History
Main article: History of the Philippines
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Philippine history.
Prehistory (pre–900)
Main article: Prehistory of the Philippines
The Manunggul burial jar, one of the numerous burial
jars found on the cave system
There is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early
as 709,000 years ago.[27] A small number of bones from Callao Cave potentially
represent an otherwise unknown species, Homo luzonensis, who lived 50,000 to
67,000 years ago.[28][29] The oldest modern human remains on the islands are from
the Tabon Caves of Palawan, U/Th-dated to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago.
[30]
Tabon Man is presumably a Negrito, among the archipelago's earliest
inhabitants descended from the first human migrations out of Africa via the
coastal route along southern Asia to the now-sunken landmasses
of Sundaland and Sahul.[31]
The first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan around 2200 BC,
settling the Batanes Islands (where they built stone fortresses known as ijangs)
[32]
and northern Luzon. Jade artifacts have been dated to 2000 BC,[33]
[34]
with lingling-o jade items made in Luzon with raw materials from Taiwan.[35] By
1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four
societies: hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, highland plutocracies, and
port principalities.[36]
Early states (900–1565)
Main article: History of the Philippines (900–1565)
A couple portrayed in 1590's Early Spanish
colonial period of the Philippines draped in gold
The earliest known surviving written record in the Philippines is the 900
AD Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which was written in Old Malay using the
early Kawi script with a number of technical Sanskrit words and Old
Javanese or Old Tagalog honorifics.[37] By the 14th century, several large coastal
settlements emerged as trading centers and became the focus of societal
changes.[38] Some polities had exchanges with other states throughout Asia.[39]: 3
[40]
Trade with China began during the late Tang dynasty,[41][42] and expanded
during the Song dynasty.[43][44][42] Throughout the second millennium AD, some
polities were also part of the tributary system of China.[17]: 177–178 [39]: 3 With extensive
trade and diplomacy, this brought Southern Chinese merchants and migrants
from Southern Fujian, known as "Langlang"[45] and "Sangley" in later years,[46]
[47]
who would gradually settle and intermix in the Philippines. Indian cultural traits
such as linguistic terms and religious practices began to spread in the Philippines
during the 14th century, via the Indianized Hindu Majapahit Empire.[48][49] By the
15th century, Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from
there.[38]
Polities founded in the Philippines between the 10th and 16th centuries
include Maynila,[50] Tondo, Namayan, Pangasinan, Caboloan, Cebu, Butuan, Mag
uindanao, Lanao, Sulu, and Ma-i.[51] The early polities typically had a three-tier
social structure: nobility, freemen, and dependent debtor-bondsmen.[39]: 3 [52]:
672
Among the nobility were leaders known as datus, who were responsible for
ruling autonomous groups (barangays or dulohan).[53] When the barangays
banded together to form a larger settlement or a geographically looser alliance, [39]:
3 [54]
their more-esteemed members would be recognized as a "paramount datu",[55]:
58 [36]
rajah or sultan,[56] and would rule the community.[57] Population density is
thought to have been low during the 14th to 16th centuries[55]: 18 due to
the frequency of typhoons and the Philippines' location on the Pacific Ring of
Fire.[58] Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in 1521, claimed the
islands for Spain, and was killed by Lapulapu's men in the Battle of Mactan.[59]: 21 [60]:
261
Spanish and American colonial rule (1565–1934)
Main articles: History of the Philippines (1565–1898) and History of the
Philippines (1898–1946)
Manila, 1847
Unification and colonization by the Crown of Castile began when Spanish
explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from New Spain (Spanish: Nueva
España) in 1565.[61][62][63]: 20–23 Many Filipinos were brought to New Spain as
slaves and forced crew,[64]whereas many Latin Americans were brought to the
Philippines as soldiers and colonists.[65] Spanish Manila became the capital of
the Captaincy General of the Philippines and the Spanish East Indies in 1571,[66]
[67]
Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.[68] The Spanish invaded local states
using the principle of divide and conquer,[60]: 374 bringing most of what is the
present-day Philippines under one unified administration.[69][70] Disparate
barangays were deliberately consolidated into towns, where Catholic
missionaries could more easily convert their inhabitants to Christianity,[71]: 53, 68
[72]
which was initially Syncretist.[73] Christianization by the Spanish friars occurred
mostly across the settled lowlands over the course of time. From 1565 to 1821,
the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Mexico City-based Viceroyalty
of New Spain; it was then administered from Madrid after the Mexican War of
Independence.[74]: 81 Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific
trade[75] by Manila galleons built in Bicol and Cavite.[76][77]
During its rule, Spain nearly bankrupted its treasury quelling indigenous revolts[74]:
111–122
and defending against external military attacks,[78]: 1077 [79] including Moro piracy,
a 17th-century war against the Dutch, 18th-century British occupation of
[80]
Manila, and conflict with Muslims in the south.[81]: 4 [undue weight? – discuss]
Administration of the Philippines was considered a drain on the economy of New
Spain,[78]: 1077 and abandoning it or trading it for other territory was debated. This
course of action was opposed because of the islands' economic potential,
security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the region.[55]: 7–8 [82] The
colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown[78]: 1077 averaging
250,000 pesos,[55]: 8 usually paid as 75 tons of silver bullion from the Americas.
[83]
British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years'
War, and Spanish rule was restored with the 1763 Treaty of Paris.[63]: 81–83 The
Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of
the Reconquista.[84][85] The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred
years; Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Jolo during the last quarter of
the 19th century,[86] and the Muslim Moro in the Sultanate of Sulu acknowledged
Spanish sovereignty.[87][88]
Ilustrados in Madrid around 1890
Philippine ports opened to world trade during the 19th century, and Filipino
society began to change.[89][90] Social identity changed, with the
term Filipino encompassing all residents of the archipelago instead of solely
referring to Spaniards born in the Philippines.[91][92]
Revolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after 200 locally recruited colonial
troops and laborers alongside three activist Catholic priests were executed
on questionable grounds.[93][94] This inspired the Propaganda Movement,
organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena,
and Mariano Ponce, which advocated political reform in the Philippines.[95] Rizal
was executed on December 30, 1896, for rebellion, and his death radicalized
many who had been loyal to Spain.[96] Attempts at reform met with
resistance; Andrés Bonifacio founded the Katipunan secret society, which sought
independence from Spain through armed revolt, in 1892.[74]: 137
The Katipunan Cry of Pugad Lawin began the Philippine Revolution in 1896.
[97]
Internal disputes led to the Tejeros Convention, at which Bonifacio lost his
position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected the new leader of the revolution.[98]: 145–
147
The 1897 Pact of Biak-na-Bato resulted in the Hong Kong Junta government in
exile. The Spanish–American War began the following year, and reached the
Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared
independence from Spain on June 12, 1898.[99]: 26 In December 1898, the islands
were ceded by Spain to the United States with Puerto Rico and Guam after the
Spanish–American War.[100][101]
The First Philippine Republic was promulgated on January 21, 1899.[102] Lack of
recognition by the United States led to an outbreak of hostilities that, after refusal
by the U.S. on-scene military commander of a cease-fire proposal and a
declaration of war by the nascent Republic,[i] escalated into the Philippine–
American War.[103][104][105][106]
Filipino General Gregorio del Pilar and his
troops in Pampanga around 1898, during the Philippine-American War
The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, primarily due to
famine and disease.[107] Many Filipinos were transported by the Americans
to concentration camps, where thousands died.[108][109] After the fall of the First
Philippine Republic in 1902, an American civilian government was established
with the Philippine Organic Act.[110] American forces continued to secure and
extend their control of the islands, suppressing an attempted extension of the
Philippine Republic,[98]: 200–202 [107] securing the Sultanate of Sulu,[111][112] establishing
control of interior mountainous areas which had resisted Spanish conquest,
[113]
and encouraging large-scale resettlement of Christians in once-predominantly-
Muslim Mindanao.[114][115]
Commonwealth and World War II (1935–1946)
Cultural developments in the Philippines strengthened a national identity,[116][117]:
12
and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages.[71]:
121
Governmental functions were gradually given to Filipinos by the Taft
Commission;[78]: 1081, 1117 the 1934 Tydings–McDuffie Act granted a ten-year transition
to independence through the creation of the Commonwealth of the
Philippines the following year,[118] with Manuel Quezon president and Sergio
Osmeña vice president.[119] Quezon's priorities were defence, social justice,
inequality, economic diversification, and national character.[78]: 1081, 1117 Filipino (a
standardized variety of Tagalog) became the national language,[120]: 27–29 women's
suffrage was introduced,[121][60]: 416 and land reform was considered.[122][123][124]
General Douglas MacArthur and Sergio
Osmeña (left) coming ashore during the Battle of Leyte on October 20, 1944
The Empire of Japan invaded the Philippines in December 1941 during World
War II,[125] and the Second Philippine Republic was established as a puppet
state governed by Jose P. Laurel.[126][127] Beginning in 1942, the Japanese
occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerrilla
activity.[128][129][130] Atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war,
including the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre.[131][132] The Philippine
resistance and Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1944 and 1945. Over
one million Filipinos were estimated to have died by the end of the war.[133][134] On
October 11, 1945, the Philippines became a founding member of the United
Nations.[135][136]: 38–41 On July 4, 1946, during the presidency of Manuel Roxas, the
country's independence was recognized by the United States with the Treaty of
Manila.[136]: 38–41 [137]
Independence (1946–present)
Main articles: History of the Philippines (1946–1965), History of the Philippines
(1965–1986), and History of the Philippines (1986–present)
The raising of the Flag of the Philippines during the
declaration of Philippine Independence on July 4, 1946
Efforts at post-war reconstruction and ending the Hukbalahap
Rebellion succeeded during Ramon Magsaysay's presidency,[138] but sporadic
communist insurgency continued to flare up long afterward.[139] Under
Magsaysay's successor, Carlos P. Garcia, the government initiated a Filipino
First policy which promoted Filipino-owned businesses.[71]: 182 Succeeding
Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal moved Independence Day from July 4 to June 12—
the date of Emilio Aguinaldo's declaration—[140] and pursued a claim on
eastern North Borneo.[141][142]
The Declaration of Martial Law in the headlines of
the Sunday Express
In 1965, Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos. Early in
his presidency, Marcos began infrastructure projects funded mostly by foreign
loans; this improved the economy, and contributed to his reelection in 1969.[143]: 58
[144]
Near the end of his last constitutionally-permitted term, Marcos declared
martial law on September 21, 1972[145] using the specter of communism[146][147]
[148]
and began to rule by decree;[149] the period was characterized by political
repression, censorship, and human rights violations.[150][151] Monopolies controlled
by Marcos's cronies were established in key industries,[152][153]
[154]
including logging[155] and broadcasting;[60]: 120 a sugar monopoly led to a famine
on the island of Negros.[156] With his wife, Imelda, Marcos was accused of
corruption and embezzling billions of dollars of public funds.[157][158] Marcos's heavy
borrowing early in his presidency resulted in economic crashes, exacerbated by
an early 1980s recession where the economy contracted by 7.3 percent annually
in 1984 and 1985.[159]: 212 [160]
On August 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. (Marcos's chief rival)
was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport.[161] Marcos called
a snap presidential election in 1986[162] which proclaimed him the winner, but the
results were widely regarded as fraudulent.[163] The resulting protests led to
the People Power Revolution,[164][165] which forced Marcos and his allies to flee
to Hawaii. Aquino's widow, Corazon, was installed as president[164] and a new
constitution was promulgated.[166]
The June 1991 eruption of Mount
Pinatubo was the second-largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century.[167]
The return of democracy and government reforms which began in 1986 were
hampered by national debt, government corruption, and coup attempts.[168][143]: xii,
xiii
A communist insurgency[169][170] and military conflict with Moro
separatists persisted;[171] the administration also faced a series of disasters,
including the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991.[167] Aquino was succeeded
by Fidel V. Ramos, who liberalized the national economy
with privatization and deregulation.[172][173] Ramos's economic gains were
overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[174][175] His
successor, Joseph Estrada, prioritized public housing[176] but faced corruption
allegations[177] which led to his overthrow by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and the
succession of Vice President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on January 20, 2001.
[178]
Arroyo's nine-year administration was marked by economic growth,[10] but was
tainted by corruption and political scandals,[179][180] including electoral fraud
allegations during the 2004 presidential election.[181] Economic growth continued
during Benigno Aquino III's administration, which advocated good governance
and transparency.[182]: 1, 3 [183] Aquino III signed a peace agreement with the Moro
Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) resulting in the Bangsamoro Organic
Law establishing an autonomous Bangsamoro region, but a shootout with MILF
rebels in Mamasapano delayed passage of the law.[184][185]
Growing public frustration with post-EDSA governance led to the 2016
election[186] of populist Rodrigo Duterte,[187][188] whose presidency saw the decline
of liberalism in the country albeit largely retaining liberal economic policies.[189]
[190]
Among Duterte's priorities was aggressively increasing infrastructure
spending to spur economic growth;[191][192] the enactment of the Bangsamoro
Organic Law;[193] an intensified crackdown on crime and communist insurgencies;
[194]
and an anti-drug campaign that reduced drug proliferation[195] but that has also
led to extrajudicial killings.[196][197] In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic reached
the Philippines,[198][199] necessitating nationwide lockdowns that caused a brief but
severe economic recession.[200][201] Under a promise of continuing Duterte's
policies,[190] Marcos's son, Bongbong Marcos, ran with Duterte's daughter, Sara,
and won the 2022 election.[202] Marcos's renewal of a pro-US foreign policy,
however, has been viewed as a reversal of Duterte's cordiality with China,
and territorial disputes in the South China Sea have since escalated.[203]
