourage the team
members to play an important role in decision-making process, though the ultimate
decision-making power rests with the leader. The leader guides the employees on what to
perform and how to perform, while the employees communicate to the leader their
experience and the suggestions if any. The advantages of this leadership style are that it
leads to satisfied, motivated and more skilled employees. It leads to an optimistic work
environment and also encourages creativity. This leadership style has the only drawback
that it is time-consuming.

Bureaucratic leadership: Here the leaders strictly adhere to the organizational rules and
policies. Also, they make sure that the employees/team also strictly follows the rules and
procedures. Promotions take place on the basis of employees’ ability to adhere to
organizational rules. This leadership style gradually develops over time. This leadership
style is more suitable when safe work conditions and quality are required. But this
leadership style discourages creativity and does not make employees self-contented.
Approaches

1) Transformational Leadership

These highly influential leaders serve as role models to inspire others. Defined by leadership
studies scholars Bruce Avolio and Bernard Bass, this leadership style involves improving the
morale and job performance of team members by connecting with their sense of identity and
the collective identity of the organization. A transformative leader is a visionary who inspires
others and encourages critical thinking and innovation. Examples of transformational leaders
include politicians like Winston Churchill and business visionaries like Steve Jobs.

2) Participatory Leadership

Leaders who employ this hands-on style seek to bring a more democratic dimension to
management instead of utilizing a traditional top-down approach. This leadership style
recognizes that employees are stakeholders in the organization and are entitled to their own
voice. Participatory leaders empower employees who will be most affected by certain decisions
to have participation and/or decision-making capabilities in addressing those issues.

Former Southwest Airlines CEO James F. Parker embodied this style of leadership when he
put the needs of his employees first after the 9/11 attacks. Instead of cutting back staff like
other airlines were doing at the time, he initiated a profit-sharing program.

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 3) Value-based Leadership

Value-based leaders guide their teams by encouraging others to act in accordance with the
organization’s shared core values. Instead of focusing exclusively on metrics, values-based
leadership drives positive change by emphasizing the organizational mission and purpose. This
means having a leader who “walks the talk” and upholds the founding principles of the
organization. This type of leader is driven by his or her core values which are modeled and
aligned with company values.

APJ Abdul Kalam, former president of India and one of the country’s best-known
scientists, followed this leadership style. His personal and work ethics served as a model to
inspire others in the development of the world-class Indian Space Research Organization.

4) Situational Leadership

This model was developed by business consultant and bestselling author Ken Blanchard and
behavioral scientist Paul Hersey. It is a framework for leaders to match their behaviors to the
performance needs of those they are working to influence. The Center for Leadership
Studies explains that situational leaders must have the ability to:

• Diagnose an individual’s performance readiness to complete a specific task

• Adapt leader behavior based on the diagnosis
• Communicate an influence approach in the manner that followers can both understand and
accept
• Advance by making the move toward higher performance

5) Servant Leadership

Servant leaders enrich the lives of others by focusing on building better organizations and
ultimately creating a world that is more caring and equitable. First coined by Robert K.
Greenleaf, the term servant leader refers to a person who makes a conscious decision to aspire
to lead in a way that places other people’s needs as their highest priority. The servant leader
dedicates himself or herself to the growth and well-being of people in the community. Instead
of focusing on accumulating power, this leader shares power and helps others perform as highly
as possible.

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Challenges of leaders in globalized era

1. Managing The Global Complexity

The first challenge that global leaders face, is

• finding a way to delicately balance collaborating with others,

• discovering new ways of doing things,
• engineering new processes, and
• placing all of that together in a systematic framework.

Essentially what that means is that out of the potential chaos, global leaders fit all of the puzzle
pieces together as they take the reins of a diverse workforce, forge ahead with developing
both the business and people, as well as finding a balanced process that draws out the strengths
of every team member and achieves a common goal.

2. Leadership Effectiveness
As we move away from a more authoritarian style of leadership, global leaders cannot simply
rely on the authority of their position to push through an agenda. Workforces have an
expectation that their leadership is made up of people who

• are accountable,
• able to inspire change, and
• hold to values that are worthy of respect.

For global leaders, there’s the added challenge of the fact that being close to your team and
being an active part of their development requires more time and a more defined set of skills.
The challenge of leadership is broken down by Dr. Schmitz into the following subcategories:

1. Development of Managerial Effectiveness

2. Inspiration and Motivation of the Workforce
3. Developing Employees and the rise of “Servant-Leadership”
4. Leading a Team

• The Development of Managerial Effectiveness

The first challenge around leadership effectiveness is cultivating the right set of skills to make
that transition into leadership easier. Skills like

• time management,
• the ability to set goals,
• task prioritization,
• good judgement, and
• strategic thinking

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 • The Inspiration and Motivation of the Workforce
Motivating human beings to act a certain way will forever be a challenge that leaders face. In
the context of a global workforce, this is no different. Being an inspiring and motivating leader
seems like such an abstract goal, you wonder how truly possible it is to cultivate that kind of
presence. Is it something people are just born with?

The truth of the matter is that motivation and inspiration are associated with passion; passionate
leaders light that spark in others and it becomes a contagious environment where creativity
thrives and people do things because they are excited to get involved.

• Developing Employees and the rise of “Servant-Leadership”

The idea of “Servant-Leadership” is a kind of transformational leadership based on the idea
that a leader should not just be content to delegate tasks. Instead, they view themselves as being
‘servants’ of the people that they lead, with their actions motivated by what is best for the
people rather than themselves.
• Leading a Team
The challenge around leading a global team mainly centers around getting all the different
cultures and perspectives to get together in an atmosphere of collaboration. Some global leaders
will be able to build their team from the ground up. Which is challenging because there’s no
former pattern, but it has its perks because you can modify the values within the team and
recruit directly in line with those themes.

3. Guiding Change
As a global leader, managing existing processes is one thing. Designing something new and
leading people through a change process is really quiet another. There are several different
stages to this, but global leaders need to believe in the change and the reason for it,
communicate the change, help to plan the strategy and then oversee the execution of the change
and the transition from the old into the new.

4. Managing Internal Stakeholders

The management of internal stakeholders is a key component of any global leader. Garnering
the support of your team is always important, but having the backing of your fellow colleagues,
your managers, the board and investors will feed into this as well.
Groups and Types

A group can be defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come
together to achieve particular objectives. A group behavior can be stated as a course of action
a group takes as a family. For example: Strike.

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 Types of Groups
There are two types of groups an individual forms. They are formal groups and informal
groups. Let us know about these two groups.

Formal Groups
These are the type of work groups created by the organization and have designated work
assignments and rooted tasks. The behavior of such groups is directed toward achieving
organizational goals.
These can be further classified into two sub-groups −
• Command group − It is a group consisting of individuals who report directly to the
manager.
• Interest group − It is a group formed by individuals working together to achieve a
specific objective. Example − A group of workers working on a project and reporting
to the same manager is considered as a command group. A group of friends chilling
out together is considered as interest group or say members of a club.
Informal Groups
These groups are formed with friendships and common interests. These can be further
classified into two sub-groups −
• Task group − Those working together to finish a job or task is known as task group.
• Friendship group − Those brought together because of their shared interests or
common characteristics is known as friendship group.
Group Roles
The concept of roles is applicable to all employees within an organization as well as to their
life outside the organization. A role is a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to the one
who occupies the position demanded by the social unit.
Individuals play multiple roles at the same time. Employees attempt to understand what kind
of behavior is expected from them. An individual when presented by divergent role
expectations experiences role conflict. Group roles are divided into three types −

• Task-oriented Roles
• Relationship-oriented Roles
• Individual Roles
Task-oriented Roles
Roles allotted to individuals according to their work and eligibility is known as task-oriented
roles. Task-oriented roles can broadly divide individuals into six categories initiator, informer,
clarifier, summarizer, reality tester and information seekers or providers respectively.
• Initiator − The one who proposes, suggests, defines.
• Informer − The one who offers facts, expresses feelings, gives opinions.
• Clarifier − The one who interprets, defines, clarifies everything.
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 • Summarizer − The one who links, restates, concludes, summarizes.
• Reality Tester − The one who provides critical analysis.
• Information seekers or providers − The one who gives information and data.
These roles present the work performed by different individuals according to their marked
designation.

Relationship-oriented Roles
Roles that group individuals according to their efforts made to maintain healthy relationship
in the group and achieve the goals are known as relationship-oriented roles. There are five
categories of individuals in this category namely: harmonizer, gatekeeper, consensus tester,
encourager, and compromiser.
• Harmonizers − The one who limits tension and reconciles disagreements.
• Gatekeeper − The one who ensures participation by all.
• Consensus Tester − The one who analyzes the decision-making process.
• Encourager − The one who is warm, responsive, active, shows acceptance.
• Compromiser − The one who admits error, limits conflict.
These roles depict the various roles an individual plays to maintain healthy self as well as
group relationships.
Individual Roles
Roles that classify a person according to the measure of individual effort put in the project
aimed is known as individual roles. Five types of individuals fall into these roles: aggressor,
blocker, dominator, cavalier, and avoidance.
• Aggressor − The one who devalues others, attacks ideas.
• Blocker − The one who disagrees and rebels beyond reason.
• Dominator − The one who insists superiority to manipulate.
• Cavalier − The one who takes part in a group non-productively.
• Avoidance − The one who shows special interest to avoid task.
These are the various roles a person plays in an organization.
Well-Functioning Groups
We know what a group is, why it is important to form a group, and what the group-oriented
roles are. Now we need to know how to mark a group as a well-functioning group, what
features are necessary for a group to mark it as efficient.
A group is considered effective when it has the following characteristics.

• Relaxed, comfortable, friendly atmosphere.

• Task to be executed are well understood and accepted.
• Members listen well and actively participate in given assignments.
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 • Assignments are made clear and are accepted.
• Group is acquainted of its operation and function.
• People express their feelings and ideas openly.
• Consensus decision-making process is followed.
• Conflict and disagreement center regarding ideas or method.

Group Behaviors – Example

Let us understand group behavior with the help of an example.
To work on a specific project, we make a group of 4 members: Rohit, Raj, Sid, and Rahul. It
is not possible for any one of them to complete the project individually as it may be time
consuming as well as not all the members as individuals have mastered the skills required to
complete the project. This indicates the need to come together as a group.
Moving ahead, let us specify their roles. Rohit is the initiator, as he proposes the idea of the
project, Raj collects all the information and resources required for the project and becomes
the informer, Sid is the clarifier as he interprets the data and saves refined information, and
Rahul is the summarizer as he concludes the result of the project that is what do we achieve
by the end of our project. These are the task-oriented roles.
When a group of people come together and present their ideas there is a fair chance of
collision. Rohit tries to resolve all the disagreements and disputes in the first place and acts as
a harmonizer, Sid makes sure that everybody is giving their full support and effort in the
project and acts as a gatekeeper, Raj is the one encouraging everyone and motivating them
when they fail to try harder to complete the project and is the encourager, while Rahul tests
the project at each stage and examines the major decision to be made and is the consensus
tester. These are the relationship-oriented roles of each member.
Individually, each of them has different tasks to fulfill. Rohit tries to be the group leader and
impose his ideas on others and we consider him as the dominator, Rahul is always up with
excuses to avoid the task given to him and acts as avoider, Raj is the one who opposes
everything but is never up with some new idea and becomes the blocker, while Sid takes part
in every group activity in a non-productive way and becomes the cavalier.
Reference Groups
It is a group to which a person or another group is compared. Reference groups are used in
order to examine and determine the nature of a person or other group's features and
sociological attributes. It is the group to which a person relates or aspires to link himself or
herself psychologically.
It is important for deciding a person's self-identity, attitudes, and social ties. It becomes the
ground of reference in making comparisons or contrasts and in judging one's appearance and
performance. These groups act as a benchmark and contrast needed for comparison and
evaluation of group and personal characteristics.
An example of a reference group, would be the certainty of wealth. An individual in the US
with an annual income of $70,000, may consider himself rich if he compares himself to those
in the middle-income strata, who earn roughly $22,000 a year. However, if the same person
considers the relevant reference group to be those in the top 0.5% of households in the US,
those making $1.8 million or more, then the individual's income of $70,000 would make him
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seem rather poor.
Stages formation of groups:

Tuckman was responsible for coining the 5 main stages in the process of group discussion. They
are also known as Tuckman’s 5 stages of group development. Moreover, these stages of group
formation are meant to be followed in the exact sequence as they are below:
Forming
This is a beginning stage and lasts only a few days (or weeks). Members begin by planning their
work and their new roles. Moreover, the emotions here are positive. The groups should begin by
learning about team processes in preparation for the rough times ahead.
However, it is crucial for them to learn the aspects of conflict resolution, communication, group
decision-making and time management.
Storming
There exists a considerable number of fights and arguments in this stage. People begin to feel the
stress of frustration, resentment, and anger. Moreover, as the problem festers, the job remains
undone.
Managers also experience frustration and are worried about the situation, thereby, are tempted to
intervene. Members experience a drastic emotional roller coaster from elation to depression.
Moreover, the situation seems bleak. Usually, the storming period may last 1-2 months. Also,
without effective training and support, the team may experience retarded growth.
Conflicts are usually frowned upon. However, they are the definition of normal, natural, and even
necessary events in an organization. It is critical for the group to handle it well because they are
great in helping to build skill and confidence for the next stage
Norming
In the norming stage, the group works through individual and social issues. The group establishes
its own norms of behaviors and begin to trust each other. Moreover, as the group develops
interpersonal skills, it becomes all the more skilled.
Members begin the art and knack of problem-solving. They also cross-train and learn new and
adequate job skills. This stage usually lasts for 4-12 months.
Performing
In this stage, the group is ready to begin performing its respective task and assigned jobs. In this
stage, the group has become well acquainted with one another and has clarity with regard to what
needs to and has to be done. The performing stage begins when the group is comfortable to work
and ends when the job is completed.
Adjourning
Post the performing stage, the group is adjourned. The adjourning stage ends the process of group
formation. Because the group is adjourned once the task that is assigned to the group is completed.

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Group Dynamics
The term ‘group dynamics’ means the study of forces within a group. Since human beings have
an innate desire for belonging to a group, group dynamism is bound to occur. In an organization
or in a society, we can see groups, small or large, working for the well-being.
The social process by which people interact with one another in small groups can be called group
dynamism. A group has certain common objectives & goals. Because of which members are
bound together with certain values and culture.

Importance of Group Dynamism

1. Firstly, a group can influence the way the members think. The members are always
influenced by the interactions of other members in the group. A group with a good leader
performs better as compared to a group with a weak leader.
2. The group can give the effect of synergy, that is, if the group consists of positive
thinkers,then its output is more than double every time.

3. Group dynamism can furthermore give job satisfaction to the members.

4. The group can also infuse the team spirit among the members.

5. Even the attitude, insights & ideas of members depend on group dynamism. For example,
negative thinkers convert to positive thinkers with the help of the facilitator.

6. Also, if the group works as a cohesive group, the cooperation and convergence can result
in maximization of productivity

7. Furthermore, group dynamism can reduce labor unrest. Lastly, it reduces

Collaborative Processes in Work Groups

A collaboration process is a work methodology in which the work environment is made

efficient, foreseeable, dependable, and highly supportive using unified digital platforms

that are not dependent on individuals or multiple types of applications. The idea behind

the ideal collaborative process is to keep work going smoothly and teams collaborating

seamlessly without loss of information even if individuals leave or tools fail. A

collaboration process is ideally supported by a unified platform or tool that al l employees

use to transact work and store information.

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7 Steps to sharpen the team Collaboration Process
1. Form strategic teams

Every team needs a variety of skill sets to cover projects, but even if members have been

selected purposefully, their areas of expertise can go untapped. For a variety of reasons,

assignments often don’t go to the person who could offer the best results based on

experience, and others are left floundering to complete the work another team member

could easily accomplish with more expertise in less time.

2. Promote diversity

A strong sense of community, where differences are respected, is essential for

collaboration. If someone has a new idea but fears backlash and keeps quiet, the

collaborative process is hampered.

Understanding personality and demographic differences goes a long way in expanding open-

mindedness, growing empathy, and softening negative feelings among colleagues. Start by

implementing a personality test to team members and asking them to review the results

together gives members a chance to understand individualities different from their own.

Then, also take time to learn from others about diversity related to age, race, gender, and

more. When other personalities are better recognized, bias and prejudice can begin to

subside.

3. Encourage team-oriented goals

At times, it’s easier for managers to hand out deadlines and goals to their teams. But

when a group works together to establish their own goals and targets, everyone is more

tightly connected to the venture and more deeply committed to success.

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Managers can provide a model for setting objectives, such as SMART, for teams to use
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so that goals are clear from the start. As parameters are discussed, individuals should be

aware of how their tasks align with the overall goal and supporting business str ategy.

Through a project’s duration, communicating with others to stay within the goal

framework is essential, which leads us to the next point.

4. Designate a tool for the collaboration process

Email and work-based chat apps are familiar to employees, but these tools create a

disconnect between the communication that surrounds work and work-related tasks.

Conversations and documents are scattered across applications and difficult to find or

share.

Contextual collaboration, however, ties discussions directly to projects, marketing

endeavors, or contracts in the same platform. Workflow and communication all take

place under one tab in an integrated digital workplace.

If someone leaves or switches teams, getting a new member on board and up to speed

only requires one login where they can see documents, conversations, and projects online

from any location.

85 percent[4] of employees with access to collaboration software are happier in the

workplace. Chances are, your employees are ready to adopt a modern tool to boost the

collaboration process.

5. Create a psychologically safe environment

Encourage your group to share constructive criticism and praise respectfully. Each

individual’s experience and talents play into their unique perspective to tackle problems

and tasks. No one’s opinion should be discredited.

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In a truly collaborative environment, ideas will regularly clash, but common team

objectives should motivate team members to work through conflict for the greater good.

When handled with poise, conflict can ignite creativity and innovation in a team.

In addition to the vocational proficiencies your employees possess, they also need skills

essential for collaboration. Collaborative Outcomes[5] identifies five primary skills

necessary for collaboration: active listening, dialogue, feedback, conflict management,

and facilitation. Offering seminars or training sessions can help strengthen these skills

to maintain a positive environment.

6. Offer rewards and incentives for collaboration

Rather than sticking to traditional incentives for individual performance, offer rewards

for team performance. Did the team meet a major milestone on time? Reward the entire

team. It doesn’t have to be monetary. Get creative! What are some special privileges that

would motivate your teams to perform together?

When employees see that management highly values collaboration, the “team” mindset

is reinforced. Barriers to collaboration fed by internal competition, like data hoarding

and “my project” mindsets, begin to fade. Team members see each other as assets instead

of threats to their career advancement.

7. Establish consistent standards for the collaboration process

Publish roles, policies, and requirements for collaboration in teams and across the

organization as a whole, if possible. For example, for all one-time projects, teams must

create a project board that specifies the individual processes and target timeline.

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Johari Window

The Johari window model is used to enhance the individual’s perception on others. This model
is based on two ideas- trust can be acquired by revealing information about you to others and
learning yourselves from their feedbacks. Each person is represented by the Johari model
through four quadrants or window pane. Each four window panes signifies personal
information, feelings, motivation and whether that information is known or unknown to oneself
or others in four viewpoints.

The four quadrants or “panes” of the Johari Window are:

1. Open Self (or open area/free area/public area)

2. Blind Self (or blind area/blind spot)
3. Hidden Self (or hidden area/avoided self/façade)
4. Unknown Self (or unknown area/area of unknown activity)

By examining them in more detail, an individual can get a better understanding of themselves
and how they fit into a group dynamic.

In more detail:

1. Open Self – We all have aspects of ourselves – motives, knowledge, behaviours, skills –
that we are familiar with and happy to share with other people. These make up our Open
Self.

A productive group will have a well-developed open area, with positive communication and
co-operation.

• Blind Self – Some aspects of our personality and behaviors may be recognized by
others but not by ourselves. These aspects of our Blind Self may have come about
through unconsciously copying others at an early age.

Aspects of our blind self can become those of our open self if we ask for feedback. A good
manager can also facilitate non-judgmental feedback. However, it’s important that the
provision of feedback takes into account the personality type and resilience of the individual,
otherwise it could be ineffective or even damaging to the person and/or the group.
• Hidden Self – The Hidden Self represents those parts of us that we know about but that
we hide from others. These could range from insecurities to hidden agendas. Introverted
personality types are particularly likely to have a strongly developed Hidden Self.

Hidden areas can cause mistrust, misunderstandings and poor communication; however, it’s
important to recognize that some aspects of our lives or personalities are not relevant to our
work and should remain separate from it. As with feedback from others about the Blind Self,
disclosure about the Hidden Self should be carefully managed to ensure people – especially
vulnerable personalities – do not feel forced to reveal information about themselves or judged
in any way.

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 • Unknown Self – The deepest layers of our being, which are unknown to both us and
others. This is the most challenging “pane” to understand and tends to be more prevalent
in those who are young or who have limited self-awareness and/or experience.

Transactional Analysis.

Transactional analysis, developed by psychiatrist Eric Berne, is a form of modern

psychology that examines a person's relationships and interactions. Berne took inspiration
from Sigmund Freud's theories of personality, combining them with his own observations
of human interaction in order to develop transactional analysis. In therapy, transactional
analysis can be used to address one's interactions and communications with the purpose of
establishing and reinforcing the idea that each individual is valuable and has the capacity
for positive change and personal growth.

Ego States of Transactional Analysis

Like Freud, Berne posited that each individual possesses three ego states. His ego states—
the Parent, the Adult, and the Child—do not directly correspond to Freud’s Id, Ego, and
Superego, however. Instead, these states represent an individual’s internal model of
parents, adults, and children. An individual may assume any of these roles in transactions
with another person or in internal conversation. These roles are not directly associated
with their typical English definitions but can be described as follows:

Parent consists of recordings of external events observed and experienced by a child from
birth through approximately the first five years of life. These recordings are not filtered or
analyzed by the child; they are simply accepted without question. Many of these external
events are likely to involve the individual’s parents or other adults in parent-link roles,
which led Berne to call this ego state “the Parent.” Examples of external events recorded
in this state:

• Do not play with matches.

• Remember to say “please” and “thank you.”

• Do not speak to strangers.

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Child represents all brain recordings of internal events (feelings or emotions) that are
directly linked to the external events observed by the child during the first five years of
life. Examples of events recorded in this state may include:

• I feel happy when Mom hugs me.

• Dad’s late-night movie was very scary.

• I feel sad when Mom is sad.

Adult, the final ego state, is the period in which a child develops the capacity to perceive
and understand situations that are different from what is observed (Parent) or felt (Child).
The Adult serves as a data processing center that utilizes information from all three ego
states in order to arrive at a decision. One important role of the Adult is to validate data
which is stored in the Parent:

• I see that Suzie’s house was burnt down. Mom was right—I should not play with
matches.

CVR

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