‫شهر أول‬/‫لغة‬

Chapter one
What is linguistics?
The systematic study of language which describes
language in all its aspects. In other words the scientific
study of language and its structure, including the study of
grammar, syntax and phonetics. Specific branches of
linguistic, include sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics,
comparative linguistics, dialectology, and structural
linguistics.
What is a linguist?
A person who studies linguistics is usually referred to as a
linguist. Linguists in the sense of linguistics experts need
not to be fluent in languages, though they must have a
wide experience of different types of languages. It is
more important for them to analyze and explain linguistic
phenomena, such as the Turkish vowel system.

Phonetics: The study of human speech sounds.

Phoneticians study the position of the tongue, teeth and
vocal cords during the production of sounds .
*Note: Linguists are more interested in the way in which
language is patterned.
Phonetics is surrounded by phonology (sound pattering)
then phonology is surrounded by syntax.
Syntax : The term refers to both the arrangement and
and the form of words. It is that part of language which
links together sound patterns and the meaning.
Semantics (meaning)
Phonology, syntax and semantics are necessary of
linguistics . Together they constitute the grammar of a
language.
Pragmatics: which deals with how speakers use language
in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistics
knowledge alone.
Psycholinguistics: The study of language and mind.
Sociolinguistics: The study of language and society.
Applied linguistics : The application of linguistics to
language teaching.
Computational linguistics: The use of computers to
simulate language and its workings.
Stylistic linguistics : The study of language and
literature.
Anthropological linguistics : the study of language in
cross-cultural settings.
Philosophical linguistics: The link between language and
logical thought.
Historical linguistics: The study of language and change.

Linguistics typology : The study of different languages

types.
What is the difference between synchronic and
diachronic linguistics?
Synchronic linguistics: The analysis of language at a single
point in time , while diachronic linguistics is usually dealt
with before historical .
How does linguistics differ from traditional grammar?
1- First and most important, linguistics is descriptive,
not prescriptive. Linguists are interested in what is
said, not what they think ought to be said. They
describe language in all its aspects, but do not
prescribe rules of correctness They are observers
and recorders not judges.
2- A second important way in which linguistics differs
from traditional school grammar is that, linguists
regard the spoken language as primary, not the
written. In the past, grammarians have over-stressed
the importance of the written word partly because
of its permanence. Linguists look first at the spoken
word.
3- A third way in which linguistic differs from traditional
grammar studies is that it does not force languages into a
Latin-based framework. In the past many traditional
textbook have assumed unquestioningly that Latin
provides a universal framework into which all languages
fit. Linguists are opposed to the notion that one language
can provide a best framework for all the others.
De Saussure sees language as a game of chess. Discuss.
De saussure expressed the difference well when he
compared language with a game of chess. The linguist is
interested in the various moves which the chessmen make
and how they are aligned on the board . It does not matter
whether the chessmen are made of wood or ivory . Their
substance not alter the rules of the game.
Chapter Two
Not: Humans can transfer language to various other media ,
such as written symbols, braille, sign language and so on.
Use of sound signals
Sound signals have several advantages . They can be
used in the dark, and at some distance , they allow a
wide variety of messages to be sent and they leave the
body free for other activities.
Arbitrariness
There is often a strong link between the actual signal andthe
message an animal wishes to convey, while in human
language the reverse is true because there is no link
between the signal and the message . The symbols are
arbitrary . There is no intrinsic connection for example
between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes.
onomatopoeic words such as quack-quack and bang are
exceptions.
onomatopoeic words‫الكلمات البيها ربط بين أسمها وصوتها‬
The need for learning:
Many animals automatically know how to communicate
without learning because their systems of communication
are genetically inbuilt. For example Bee-dancing , while
humans need to learn because human language is by no
means totally conditioned by the environment.
Duality
Most animals can use each basic sound only once. That is mean
the number of messages an animal can send is restricted to the
number of basic sounds. Human language works differently.
Each language has a stock of sound units or phonemes. Each
phoneme is normally meaningless in isolation , it becomes
meaningful when it is combined with other phonemes , for
example g/f/d they mean nothing separately , they become
meaningful when they combined together as in , fog , dog
Displacement
Most animals can communicate about things in the present
environment only , they cannot give information about time
and place, while human language can communicate about
things that are absent as easily as about things that are present.
So displacement only in the animal world.
Creativity ( productivity)
Most animals have a very limited number of messages they can
send or receive. All animals are limited in a similar way, while
humans can produce utterances whenever they want to. A
person can utter a sentence which has been never said before,
and still be understood .
Pattering
Many animals communication systems consist of a simple list of
elements . There is no internal organization within the system ,
while humans do not juxtapose sounds and words in a random way
. They ring the changes on a well-defined patterns.
Note: Language operations are structure dependent , they depend
on an understanding of the internal structure of a sentence rather
than on the number of elements involved.
Human language versus animal communication.
Human language is signaling system which uses sounds. In animal
communication there is a connection between the signal and the
message sent and the system is mainly genetically inbuilt , while in
human language the symbols are mostly arbitrary and the system
has to be transmitted from one generation to another . Duality and
displacement the organization of language into two layers and the
ability to talk about absent objects and events are very rare in
animal world . Creativity and the ability to produce novel
utterances seems not to be in any natural communication system
possessed by animals. Pattering and structure dependence may
also be unique language features.
The role of language
Language is one of the most important parts of any cultural. It
is the way by which people communicate with one another,
build relationship and create a sense of community. Language
can of course be used to convey our emotions, feelings,
thoughts etc.. By language we can express our history, learn,
culture, human rights and participate in all aspects of society. In
another words language is considered the prime tool of
communication. These days, various other biologically less
important functions of language are also found.
 Chapter 3
Nineteenth century: historical linguistics
Before the 19 th century, language in the western world was of interest
mainly to philosophers, It is significant that the Greek philosophers Plato and
Aristotle made major contributions to the study of language. Plato is said to
have been the first person to distinguish between nouns and verbs. 1786 is
the year which many people regard as the birthdate of linguistics. In that
year, an Englishmany Sir William Jones, read a paper to the Royal Asiatic
Society in Catcutta pointing out that Sanskrit (the old Indian language),
Greek, Latin, Celtic and Germanic,all had striking structural similarities.
‫ ومن المهم أن الفالسفة‬، ‫ كانت اللغة في العالم الغربي ذات أهمية رئيسية للفالسفة‬، 19 ‫قبل القرن‬
‫ يقال إن أفالطون كان أول‬.‫اليونانيين أفالطون وأرسطو قدموا مساهمات كبيرة في دراسة اللغة‬
‫ هو العام الذي يعتبره الكثير من الناس تاريخ ميالد‬1786 .‫شخص يميز بين األسماء واألفعال‬
‫ قرأ ويليام جونز اإلنجليزي ورقة إلى الجمعية الملكية اآلسيوية في كاتكوتا‬، ‫ في ذلك العام‬.‫اللغويات‬
‫ كلها لها‬، ‫تشير إلى أن السنسكريتية (اللغة الهندية القديمة) واليونانية والالتينية والسلتية والجرمانية‬
.‫أوجه تشابه هيكلية مذهلة‬
Jones has the credit of Cong this discovery, it was an idea that was occurring
dependently to several scholars at the same time. Sir William Jones discovery
fired the imagination of scholars. All other linguistic work was eclipsed by the
general preoccupation with writing comparative grammars which first
compared the different linguistic forms European language hypothetical
ancestor, Proto-Indo-European, from which all these languages were
descended.
‫ كانت فكرة كانت تحدث بشكل معتمد على العديد من العلماء‬، ‫جونز له الفضل في كونغ هذا االكتشاف‬
‫ طغى على جميع األعمال اللغوية األخرى‬.‫ أطلق اكتشاف ويليام جونز خيال العلماء‬.‫في نفس الوقت‬
‫االنشغال العام بكتابة القواعد المقارنة التي قارنت أوال األشكال اللغوية المختلفة لسلف اللغة األوروبية‬
.‫ والتي انحدرت منها كل هذه اللغات‬،Proto-Indo-European ، ‫االفتراضي‬
In the mid-19 th century, Darwin published his famous Origin of Species,
putting forward the theory of evolution. It seemed natural to attempt to
chart the evolution of language alongside the evolution of species. This
emphasis on language change eventually led to a major theoretical advance.
In the last quarter of the century, a group Scholars centred around Leipzig,
and nicknamed the Young Grammarians, claimed that language change is
“regular”. They gued that if, in any word of a given dialect, one sound
changes into another, the change will also affect all other Occurrences of me
sound in similar phonetic surroundings.
 ‫ بدا من‬.‫ طرح نظرية التطور‬، ‫ نشر داروين كتابه الشهير أصل األنواع‬، 19 ‫في منتصف القرن‬
‫ أدى هذا التركيز على تغيير اللغة‬.‫الطبيعي محاولة رسم تطور اللغة جنبا إلى جنب مع تطور األنواع‬
‫ ادعت مجموعة من العلماء تتمحور‬، ‫ في الربع األخير من القرن‬.‫في النهاية إلى تقدم نظري كبير‬
‫ لقد جادلوا بأنه إذا تغير‬."‫ أن تغيير اللغة "منتظم‬، ‫ ويطلق عليها اسم النحاة الشباب‬، ‫حول اليبزيغ‬
‫ فإن التغيير سيؤثر أيضا على جميع تكرارات‬، ‫صوت واحد إلى آخر في أي كلمة من لهجة معينة‬
.‫صوتي األخرى في محيط صوتي مماثل‬
For example, in Old English the word chin was pronounced ‘kin’ (spelt cinn).
This change from a k-sound to ch affected all other k-sounds ch occurred at
the beginning of a word before e or i. So we get chicken, child, chide, chip,
chill, cheese, cheek, chest.
Early- to mid-20th century: descriptive linguistics.
In the 20 th century, the emphasis shifted from language change to language
description. Instead of looking at how a selection of items changed in a
number of different languages, linguists began to concentrate on describing
single languages at one particular point in time.
‫ بدال من النظر في كيفية تغير مجموعة‬.‫ تحول التركيز من تغيير اللغة إلى وصف اللغة‬، 20 ‫في القرن‬
‫ بدأ اللغويون في التركيز على وصف اللغات‬، ‫مختارة من العناصر في عدد من اللغات المختلفة‬
.‫الفردية في وقت معين‬
If any one person can be held responsible for this change of emphasis, it was
the Swiss scholar Ferdinande de Saussure (1857-1913), who is sometimes
labelled ‘the father of modern linguistics’. Amazingly, he died without having
written any major work on general linguistics. But his students collected
together his lecture notes after his death and published them under the title
Course in General Linguistics (1915), which exerted a major influence on the
course of linguistics, particularly in Europe.
‫ فهو الباحث‬، ‫إذا كان هناك شخص واحد يمكن تحميله المسؤولية عن هذا التغيير في التركيز‬
‫ الذي يوصف أحيانا بأنه "أبو اللغويات‬، )1913-1857( ‫السويسري فرديناند دي سوسور‬
‫ لكن طالبه‬.‫ توفي دون أن يكتب أي عمل رئيسي في اللغويات العامة‬، ‫ بشكل مثير للدهشة‬."‫الحديثة‬
، )1915( ‫جمعوا مالحظات محاضرته بعد وفاته ونشروها تحت عنوان دورة في اللغويات العامة‬
.‫ وخاصة في أوروبا‬، ‫والتي كان لها تأثير كبير على مسار اللغويات‬
De Saussure’s crucial contribution was his explicit and reiterated statement
that all language items are essentially interlinked, This was an aspect of
language which had not been stressed before. Nobody had seriously
examined the relationship of each element to all the others. As noted earlier,
it was De Saussure who first suggested that language was like a game of
chess, a system in which each item is defined by its relationship to all the
others. His insistence that language is a carefully built structure of
interwoven elements initiated the era of structural linguistics.
‫كانت مساهمة دي سوسور الحاسمة هي بيانه الصريح والمتكرر بأن جميع البنود اللغوية مترابطة‬
‫ لم يقم أحد بفحص جدي‬.‫ وكان هذا جانبا من جوانب اللغة لم يتم التأكيد عليه من قبل‬، ‫بشكل أساسي‬
‫ كان دي سوسور هو أول من اقترح أن‬، ‫ كما ذكرنا سابقا‬.‫لعالقة كل عنصر بجميع العناصر األخرى‬
‫ وهو نظام يتم فيه تعريف كل عنصر من خالل عالقته بجميع العناصر‬، ‫اللغة كانت مثل لعبة الشطرنج‬
‫ إن إصراره على أن اللغة هي بنية مبنية بعناية من العناصر المتشابكة بدأ عصر اللغويات‬.‫األخرى‬
.‫البنيوية‬
The term ‘structural linguistics’ is sometimes misunderstood. It does not
necessarily refer to a separate branch or school of linguistics. All linguistics
since de Saussure is structural, as “structural’ in this broad sense merely
means the recognition that language is a patterned system composed of
interdependent elements, rather than a collection of unconnected individual
iterns. In America, linguistics began as an offshoot of anthropology.
‫ ال يشير بالضرورة إلى فرع أو مدرسة‬.‫يساء فهم مصطلح "اللغويات البنيوية" في بعض األحيان‬
‫ ألن "البنيوية" بهذا المعنى‬، ‫ جميع اللغويات منذ دي سوسور هي بنيوية‬.‫منفصلة من اللغويات‬
‫ بدال من مجموعة‬، ‫الواسع تعني فقط االعتراف بأن اللغة هي نظام نمطي يتكون من عناصر مترابطة‬
.‫ بدأت اللغويات كفرع من األنثروبولوجيا‬، ‫ في أمريكا‬.‫من التكرارات الفردية غير المتصلة‬
Around the beginning of the 20 th century, anthropologists were eager to
record the culture of the fast-dying American-Indian tribes, and the
American-Indian languages were one aspect of this. Although often
interesting, the work of those early scholars was, for the most part,
haphazard and lacking cohesion. There were no firm guidelines for linguists
to follow when they attempted to describe exotic Janguages. This state of
affairs changed with the publication in 1933 of Leonard Bloomfield’s
comprehensive work entitled simply Language, which attempted to lay down
rigorous procedures for the description of any language.
Bloomfield considered that linguistics should deal objectively and
systematically with cobservable data. So he was more interested in the way
items were arranged than in meaning. The study of meaning was not
amenable to rigorous methods of analysis and was therefore, he concluded,
‘the weak point in language study, and will remain so until human knowledge
advances very far beyond its present state’. Bloomfield had immense
influence – far more than the European linguists working during this period-
and the socalled Bloomfieldian era’ lasted for more than 20 years.
 ‫ لذلك‬.‫اعتبر بلومفيلد أن اللغويات يجب أن تتعامل بموضوعية ومنهجية مع البيانات القابلة للمالحظة‬
‫ لم تكن دراسة المعنى قابلة‬.‫كان مهتما بالطريقة التي تم بها ترتيب العناصر أكثر من اهتمامه بالمعنى‬
‫ وستظل‬، ‫ "نقطة الضعف في دراسة اللغة‬، ‫ كما خلص‬، ‫ وبالتالي كانت‬، ‫ألساليب التحليل الصارمة‬
‫ أكثر‬- ‫ كان لبلومفيلد تأثير هائل‬."‫كذلك حتى تتقدم المعرفة البشرية إلى ما هو أبعد من حالتها الحالية‬
‫ واستمر ما يسمى بعصر بلومفيلد ألكثر‬- ‫بكثير من اللغويين األوروبيين الذين عملوا خالل هذه الفترة‬
.‫ عاما‬20 ‫من‬
During this time, large numbers of linguists concentrated on writing
descriptive grammars of unwritten languages. This involved first finding
native speakers of the language concerned and collecting sets of utterances
from them. Second, it involved analyzing the corpus of collected utterances
by studying the phonological and syntactic patterns of the language
concerned, as far as possible without recourse to meaning. Items were (in
theory) identified and classified solely on the basis of their distribution
within the corpus.
In the course of writing such grammars, a number of problems arose which
could not be solved by the methods proposed by Bloomfield. So an
enormous amount of attention was paid to the refinement of analytical
techniques, For many, the ultimate goal of linguistics was the perfection of
discovery procedures a set of principles which would enable a linguist to
‘discover’ (or perhaps more accurately, ‘uncover’) in a foolproof way the
linguistic units of an unwritten language. Because of their overriding interest
in the internal patterns or ‘structure’ of the language, such linguists are
sometimes labelled ‘structuralists’ .
‫كان الهدف النهائي لعلم اللغة هو إتقان إجراءات االكتشاف مجموعة من المبادئ التي من شأنها أن‬
‫ "كشف") بطريقة مضمونة الوحدات اللغوية‬، ‫تمكن اللغوي من "اكتشاف" (أو ربما بشكل أكثر دقة‬
‫ يطلق على هؤالء‬، ‫ بسبب اهتمامهم الطاغي باألنماط الداخلية أو "بنية" اللغة‬.‫للغة غير المكتوبة‬
".‫اللغويين أحيانا اسم "البنيويين‬
Mid- to late-20 th century: generative linguistics and the search for universals
In 1957, linguistics took a new turning. Noam Chomsky, then aged 29, a
teacher at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, published a book
called Syntactic Structures. Although containing fewer than 120 pages, this
Iittle book started a revolution in linguistics. Chomsky is, arguably, the most
influential linguist of the century. Certainly, he is the linguist whose
reputation has sprcad furthest outside linguistics. He has, in the opinion of
many, transformed linguistics from a relatively obscure discipline of interest
mainly to PhD students and future missionaries into a major social science of
direct relevance to psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, philosophers
and others.
29 ‫ الذي كان يبلغ من العمر‬، ‫ نشر تشومسكي‬.. ‫ اتخذت اللغويات منعطفا جديدا‬، 1957 ‫في عام‬
‫ على الرغم‬.‫ كتابا بعنوان الهياكل النحوية‬، ‫ وهو مدرس في معهد ماساتشوستس للتكنولوجيا‬، ‫عاما‬
‫ يمكن القول إن‬.‫ إال أن الكتاب هذا بدأ ثورة في اللغويات‬، ‫ صفحة‬120 ‫من احتوائه على أقل من‬
‫ من المؤكد أنه اللغوي الذي انتشرت سمعته خارج‬.‫تشومسكي هو اللغوي األكثر تأثيرا في القرن‬
‫ بتحويل اللغويات من تخصص غامض نسبيا يهم بشكل رئيسي‬، ‫ في رأي الكثيرين‬، ‫ لقد قام‬.‫اللغويات‬
‫طالب الدكتوراه والمبشرين المستقبليين إلى علم اجتماعي رئيسي ذي صلة مباشرة بعلماء النفس‬
.‫وعلماء االجتماع وعلماء األنثروبولوجيا والفالسفة وغيرهم‬
Chomsky has shifted attention away from detailed descriptions of actual
utterances, and started asking questions about the nature-of the system
which produces the outpur. According to Chomsky, Bloomfieldian linguistics
was both far too ambitious and far too limited in scope. It was too ambitious
in that it was unrealistic to expect to be able to lay down foolproof rules for
extracting a perfect description of a language from a mass of data. It was too
limited because it concentrated on describing sets of utterances which
happened to have been spoken. A grammar, he claimed, should be more
than a description of old utterances. It should also take into account possible
future utterances.
‫ وبدأ في طرح أسئلة حول‬، ‫حول تشومسكي االنتباه بعيدا عن األوصاف التفصيلية لألقوال الفعلية‬
‫ كانت لغويات بلومفيلد طموحة للغاية‬، ‫ وفقا لتشومسكي‬.‫طبيعة النظام الذي ينتج الحافز الخارجي‬
‫ لقد كان طموحا للغاية ألنه كان من غير الواقعي توقع القدرة على وضع‬.‫ومحدودة النطاق للغاية‬
‫ كان محدودا للغاية ألنه ركز على‬.‫قواعد مضمونة الستخراج وصف مثالي للغة من كتلة من البيانات‬
‫ وادعى أن القواعد يجب أن تكون أكثر من مجرد‬.‫وصف مجموعات من األقوال التي تم التحدث بها‬
.‫ كما ينبغي أن تأخذ في االعتبار األقوال المحتملة في المستقبل‬.‫وصف لألقوال القديمة‬
In short, the traditional viewpoint that the main task of linguists is simply to
describe a corpus of actual utterances cannot account for the characteristic
of productivity, of creativity, as Chomsky preferred to call it. This, as we
noted in, Chapter 2, is the ability of human beings to produce and
comprehend an indefinite number of novel utterances. Chomsky pointed out
that anyone who knows a language must have internalized a set of rules
which specify the sequences nermitted in their language. In his opinion, a
linguist’s task is to discover these rules, which constitute the grammar of the
language in question. Chomsky therefore used the word “grammar”
interchangeably to mean, on the one hand, a person’s internalized rules, and
on the other hand, a linguist’s guess as to these rules.
 ‫ فإن وجهة النظر التقليدية القائلة بأن المهمة الرئيسية للغويين هي ببساطة وصف‬، ‫باختصار‬
‫ كما فضل تشومسكي‬، ‫مجموعة من األلفاظ الفعلية ال يمكن أن تفسر خاصية اإلنتاجية واإلبداع‬
‫ هو قدرة البشر على إنتاج وفهم عدد غير محدد من األقوال‬، 2 ‫ كما أشرنا في الفصل‬، ‫ هذا‬.‫تسميتها‬
‫ أشار تشومسكي إلى أن أي شخص يعرف لغة ما يجب أن يكون قد استوعب مجموعة من‬.‫الجديدة‬
‫ تتمثل مهمة اللغوي في اكتشاف هذه‬، ‫ في رأيه‬.‫القواعد التي تحدد التسلسالت المقيدة في لغته‬
‫ من‬، ‫ لذلك استخدم تشومسكي كلمة القواعد بالتبادل لتعني‬.‫ التي تشكل قواعد اللغة المعنية‬، ‫القواعد‬
.‫ تخمين اللغوي لهذه القواعد‬، ‫ ومن ناحية أخرى‬، ‫ القواعد الداخلية للشخص‬، ‫ناحية‬
Chomsky, therefore, initiated the era of generative linguistics. In his words, a
grammar will be “a device which generates all the grammatical sequences of
a language and none of the ungrammatical ones’.
‫ ستكون القواعد "جهازا يولد جميع‬، ‫ على حد تعبيره‬.‫ بدأ تشومسكي عصر اللغويات التوليدية‬، ‫لذلك‬
."‫التسلسالت النحوية للغة وال شيء من التسلسالت غير النحوية‬
Such a grammar is perfectly explicit, in that nothing is left to the imagination.
The rules must be precisely formulated in such a way that anyone would be
able to separate the well-formed sentences from the ill-formed ones, even if
they did not know a word of the language concerned. The particular type of
generative grammar proposed by Chomsky was a so-called transformational
one. The basic characteristics of Chomsky not only initiated the era of
generative grammars. He also redirected attention towards language
universals. He pointed out that as all humans are rather similar, their
internalized language mechanisms are likely to have important Common
properties. He argued that linguists should concentrate on finding elements
and constructions that are available to all guages, whether or not they
actually occur. Above all, they should seek to specify the universal bounds or
constraints within which human language operates The constraints on
human language are, he suggested, inherited man beings may be pre-
programmed with a basic Knowledge of what languages are like, and how
they work. Homsky has given the label Universal Grammar (UG) to this
nerited core. He regards it as a major task of linguistics to explore its make-
up.
‫ وأشار‬.‫ كما أعاد توجيه االنتباه نحو عالمية اللغة‬.‫الخصائص األساسية لتشومسكي لم تبدأ فقط عصر القواعد التوليدية‬
‫ فمن المرجح أن يكون آللياتهم اللغوية الداخلية خصائص مشتركة‬، ‫إلى أنه نظرا ألن جميع البشر متشابهون إلى حد ما‬
‫ سواء حدثت‬، ‫ وجادل بأن اللغويين يجب أن يركزوا على إيجاد العناصر واإلنشاءات المتاحة لجميع المقاييس‬.‫مهمة‬
‫ يجب أن يسعوا إلى تحديد الحدود أو القيود العالمية التي تعمل فيها اللغة البشرية واقترح‬، ‫ قبل كل شيء‬.‫بالفعل أم ال‬
‫أن القيود المفروضة على اللغة البشرية هي أن الكائنات البشرية الموروثة قد تكون مبرمجة مسبقا بمعرفة أساسية‬
‫ وهو يعتبر أن مهمة‬.‫( لهذا النواة العصبية‬UG) ‫ أعطى هومسكي تسمية القواعد العالمية‬.‫بماهية اللغات وكيف تعمل‬
.‫اللغويات الرئيسية هي استكشاف تركيبتها‬
 Chapter 4
Language as a game
Language can be regarded as a complicated type of game, assuming
a 'game' to be 'a specified type of activity governed by rules'. The
various facets involved in a game can show why there is some
argument when linguists try to decide where to begin studying
language. In a typical game, such as chess or soccer, anyone trying
to find out how the game is played has to deal with three broad
types of question: the aims of the game, the principles of
interaction, and the permitted moves.
‫ بافتراض أن "اللعبة" هي "نوع محدد من‬، ‫يمكن اعتبار اللغة نوعا معقدا من األلعاب‬
‫ يمكن أن تظهر الجوانب المختلفة التي تنطوي عليها اللعبة سبب‬."‫النشاط تحكمه القواعد‬
‫ في لعبة‬.‫وجود بعض الجدل عندما يحاول اللغويون تحديد من أين يبدأون دراسة اللغة‬
‫ يتعين على أي شخص يحاول معرفة كيفية لعب‬، ‫ مثل الشطرنج أو كرة القدم‬، ‫نموذجية‬
، ‫ ومبادئ التفاعل‬، ‫ أهداف اللعبة‬:‫اللعبة التعامل مع ثالثة أنواع واسعة من األسئلة‬
.‫والحركات المسموح بها‬
The 'aims' of language involve not only the broad functions
(conveying information, expressing emotion, keeping in touch
socially, and so on), but also more specific purposes for which
language can be used, such as:
‫ والتعبير عن المشاعر‬، ‫ال تتضمن "أهداف" اللغة الوظائف الواسعة فقط (نقل المعلومات‬
‫ ولكن أيضا أغراض أكثر تحديدا يمكن‬، )‫ وما إلى ذلك‬، ‫ والبقاء على اتصال اجتماعي‬،
:‫ مثل‬، ‫استخدام اللغة من أجلها‬
Obtain information: Where's the house ?
Make someone do something: Shut the door!
Make a promise: I'll visit him next week.
Under permitted moves, linguists explore which 'moves' are
permitted, and which not. With regard to language, there are rules
underlying well-formed sequences of a language. In English, for
example, verbs precede their objects, as in The cat ate the canary,
rather than *The cat the canary ate which would be the standard
order in, say, Turkish.
‫ يستكشف اللغويون "التحركات" المسموح بها وأيها‬، ‫بموجب التحركات المسموح بها‬
‫ هناك قواعد تستند إلى تسلسالت جيدة التكوين‬، ‫ فيما يتعلق باللغة‬.‫غير مسموح بها‬
‫ كما هو الحال‬، ‫ تسبق األفعال أغراضها‬، ‫ على سبيل المثال‬، ‫ في اللغة اإلنجليزية‬.‫للغة‬
‫ بدال من * القط الذي أكله الكناري والذي سيكون الترتيب القياسي‬، ‫في القط أكل الكناري‬
.‫ التركية‬، ‫ على سبيل المثال‬، ‫في‬
In language also, all these facets are relevant, and native speakers
have a firm knowledge of them. It is easier to specify the basic
permitted moves than it is to give an equivalent account of the
aims and principles of interaction, which are closely interwoven
with the social structures of the society involved. They therefore
start with the permitted moves or, in linguistic terminology, the
grammar of the language. They consider this to be the core of
linguistic study.
‫ والمتحدثون األصليون لديهم معرفة راسخة‬، ‫ كل هذه الجوانب ذات صلة‬، ‫في اللغة أيضا‬
‫ من األسهل تحديد التحركات األساسية المسموح بها بدال من إعطاء حساب مكافئ‬.‫بها‬
‫ والتي تتشابك بشكل وثيق مع الهياكل االجتماعية للمجتمع‬، ‫ألهداف ومبادئ التفاعل‬
‫ قواعد‬، ‫ في المصطلحات اللغوية‬، ‫ لذلك فهي تبدأ بالحركات المسموح بها أو‬.‫المعني‬
.‫ إنهم يعتبرون هذا هو جوهر الدراسة اللغوية‬.‫اللغة‬
Universal and particular : It is useful to begin studying language by
looking at the three central components which make up a grammar
phonology, syntax and semantics. In general, people fall into one of
two categories) On the one hand, there are those who want to
study language because they knowing more about one particular
language. On the other hand, there are those who want to find out
more about language as such. Into this second category come the
majority of professional, linguists and other social scientists -
people such as sociologists, psychologists and anthropologists, who
need to know about the phenomenon of language as a whole.
‫من المفيد البدء في دراسة اللغة من خالل النظر في المكونات المركزية الثالثة التي تشكل‬
‫ يقع الناس في واحدة من‬، ‫ بشكل عام‬.‫علم األصوات النحوي وبناء الجملة والدالالت‬
‫ هناك أولئك الذين يرغبون في دراسة اللغة ألنهم يعرفون المزيد عن‬، ‫فئتين) من ناحية‬
‫ هناك أولئك الذين يرغبون في معرفة المزيد عن اللغة على‬، ‫ من ناحية أخرى‬.‫لغة معينة‬
‫ في هذه الفئة الثانية تأتي غالبية المهنيين واللغويين وغيرهم من علماء‬.‫هذا النحو‬
‫ الذين‬، ‫ أشخاص مثل علماء االجتماع وعلماء النفس وعلماء األنثروبولوجيا‬- ‫االجتماع‬
.‫يحتاجون إلى معرفة ظاهرة اللغة ككل‬
These two groups of people are likely to write very different types
of grammar, and to view linguistics quite differently. Those
interested in a particular language will be trying to write a perfect
grammar of that language (or one section of it), usually by making a
detailed study of the patterns of that language alone/For example,
they might be interested in the relationship of French vowels to
one another.
‫ وأن‬، ‫من المرجح أن تكتب هاتان المجموعتان من الناس أنواعا مختلفة جدا من القواعد‬
‫ سيحاول المهتمون بلغة معينة كتابة قواعد‬.‫ينظروا إلى اللغويات بشكل مختلف تماما‬
‫ عادة عن طريق إجراء دراسة مفصلة‬، )‫نحوية مثالية لتلك اللغة (أو قسم واحد منها‬
‫ قد يكونون مهتمين بعالقة حروف العلة‬، ‫ على سبيل المثال‬/ ‫ألنماط تلك اللغة وحدها‬
.‫الفرنسية ببعضها البعض‬
Those interested in language as a whole, on the other hand, will be
trying to lay down a grammatical framework which will be suitable
for all languages. Although such people may well write a grammar
of a particular language, they will be doing this in order to test out
a theory with wider implications, since one way of testing a
proposed universal framework is to see whether it will fit any given
language. The progression from the particular to the universal is
perhaps more important for the linguist than for the motor
mechanic. Anyone working seriously on a language is likely to need
to know whether the phenomena they meet are unique or
commonplace.
.‫ سيحاول المهتمون باللغة ككل وضع إطار نحوي مناسب لجميع اللغات‬، ‫من ناحية أخرى‬
‫ إال أنهم سيفعلون ذلك‬، ‫على الرغم من أن هؤالء األشخاص قد يكتبون قواعد لغة معينة‬
 ‫من أجل اختبار نظرية ذات آثار أوسع ‪ ،‬ألن إحدى طرق اختبار إطار عالمي مقترح هي‬
‫معرفة ما إذا كانت تناسب أي لغة معينة‪ .‬ربما يكون التقدم من الخاص إلى العالمي أكثر‬
‫أهمية بالنسبة للغوي منه بالنسبة لميكانيكي المحركات‪ .‬من المرجح أن يحتاج أي شخص‬
‫يعمل بجدية على لغة ما إلى معرفة ما إذا كانت الظواهر التي يقابلونها فريدة أم شائعة‪.‬‬
‫‪A'universal grammar' (if one could ever be written) would have‬‬
‫‪enormously important implications for our knowledge of the‬‬
‫‪human race. In the opinion of Chomsky, "There are very deep and‬‬
‫‪restrictive principles that determine the nature of human language‬‬
‫‪and are rooted in the specific character of the human mind'. The‬‬
‫‪idea of finding a fixed universal grammar has been slowly fading. A‬‬
‫‪search for abnormalities may not be as useful as finding out how‬‬
‫‪most languages behave.‬‬
‫"القواعد العالمية" (إذا كان من الممكن كتابتها) سيكون لها آثار مهمة للغاية على‬
‫معرفتنا بالجنس البشري‪ .‬في رأي تشومسكي ‪" ،‬هناك مبادئ عميقة ومقيدة للغاية تحدد‬
‫طبيعة اللغة البشرية ومتجذرة في الطابع المحدد للعقل البشري"‪ .‬فكرة إيجاد قواعد‬
‫عالمية ثابتة تتالشى ببطء‪ .‬قد ال يكون البحث عن التشوهات مفيدا مثل معرفة كيفية‬
‫تصرف معظم اللغات‪.‬‬