Biology Essentials

Preliminary Course

A compilation of useful stuff

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Module 1: Cells as the Basis of Life
Outcomes
A student:
› conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary
data and information BIO11/12-3
› selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and
information using a range of appropriate media BIO11/12-4
› describes single cells as the basis for all life by analysing and explaining
cells’ ultrastructure and biochemical processes BIO11-8

Content
Cell Structure
Students:
● investigate different cellular structures, including but not limited to:
– examining a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
– describe a range of technologies that are used to determine a cell’s structure
and function
● investigate a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, including
but not limited to:
– drawing scaled diagrams of a variety of cells
– comparing and contrasting different cell organelles and arrangements
– modelling the structure and function of the fluid mosaic model of the
cell membrane

Cell function
Students:
● investigate the way in which materials can move into and out of cells,
including but not limited to:
– conducting a practical investigation modelling diffusion and osmosis
– examining the roles of active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis
– relating the exchange of materials across membranes to the surface area to
volume ratio, concentration gradients and characteristics of the materials
being exchanged

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● investigate cell requirements, including but not limited to:
– suitable forms of energy, including light energy and chemical energy in
complex molecules

– matter, including gases, simple nutrients and ions

– removal of wastes

● investigate the biochemical processes of photosynthesis, cell respiration and

the removal of cellular products and wastes in eukaryotic cells

● conduct a practical investigation to model the action of enzymes in cells

● investigate the effects of the environment on enzyme activity through the
collection of primary or secondary data

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Module 2: Organisation of Living Things
Outcomes
A student:
› selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and
information using a range of appropriate media BIO11/12-4
› solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical
thinking skills and scientific processes BIO11/12-6
› communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and
terminology for a specific audience or purpose BIO11/12-7
› explains the structure and function of multicellular organisms and describes
how the coordinated activities of cells, tissues and organs contribute to
macroscopic processes in organisms BIO11-9
Content
Organisation of Cells
Students:
● compare the differences between unicellular, colonial and multicellular
organisms by:
– investigating structures at the level of the cell and organelle
– relating structure of cells and cell specialisation to function
● investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate
those functions to cell differentiation and specialisation

● justify the hierarchical structural organisation of organelles, cells, tissues,

organs, systems and organisms
Nutrient and Gas Requirements
Students:
● investigate the structure of autotrophs through the examination of a
variety of materials, for example:
– dissected plant materials
– microscopic structures
– using a range of imaging technologies to determine plant structure
● investigate the function of structures in a plant, including but not limited to:
– tracing the development and movement of the products of
photosynthesis
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● investigate the gas exchange structures in animals and plants through the
collection of primary and secondary data and information, for example:
– microscopic structures: alveoli in mammals and leaf structure in plants
– macroscopic structures: respiratory systems in a range of animals
● interpret a range of secondary-sourced information to evaluate processes,
claims and conclusions that have led scientists to develop hypotheses, theories
and models about the structure and function of plants, including but not limited
to:
– photosynthesis
– transpiration-cohesion-tension theory
● trace the digestion of foods in a mammalian digestive system, including:
– physical digestion
– chemical digestion
– absorption of nutrients, minerals and water
– elimination of solid waste
● compare the nutrient and gas requirements of autotrophs and heterotrophs

Transport
Students:
● investigate transport systems in animals and plants by comparing
structures and components using physical and digital models, including
but not limited to:
– macroscopic structures in plants and animals
– microscopic samples of blood, the cardiovascular system and plant vascular
systems
● investigate the exchange of gases between the internal and external
environments of plants and animals
● compare the structures and function of transport systems in animals and
plants, including but not limited to:
– vascular systems in plants and animals
– open and closed transport systems in animals
● compare the changes in the composition of the transport medium as it moves
around an organism
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Module 3: Biological Diversity
Outcomes
A student:
› develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation
BIO11/12-1
› designs and evaluates investigations in order to obtain primary and
secondary data and information BIO11/12-2
› communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and
terminology for a specific audience or purpose BIO11/12-7
› describes biological diversity by explaining the relationships between a
range of organisms in terms of specialisation for selected habitats and
evolution of species BIO11-10
Content
Effects of the Environment on Organisms
Students:
● predict the effects of selection pressures on organisms in ecosystems,
including:
– biotic factors
– abiotic factors
● investigate changes in a population of organisms due to selection
pressures over time, for example:
– cane toads in Australia
– prickly pear distribution in Australia

Adaptations
Students:
● conduct practical investigations, individually or in teams, or use secondary
sources to examine the adaptations of organisms that increase their ability to
survive in their environment, including:
– structural adaptations
– physiological adaptations
– behavioural adaptations

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● investigate, through secondary sources, the observations and collection of
data that were obtained by Charles Darwin to support the Theory of Evolution
by Natural Selection, for example:
– finches of the Galapagos Islands
– Australian flora and fauna

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

Students:
● explain biological diversity in terms of the Theory of Evolution by Natural
Selection by examining the changes in and diversification of life since it first
appeared on the Earth

● analyse how an accumulation of microevolutionary changes can drive

evolutionary changes and speciation over time, for example:
– evolution of the horse

– evolution of the platypus

● explain, using examples, how Darwin and Wallace’s Theory of Evolution
by Natural Selection accounts for:
– convergent evolution
– divergent evolution
● explain how punctuated equilibrium is different from the gradual process of
natural selection

Evolution – the Evidence

Students:
● investigate, using secondary sources, evidence in support of Darwin and
Wallace’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection, including but not
limited to:
– biochemical evidence, comparative anatomy, comparative embryology
and biogeography

– techniques used to date fossils and the evidence produced

● explain modern-day examples that demonstrate evolutionary change, for
example:
– the cane toad
– antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria
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Module 4: Ecosystem Dynamics
Outcomes
A student:
› develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation
BIO11/12-1
› designs and evaluates investigations in order to obtain primary and
secondary data and information BIO11/12-2
› conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary
data and information BIO11/12-3
› selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and
information using a range of appropriate media BIO11/12-4
› analyses and evaluates primary and secondary data and information BIO11/12-
5
› analyses ecosystem dynamics and the interrelationships of organisms
within the ecosystem BIO11-11
Content
Population Dynamics
Students:
● investigate and determine relationships between biotic and abiotic
factors in an ecosystem, including:
– the impact of abiotic factors
– the impact of biotic factors, including predation, competition and
symbiotic relationships
– the ecological niches occupied by species
– predicting consequences for populations in ecosystems due to
predation, competition, symbiosis and disease
– measuring populations of organisms using sampling techniques
● explain a recent extinction event

Past Ecosystems
Students:
● analyse palaeontological and geological evidence that can be used to
provide evidence for past changes in ecosystems, including but not limited
to:

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 – Aboriginal rock paintings
– geological evidence
– ice core drilling
● investigate and analyse past and present technologies that have been
used to determine evidence for past changes, for example:
– radiometric dating
– gas analysis
● analyse evidence that present-day organisms have evolved from
organisms in the past by examining and interpreting a range of
secondary sources to evaluate processes, claims and conclusions
relating to the evolution of organisms in Australia, for example:
– small mammals
– sclerophyll plants
● investigate the reasons for changes in past ecosystems, by:
– interpreting a range of secondary sources to develop an
understanding of the changes in biotic and abiotic factors over
short and long periods of time

– evaluating hypotheses that account for identified trends

Future Ecosystems
Students:
● investigate changes in past ecosystems that may inform our approach to
the management of future ecosystems, including:
– the role of human-induced selection pressures on the extinction of
species

– models that humans can use to predict future impacts on

biodiversity

– the role of changing climate on ecosystems

● investigate practices used to restore damaged ecosystems, Country or Place,
for example:
– mining sites
– land degradation from agricultural practices

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Formulae, etc.
Quadrats:
total no . of individuals counted
estimated abundance= ×total area
area of each quadrat ×no .of quadrats
Capture-Recapture:
no . captured ×no .recaptured
abundance=
no . marked ∈recapture

6CO2 + 6H2O ⟶
Photosynthesis:
light energy
chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2
light energy
→ glucose + oxygen
carbon dioxide + water chlorophyll

Alcohol fermentation:
C6H12O6 → 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2 + 2ATP
glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide + adenosine triphosphate

Lactic acid fermentation:

C6H12O6 → 2CH3CH(OH)COOH + 2ATP
glucose → lactic acid + adenosine triphosphate

Cellular respiration (aerobic):

→ 6CO + 6H O + 36ATP
many chemical reactions
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + ADP + P 2 2

glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy (ATP)

many chemical reactions

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Verbs
Account Account for: state reasons for, report on. Give an account
of: narrate a series of events or transactions
Analyse Identify components and the relationship between them;
draw out and relate implications
Apply Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation

Appreciate Make a judgement about the value of

Assess Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or

size
Calculate Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or
information
Clarify Make clear or plain

Classify Arrange or include in classes/categories

Compare Show how things are similar or different
Construct Make; build; put together items or arguments

Contrast Show how things are different or opposite

Critically Add a degree or level of accuracy depth, knowledge and
(analyse/evaluate understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to
) (analyse/evaluate)
Deduce Draw conclusions
Define State meaning and identify essential qualities
Demonstrate Show by example
Describe Provide characteristics and features
Discuss Identify issues and provide points for and/or against
Distinguish Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different
from; to note differences between

Evaluate Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value

of
Examine Inquire into
Explain Relate cause and effect; make the relationships between
things evident; provide why and/or how
Extract Choose relevant and/or appropriate details
Extrapolate Infer from what is known
Identify Recognise and name
Interpret Draw meaning from
Investigate Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about

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 Justify Support an argument or conclusion
Outline Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of
Predict Suggest what may happen based on available information
Propose Put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument,
suggestion) for consideration or action
Recall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences
Recommend Provide reasons in favour
Recount Retell a series of events
Summarise Express, concisely, the relevant details
Synthesise Putting together various elements to make a whole
Scaffolds for Higher-Order Verbs
Analyse Definition/description
Explain component 1
Explain component 2
(Explain component 3)
Relationship between components
OR
Definition/description
Outline implication 1
Outline implication 2
(Outline implication 3)
Relationship between implications
Assess Definition/description
Explain advantages/positives with reference to
data/stimulus
Explain disadvantages/negatives with reference to
data/stimulus
Judgement (for/against) with reference to data/stimulus
Compare Identify objects compared
Similarities
Differences
NB: table format works well
Describe Identify object(s) described
State characteristics/features
Discuss Identify issue, definition/description
Explain advantages/positives
AND/OR
Explain disadvantages/negatives
Explain Identify object, definition/description
Cause and effect
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 Why and/or how
OR
Identify object, definition/description
Clearly describe the relationship between two things
Why and/or how
Evaluate Identify issue, definition/description
Explain advantages/positives
Explain disadvantages/negatives
Judgement (for/against) for each point based on identified
criteria
Justify Identify issue, definition/description
Argument/main point
Explain advantages/positives (at least 2)

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Practicals Checklist
(Memorise method)

⃞ Modelling diffusion and osmosis

- Diffusion: dialysis tubing, iodine potassium iodide and starch
- Diffusion/SA:V ratio: sodium hydroxide agar ‘cells’ (varying SA:V
ratios) and phenolphthalein
- Osmosis: sucrose solution (varying concentrations) and potato cores

⃞
- Modelling the Fluid Mosaic Model
Modelling enzyme action
- Effect of pH on enzyme activity; acidic/alkaline buffer solutions
(varying pH), hydrogen peroxide, potato cores (catalase)
- General method for investigating effects of environment on enzyme

⃞
activity
Adaptations of organisms
- Modelling natural selection (camouflage): green/red toothpicks,
green/red paper (background)
- Observation of macroscopic structural adaptations of Australian
plants: banksia, bottle brush, eucalypt, grevillea, pigface, she-oak,

⃞
wattle
Calculating estimated abundance
- Quadrats: 1m2 quadrats, no. of weeds, conditions (dry/moist, sunlight)
- Quadrats: 1m2 quadrats, no. of crab holes (intertidal zone, Bobbin
Head)
- Capture-Recapture (model): selecting coloured beads out of a cup

⃞
- Transects: line and belt, profile diagrams
Preparing a slide for viewing under microscope

⃞
- Onion skin slides
Movement of materials

⃞
- Xylem: celery stick, red/blue food colouring
Working with microscopes
- Operation of microscopes

⃞
- Drawing scaled diagrams
Dissecting plant material

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Examples Checklist
Have a general and/or named, specific example memorised for each

⃞ Cells
- Prokaryotic

⃞
- Eukaryotic
Technologies
- Microscopes
- Imaging technologies

⃞
- Radioisotope and use
Diffusion
- Simple

⃞
- Facilitated
Active transport
- Endocytosis: solid particle, fluid

⃞
- Exocytosis
Organisms
- Unicellular
- Colonial

⃞
- Multicellular
Transport systems
- Animals: digestive, gas exchange, circulatory (with/without, open,
closed)

⃞
- Plants: gas exchange, vascular/non-vascular
Changes in a population of organisms over time
- Australian introduced: cane toads, prickly pears

⃞
- Australian native
Adaptations (animals and plants)
- Australian: structural, behavioural, physiological

⃞
- Non-Australian
Evidence for Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
- Transitional fossils
- Comparative anatomy
- Comparative embryology
- Biochemical evidence (modern)
- Biogeography
- Specific: Galapagos finches, Australian flora and fauna

⃞ Types of evolution (link to Darwin and Wallace’s Theory)

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 - Divergent

⃞
- Convergent
Speciation
- Natural selection
- Speciation
- Allopatric evolution
- Sympatric evolution
- Microevolution
- Macroevolution

⃞
- Case studies: horse, platypus
Modern examples of evolution
- Antibiotic resistance in bacteria

⃞
- Cane toads
Biotic impacts
- Relationships

⃞
- Disease
Extinctions
- Prehistoric

⃞
- Modern
Evidence for past ecosystems
- Paleontological: fossils, Aboriginal rock paintings
- Geological

⃞
- Technologies: radiometric dating, gas analysis
Evolution of Australian biota
- Small mammals

⃞
- Sclerophyll plants
Changes in Australian ecosystems
- Past environmental conditions

⃞
- Present-day environmental conditions
Human-induced selection pressures
- Introduced species
- Use of fertilisers

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 Relaxing study music

© H.L. 2023

The author claims no ownership of information included in this resource.

All information correct as of September 2023.

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