1

MEDIEVAL HISTORY (750 AD-1707 AD)

Book; Old NCERT XI
Medieval India – Satish Chandra
Themes in Indian History (Part I, Part II, Part III)
Drishti Notes
1. Early Medieval India (From 600 AD – 1200 AD)
2. Medieval India (1200 AD – 1707 AD)

1. Early Medieval India

ved) Palas
(i) Tripartite struggle – 3 Ruling Dynasties Pratiharas
Rashtrakutas

Mutual conflict among these three

ruling dynasties to capture Kannauj is
known as tripartite struggle.
Important Personalities
(ii) Cholas Local Administration
Art (Temple Architecture and sculpture)

2. Medieval India
(i) Muslim Invasion of India and Muslim Rule.
(ii) The state of Vijayanagar.

Muslim Invasion of India

Arab conquest of Sindh

Sindh was ruled by Hindushahi dynasty. Raja Dahir was ruler of sindh during successful invasion
of Arabs.
Part town Debal (where Indus joins Arabian sea)

Caliph (Khalifa)
After the death of Prophet Mohammad, Khalifa used to be the highest authority of Islam.
There were three dynasties of caliph
(i) Rashidun dynasty
(ii) Umayyad dynasty
(iii) Abbasid dynasty
Ist caliph was from Rashidun dynasty named Abbubaks, after him next caliph was Umar.
z The very objective of these caliphs was rapid expansion of Islam.
z Ist Attack on India was during the period of caliph Umar in 636 AD near Thane region, Mumbai but
this attack was repulsed
Source–Chachanama (book) by Thapaki (Arabic) later on translated into persian language.
z They continued their attack for three reasons
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z 2nd attack - 644 AD. This attack was led by Abdullah bin Amar. This man captured seistan (Iran). He
defeated the rulers of Makran and Sindh. But he did not annex. He attacked Broach but repulsed.
During 2nd attack, the caliph was Usman.
3rd Attack – 659 AD, Arabs were targeting Sindh but repulsed
4th Attack–664 AD - Targeting Sindh but repulsed
5th Attack – 711 AD – This attack was led under Ubaidullah against Sindh but was repulsed.
(At this time, Raja Dahir was ruler of Sindh)
6th Attack–712 AD – This attack was done under the leadership of Mohammad bin Qasim (Umayyad
dynasty). He had been sent to sindh by his uncle - Al. Hajjaj, who was governor of present day Iraq. He
attacked Debal (Port town) and captured entire sindh.
There was good relation between Ceylon and Arabs. Arab traders had settled in ceylon, due to some
disease/epidemic. Many Arab merchants had died. King of ceylon was good friend of Arab caliph. So
the king of ceylon with some gifts sent back the wives and children of dead merchants. When they were
returning through the route of Debal, sea pirates attacked the ships, looted and captured women and
children of Arabs.
Al Hajjaj sent message to Dahir to apprehend the looters and punished theam and freed the womens
and children with the gifts. Dahir replied to caliph that the pirates were not under his control and so
he was not responsible for all these incidents. This annoyed the caliph.
Some historians says that king of Ceylon converted into Islam and hence sent huge gifts and women
slaves to caliph but looted by the sea pirates at Debal.
Some says that India was market of men and women slaves. Caliph has sent a message to procure
women slaves from India and sent them to Arabs, but at the time of returning these womens were
captured by sea pirates at Debal.
z Arabs wanted to establish Ummah (Islam supremacy) all over the world and hence they attacked.
712 AD–Ist successful attack at Debal port by Mohammad bin Qasim. Al Hajjaj sent two reinforcement
under Ubaidullah and Budail.
Brahmins of Sindh were not happy with Dahir and hence they met Qasim and told him the secret
that he can not defeat Dahir until he breaks Talisman (to take away the flag which was symbol of victory
from temple)
Mohammad bin Qasim attacked with heavy force and broke Talisman and captured Debal.
2nd attack at Naru and captured
3rd attack at Sehwan defeated Bajara, cousin of Dahir
4th attack at Rewar–Defeated Jai Singh/Jaisiya and Ranibai performed Jauhar.
5th attack at Brahmanabad–Qasim captured it.
2nd attack battle at Rewar–Dahir was defeated and killed. Hence sindh had fallen in the feet of Arabs.
Rani Lodi, second wife of Dahir was forced to marry Qasim and he captured two virgin daughter of Dahir
Suryadevi and Parmal Devi to gift caliph. But to take revenge from Qasim both the sisters decided to
loose their virginity by the security guards where both were imprisoned. The very next day when both
were presented before the caliph they accepted that both were not suitable for the caliph as Qasim
broke their virginity. In order to this, caliph gave order to execute Qasim.
The caliph was suleman who executed Qasim.
Political Significance of Arab conquest of Sindh
Introduction of Islam in north India.
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Arabs were impressed with Indian art and architecture like Gopuram (entrance gate, arch and dome)
They were impressed with our knowledge of medicines astronomy and astrology.
Invasion of Mahmood of Ghazni or Mahmud Ghaznavi
He became ruler of some part of Afghanistan and central Asia. He was the first independent ruler
of the Turkic dynasty of Ghaznavids, ruling from 998 AD – 1030 AD.
Alptigin – official of samavid ruler of kurasin and Khwarism.
This Samanid dynasty made Alptigin. the governor of Ghazni.
By the end of 9th century, Samanid started declining. Taking the advantage of declining status of
samanid dynasty in kurasin & Khwarism, this man alaptagin assented his independence of Ghazni
Next ruler of Ghazni after Alaptagin was Subuktagin. Subuktagin attacked on India is 986 AD and
he defeated Hindushahi ruler Jayapal and captured by Jayapal.
After Subuktagin, next ruler of Ghazni was Ismail, younger son of Subuktagin, elder brother Mahmood
Ghazni was out of the state. When he came to Ghazni defeated Ismail and became ruler of Ghazni.
Mahmood Ghazni (998 AD-1030 AD)
During his rule huge expansion took place. He wanted to capture central Asia and for this he needed
money/wealth/resources.
z He attacked on India for resource purpose to rule over central Asia.
Caliph ordered Mahmood Ghazni to propagate Islam in India. He was too angry with idol worship
and hence attacked on many temples, but not to propagate Islam but to please Muslim brothers and
specially to gather huge resources from their temples.
1st attack on India–1000 AD
Punjab–Battle with Jaypal. Jaypal was defeated.
2nd attack against Peshawar – 1001 AD
Ruler was Jaypal, but due to war superiority once again Jaypal was defeated and captured it. Jaypal
was feeling humiliated and immulated himself in fire. Mahmood Ghazni was more focused on Punjab.
6th attack on Waihind (Punjab)-1008 AD
Anand pal was the ruler of Waihind. He was son of Jaypal. He was also defeated by Ghazni and
captured Punjab.
9th attack 1009 AD
at Nagarkot temple (sati). Present time, Vrijeswari temple (sati)-Haryana.
11th attack 1015 AD
At Kashmir, Ruler was Sangram Lohar
z 16th Attack-1025 AD at Somnath temple (Shivlinga remained suspended in air), ruler at that time in
Gujarat was Bhimdev.
Thousands of animals and even the gate of Somanath temple were carried to Ghazni.
17th attack-at sindh in 1027 AD.
Mahmood Ghazni died in 1030 AD.
z Objective of Mahmood Ghazni was only to loot and plunder, to gather resources to rule over
Afghanistan.
No political significance of Mahmood Ghazni's attack except that he had shown the door to enter
India for foreign invaders or to gather resources from India and rule over any region.
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Invasion of Mohammad Gauri (Ghurid)

Why named as Ghurid?
Ghur is hilly region near Ghazni. Ghurid were vassals of Ghazni. Ghur was administered under the
control of Ghazni. Seeing the decline of Ghazni, Ghurid asserted their independence after some time
and asserted themselves as ruler of Ghur.
The Ist independent ruler of Ghur was Ghiyasuddin Ghur, elder brother of Shiyabuddin Ghur
(Mohammad Gauri). Mohammad Gauri was appointed as Governor of Ghazni and both the brothers
decided to expand their territory into central Asia as well as in India. Gauri was given the task to expand
the territory in India and repeat the deeds of Ghazni.
Mohammad Gauri issued coins named Dirham

1st Attack of Mohammad Gauri at Multan in 1175 AD

At that time, Multan was ruled by Bhatti Rajputs.
2nd Attack -1178 at Gujarat-Ruler was Mulraj-II, his regent was his mother-Naika Devi
A battle took place named Battle of Kayadara in 1178, in which gauri was Ist time defeated in India.
After the attack, Bhima-II became ruler.
Now, Gauri targeted Punjab.
In 1189, Mohammad Gauri captured the Fort of Tabarhinda (Fort of Bathinda).
When Aibak died, the nobility at Delhi sat Aram Shah on the throne and said he was adopted son
of Aibak. But it was foster. Actually the nobility wanted to play role of king making and hence used
Aram Shah as puppet.
Nobility at Lahore invited Iltutmish from Badaun. He was military official of Badaun. Iltutmish
arrived at Delhi and had a fight with Aram Shah and defeated him and nobility at Delhi, also feared
with Iltutmish.

Iltutmish (1210-36 AD)

He was also slave of Mohammad Gauri. During north western campaign he saved the life of Gauri
and hence Gauri freed him from slavery. Iltutmish had completed all formality to be a sultan
z He took the title of Sultan
z He read khutba in his name by Maulavi
z He issued coins in his name–Tanka (Silver) and Jital (copper)
z In 1229, he sent an embassy to caliph at Baghdad. Ist Delhi ruler who was recognised by caliph. Caliph
issued letter of investiture and Khillat and royal chhatra (umbrella of silver)
He could be called as real founder of Delhi Sultanate. He organised the administration and settled
all the things.
He had many challenges–
z Taking the advantage of chaos after the death of Aibak, many state asserted their independence. He
done military action against them, like, state of Ranthambhar, Jalor, Malwa, Gwalior, etc.
z The threat of yalduz (Aibak could not replace yalduj from Ghur after the death of Gauri). Now, Yalduj
claimed Indian territory of Mohammad Gauri. Near Ghur, there was a state of Khwarizm, the ruler
of which attacked and captured Ghur. As a result, Yalduj challanged Iltutmish claiming himself as
real successor of Gauri for Indian territory. There was a war between the two took place. IIIrd Battle
of Tarain-1215/16 (Yalduj and Iltutmish). Yalduj was defeated. He fled away from India.
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z The problem of Nasiruddin Qabacha, governor of Multan, Uchh and Sindh. He was also the son-in
law of Aibak (also slave of Gauri). He came Lahore and capture Lahore. In 1217, a clash took place
at Lahore between the two and was defeated by Iltutmish. He fled, but in 1227 once again a clash
took place, Qabacha was captured and was killed by Iltutmish.
z In 1221, there took place invasion of Genghis Khan - Mongol invader. He attacked at Khwarism and
defeated. When the Khawarism ruler defeated, he came to India to take shelter in India. Chasing the
Khwarism ruler- Genghis Khan too came to India but did not cross Indus. He camped around salt
ranges aon west bank of Indus. When Jalaluddin Mangbarani came to Lahore, he sent a message to
Iltutmish to fight together with Genghis Khan but Iltutmish refused and hence Mangbarani captured
Lahore. In response, he took military action against Jalaluddin Mangbarani and defeated him. He
fled away from India. Hence, Genghis Khan returned from India and Mongol invader Genghis khan
never attacked India but the successor of Genghis khan came many times as they came to know that
India is the country of resources.
z In Bengal-Alimardan khan died in 1212. Awaz Khalil once again took the charge of Bengal and
declared his independence. Iltutmish attacked Bengal and defeated awaz in 1224 and he accepted
the supremacy of Delhi Sultan. But Awaz Khalil once again revolted in 1226 and Iltutmish this time
killed Awaz Khalil and appointed his person as governor of Bengal.

Other contributions which helped in Administration

z He introduced Iqta system (It was a persian practice). Entire territory was divided into smaller parts
called Iqta. (Whichever territory these Turks acquired divided into smaller parts). Iqta was headed
by an official called Muqta/Wali. He was the administrative head of his Iqta). Muqta can appoint a
Kazi for the justice. He used to recruit any official in his Iqta. He had the responsibilty of collecting
taxes. He used to pay the salary of other official. He had to manage military. After giving/bearing
every expenditure the remaining surplus of Iqta, he has to sent to the centre. He was not granted
the position of Iqta in the form of income/salary (hence it is different from Jagirdars system).
 Bottleneck – Sultan did not arrange any office for auditing Iqta.
because he knew that it is just starting and Muqta can revolt against and hence did not create any
office for accounting/auditing of Iqta.
z He completed Qutub-Minar
z He constructed Hauz i Shamsi in Delhi also called Shamsi tanks)
All the son of Iltutmish were incapable but he had a daughter named Raziya who was capable and
hence Iltutmish before his death declared his daughter Raziya as his successor.
Iltutmish issued silver coins in the name of Raziya. The Wazir of Iltutmish named Nizamuddin
Junaidi was against it that Raziya would be the ruler.
Turkana-i-Chihalgani was created by Iltutmish. It was institution for slaves.
Chalisa–corps of forty. The members of chalisa were important officials.
After the death of Iltutmish the members of corps of forty were ambitious and talented, they
asserted their independence. One of the members of chalisa was Balban who later on challenged the
throne of Delhi.

After Iltutmish, next ruler was Ruknuddin Firoz

He was eldest son of Iltutmish. All the members of Chalisa supported him. He was very incapable.
His mother was Shah Turqan. In his early life, she was lady of ill repute and actually all the power vested
in her hand. Some of the members of chalisa were affected with the revengeful politics of Shah Turqan.
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Being troubled with the son and mother, the nobility and the member of chalisa supported Raziya and
was put on the throne.

Raziya (1236 AD-1240 AD)

The Wazir Junaidi ran away as he revolted against her. She used to horse riding throwing spears,
archery and do not wear hizab. She used to put male hat on her head. The conduct of Raziya did not suit
the nobility. She had a direct supervision and controlled over every department. The corruption
got reduced. The nobles headed various department got troubled.
Earlier, there was only Turkish monopoly over higher offices. Raziya broke this tradition. She
appointed an abyssinian slave (Ethiopian) Jamaluddin Yakut-Amir-i-Akhur (head of Royal stable). It
was considered as higher office.
Barni said that yakut was constant companion of Raziya. According to him, he was accompanied
her even in private living.
Iqtadar revolted against her. She used to proceed herself to crush them. As a result, they made a
conspiracy against her.
Altuniya, the governor of Tabarhind (Bhatinda),
Aitigin–Amir-i-Hajib (head of courtly proceedings) both made conspiracy against her. Altunia was
in love with Raziya from childhood.
He was jealous with the rumour of relationship of Yakut and Raziya. As a result, Altunia revolted.
Raziya proceeded and the force of Raziya was sided with Altunia. Yakut was killed and Raziya was
imprisoned in Bhattinda. Bahram Shah, the brother of Raziya sat on the throne.
Bahram Shah (1240 AD – 1242 AD) – He had put a condition that delegated all his power. An
office was created Naib-i-Mumlikat (Vice-regent) to hold the power of the Bahram Shah.
In 1240 at Kaithal, Raziya was killed by looters. Wazir was Aitigin, they were thrown Bahram Shah
and appointed Alaudin Masud Shah (1242 – 46 AD) but at a condition to share power.
Another Begum of Iltutmish took help of Balban and placed Nasiruddin Mahmud at the throne
(1246–46 AD) and as a result, the post of Naib was given to Balban. Nasiruddin was saintly in nature
and hence all the control of the state came into the hands of Balban. Balban had married his daughter
to Nasiruddin Mahmud to consolidate his status. Balban was removed from the office of Naib and sent
to Badaun as governor of Badaun.
New Naib was a hindustani muslim named Imaduddin Raihan on the recommendation of members
of chalisa.
After 5-6 years he (Balban) came with a lot of gifts for the Sultan and finally Imaddudin was removed
from Naib past and ran away from Delhi. Balban deployed army all the time with sultan and no body
allowed to meet with sultan. Balban started poisoning sultan and after the death of Nasiruddin Mahmood,
Balban became the next sultan of Delhi
The credit for consolidation of Delhi goes to Balban.

SLAVE DYNASTY
Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266 AD – 1288 AD)
Challenges
z Identity of a slave
z Member of Chalisa
He was Amir-i-Akhur at the time of Raziya and offer her reign too.
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z Would he be accepted as sultan belonging to the Chalisa.

z Challenges of frequent Mongol attacks
z Problems of Mewatis

Solution
z He dissolved chalisa
z Policy of blood and Iron
z Great emphasis over purify of blood and focus on persian origin.
z Balban's theory of kingship.

Great Emphasis over Purity of Blood and Focus on Persian Origin

z Balban said that he belongs to the family of great Afrasiyab, the Persian Hero.
Shahnama–written by Firdous mentions great Afrasiyab where he was glorified
He used to say that his blood was so pure that if he meets any person of impure blood, his blood
started boiling
He had dismissed everyone from government jobs who was belonged to lower caste.

Balban's Theory of Kingship

To give message to Ulema class, nobles and common people, he devised his own theory of kingship.
z This man added divinity to the kingship
z He started representing himself as representative of Allah
z He adopted two titles-Zil-i-Illah
Shadow of God on Earth and Niyabat-i-Khudai that is, representative of God on Earth. (basically he
was trying to supress Ulemas, nobility as well as common people).
z To reaffirm his Persian origin he started exercising practices of Iran or Introduced Persian practices
in India like-he introduced Sijda and Paibos. Sijda - bowing down by waist
Paibos-Kissing of the feet of Sultan.
He made a rule that whoever come to his court to meet him they must not belong to lower caste and
whoever came to his court they have to perform sajda and Paibos except the representative of caliph.
He abandoned use of alcohol publicly. He did not laugh in his court whenever he came to his court
and he was preceded by a bond of soldiers with naked spare sword

Sense of Justice
Whenever people approach for justice. Justice shall be done, even if the complaint is against some
high official
e.g. Haibat khan intoxicating with alcohol, he killed his slave but when the widow of diseased slave
approached Balban. Haibat Khan was called to court and was killed too.
Malik Bakbaq, the governor of Badaun killed one of his slave in drinking condition by wheeping.
The widow of the slave approached Balban and publicly in the eyes of people ordered to wheep Bakbaq
until he died but the widow of the slave forgave him and saved his life.
In this way, Balban gave the message to the people that he has good sense of justice.
Bengal Revolted by Tughril Khan and asserted his independence. balban sent a strong expedition
under the leadership of Amir Khan one of the commander. But Tughril Khan defeated Amir Khan and
the forces of sultan went towards the side of Tughril. Balban sent another expedition under Malik
Turghil. He too went to the side of Tughril. Both the campaigns ended and hence Balban himself went
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to Bengal and Ist defeated Tughril Khan and also who went to the side of Tughril Khan means he too
killed those who defeated him.
He appointed his son Bughra Khan as governor of Bengal
Why the forces defeated?
Because of the policy of blood and iron the forces defected him
He organised the department of Barid-i-Mumalik

Many Barid (spies)

Muniayha

Who gathers Ist information

He organised a military department named- Diwan-i-Arz headed by Arz-i-Mumalik. He recruited
army, training equipped soldiers, paying salary and to keep the army in ready situation. The training
war so because of frequent attacks of Mongols. He built many forts in North-western part of India.
By the end of his life in 1285, Mongol attack (under Tamor) took place. He sent his son Nasiruddin
Mohammad (Shahzada Mohammad) to fight the Mongols. Mongols were defeated and repulsed but
Nasiruddin was killed.
Balban gave his son the title of shahid-i-Azam. Due to the grief of the dead of his son, Balban died
within one year
Balban had declared Kai Khurram as his successor (gradson). When Balban died, nobles did not
allow khurram to sit on the throne. They appointed Kaiqubad as sultan.

Kaiqubad (1285-90)
He was son of Bughra Khan. For the first time in the history, the son was Sultan and father was
the governor.
He started the construction of fort of Kilokhari in Delhi
After Kaiqubad, his son Kaimur at the age of 3 years old became sultan. This is all done by Jalaluddin
Khiliji. Within one year, Jalaluddin killed Kaimur in the fort of kilokhari and in this way, slave dynasty
came to an end & from there started Khiliji dynasty

Khilji Dynasty
Jalaluddin Khilji (1290-1296 AD)
Jalaluddin Khilji sat on the throne at the age of 70 years. He was a liberal ruler.
Muslims in general
Liberal Approach Hindus
Rebels
He was the first sultan who was not running after establishing a Muslim state. He adopted the policy
of general forgiveness to rebels and even more gave them Jagir etc. For example, Malik chajju - Governor
of Kara-Manikpur. Malik Chajju was the nephew of Jalaluddin. He revolted against Jalaluddin Khiliji.
Khilji sent his another nephew to crush this revolt. The name of this nephew was Arkali Khan but the
surprising thing here was that Malik chajju was forgiven and was given service in the government.
1292–Mongol invasion started under Abdulla and Ulgu Khan, the Mongols were defeated, Abdulla
ran away but Ulgu Khan settled in India and adopted Islam.
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Note: Mongols who adopted Islam were called as New-Musalmans.

1283 – Ali Gurshasp invaded Malwa.
1204-Ali Gurshasp invaded Devagiri. Ali Gurshasp was Governor of Allahabad and Kara. He was
nephew as well as the son-in-law of Jalaluddin Khilji.
During this time, Ramchandra Dev of Yadava dynasty was ruler at Devagiri. Ramachandra Dev got
defeated and he agreed to pay annual tribute to Delhi sultan. Khums- War Spoils/War Booty.
According to Sariya, 1/5 should be given to Sultan and 4/5 should be distributed among the soldiers
who participated in this campaign.
To scold and share the looted wealth, Jalaluddin Khilji reached Kara where he was stabbed by his
nephew Gurshasp with the help of his trusted official ulugh Khan and became the second sultan of Delhi
with the new name Alauddin Khilji.

Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316)

His military campaign was very impressive. He called himself sikandar-i-sani (second sikandar).
He also wanted to start new religion but kotwal of Delhi. Ala-Ul-Mulk advised him not to do so because
it could harm the sultan.
His military campaigns are as follows:

Gujarat Campaign-1299
It was against Vaghela ruler Rai Karan. Gujarat was chosen as first campaign in order to achieve
good resources and money. Due to this sudden attack, Rai Karan escaped and took shelter in Devagiri
though his wife could not escape her name was Kamala Devi. She had to marry Alauddin who was
being impressed by her beauty and gave her the title Mallika-i-Jahan. Many invasions took place in
the process. During invasion at Bharauch. Malik Kafur who was given the name Hazar-Dinari met with
Alauddin as a slave in 1299
Note
Alauddin Khilji changed the rule of Khums. now 4/5 was for sultan and 1/5 to soldiers.
Alauddin coronated himself two times:
(a) at Kara
(b) At lal Mahal in Delhi.
He also started eliminating jalali nobles. He blinded Ibrahim Khan, killed Arkali Khan Ahmed etc
and confiscated the rest of Talali nobles

Title
Yasmin-ul-khilafa, Nasui - Amir-ul-Momrnum-Naib of Kalifa

Second Military campaign (1301)

1301, Ranthambhor, ruler was Rana Hamirdev of Chauhan dynasty and the reason was that he
offered shelter to New-musalmans. This campaign was led by Nusrath Kahan & Ulugh Khan After the
death of Nusrath Khan, Alauddin along with Amir Khusrau reached Ranthambhore.
A traitor Ranmal opened the gates and bring less in numbers. Rajputs were defeated and their
women performed Jauhar.

1303-Chittor-Third Campaign
Here the ruler was Rana Ratan Singh. The immediate reason was that while Alauddin army was
passing through Ratan Singh's territory they were told not to pass through his territory. During Chittor
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campaign. Amir Khusrau also accompanied Alauddin Khilji. Khilji got chittore by deceiving. Ratan Singh
and Later on killed him. Rajput women along with Queen Padmavati committed Jauhar, the incident has
not been mentioned by Amir Khusrao in his book.

1305 Malwa Campaign

Here the king was Mohak Dev, Dhar Ujjain, Chanderi were in Malwa

South India Campaigns

z Yadavas of Devagiri–Ruler Ramchandra Dev
z Kaktiyas of Warrangal–Pratap Rudra Dev
z Hoyasals of Dwara Samudra-Vir Ballal–III
z Pandyas of Madurai–Sundar Pandya & Vir pandya.

1307 Devagiri
Ramchandra Dev initially paid the tribute but later on did not pay any tribute. Later on Alauddin
married the daughter of Ramchand Dev and gave him Nausari. On these grounds Alauddin is called the
precursor of Akbar.
His administrative measures and reforms –
Measure to fame nobility
He thought that nobility had enjoyed lots of property and wealth. He confiscated milkiyat
(revenue free)
Nobility was deprived from their privilege. The basic objective was to keep busy their work and no
time to conspire against sultan.
z He banned convival parties, liquor and other intoxicants.
z He regulated matrimonial relations among nobility without the approval of sultan no one can
enter into matrimonial relation (among nobility) because matrimonial relation between two political
nobilities can make alliance and may start conspiracy against (him) Sultan
z Spies were deployed behind nobility.
He made some revenue reforms he was Ist Delhi sultan who measured cultivated lands (Paimaish).
The new system of measurement of land which Alauddin Khiliji had introduced is named as Masahat.
The unit of this land measurement was Biswa.
He appointed a new class of revenue officials called as Amils. They were responsible for land
measurement and assessment and collection of revenue.
Earlier revenue collection was done by the mediation of Khuts. Mugaddams, Rai, Rajan. Chaudharier
etc. They used to give the revenue after their remuneration. Alauddin Khalji deprived all these middlemen
from revenue collection and appointed Amils.
The revenue collections had their own land too but they did not give revenue from their land but
to pass the burden over other peasantry.
He added two more taxes Gharai (House tax) & charai tax (grazing tax) for all the Indians. This
reduces the revenue of the Indians in general and nobility for particular.
He not only got measured land but also raised the revenue demand to 50% of production.
He also imposed jaziya on non muslims and collected as part of khiraj (Kharaj) (before Alauddin
Khilji. For non-muslims the rate was 1/3 of production but for muslims it was 1/10 of production).
Usra for muslim (1/5 of production)
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Jaziya is a kind of poll tax imposed on non-muslims (According to sariyat non-muslims did not
expect to serve the islamic states and of they want to live they had to pay tax). (Jaziya was not collected
as separate tax till Alauddin Khilji, but the people paid it in the form of Kharaj).

Mode of Payment
In kind, in areas near Delhi and in cash for far off areas
z He decided and fixed crop e.g. Paddy. 1Q `100/quintal but sold at `40/Q = 4000
Tax 100 g –––– 50 × 100 = `5000 (tax) revenue now present will pay?
Out of 50% of the production the peasant has to retained if for eating for the sowing of crops next
year and if the surplus then he had to sold in local mandi.
Alauddin Khilji had created a new department Diwan-i-Mustakhraj to enforce the accountability
of tax collectors for state treasury
z He created postal network (Ist Delhi Sultan to do so). Two cavalry men appointed to pass the message
from one place to other place.
z He was first sultan to have started the practice of cash salary payment. e.g. a cavalryman with
single horse-234 Tanka and for an extra horse - 78 more tanka was given to the cavalrymen.
z He introduced Dagh and chehra (hulia) system. Dagh means branding of horses and maintaining
descripting rolls. (At that time 4 types of horses were there in India Turani, Irani, Afghani & Indian
horses. Branding was to central corruption as the price of maintaining different horses were different).
z He organised his army on decimal system (Tumen Paddhati)
10 soldiers –––– a sarkhail
10 Sarkhail –––– a Amir
10 Amirs –––– a Malik
10 Maliks –––– a khan – headed 1 lakh soldiers
z He had created one more department named as Daftar-i-Fazilat-i-hasan. Its work was keeping a
record of military expenditure and salary paid to the military officials).
He did not apply market reforms throughout the empire but at the military centres.

Market Reforms
Besides already existing market, he created three new type of market–
z Galla-i-Mandi
z Sarai-i-Adl
z Pashu Bazar
z General market
Galla-i-Mandi was headed by Suhera-i-Mandi, Sarai-i-Adl was headed by Rai Parwana
Galla-i-Mandi consists of general grains like wheat maize rice etc. While Sarai-i-Adl consists of
precious things like ghee, date etc. Aladdin Khilji had prepared a price list and reduced the prices of
above two markets
The whole objective of market reform was to reduce the prices for the comfort of soldiers
To supervise general market, he created a new department diwan-i-Riyasat which worked as a
finance ministry
He created one more department Nazir to regulate weights and measures.

Construction
z Alauddin had constructed a water-tank Hauz-i-Alai in Delhi
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z He had made a fortified setllement named as siri fort

z He also made Alai Darwaza as an entrance to quwwat ul-Islam Masjid
After Alauddin Shihabuddin Umar who was a child sat on the throne with the help of Malik Kafur
issued who was regent of shihabuddin. Alauddin could not declare his successor before his death. Taking
advantage of this situation Malik kafur issued a will paper. According to the will next Successor should
be Shihabuddin. Malik Kafur represented this will and nobility had to accept it.
Malik Kafur blinded Khizra Khan, Sadi Kahan. He imprisoned Mubarak shah Khilji in siri fort. Nobility
and personal guard of Alauddin Khilji were angry at the treatment of Kafur which he had done to
alauddin's sons.
Malik kafur was executed in 1361 by the personal guard of Alauddin.
Mubarak Shah Khilji became the regent of shihabuddin Umar but after few days he killed shihabuddin
the younger brother, and became the sultan.

Mubarak Shah Khilji (1316-20)

z He declared himself as caliph
z He annexed Devagiri (Harpal Dev revolted and hence he was defeated and killed) in 1318.
z He gave relaxation to the people
z He had made a Mosque named Ookhi at Bharatpur
z One Eunuch → (Transgender) Khushraukhan was associated with him
z This man Khusrau khan was made Wazir, Naib and chief commander of army.
z This man killed Sultan Mubarak shah Khilji in 1320.
Next Sultan: Nasiruddin Khushrau Khan
He also declared himself as commander of prophet (caliph). Earlier he was Gujarati Hindu, later
on converted into Islam. So No one like him. He tried his best to retain his post. He distributed money
to all who come to his court. Famous sufi Saint Nizamuddin Auliya was popular in Hindu and Muslims
both and hence if he accepted him as sultan then common people can easily accept him as sultan. he
gave grants to Khanqah near Delhi
There was a person Ghazi Malik. governor of Dipalpur. Punjab came to Delhi & challenged Khushrau
Khan. A battle took place in which Khushrau was defeated and killed. All the 6 attacks of Mongols were
repulsed in the leadership of Ghazi Malik only. This man did not accept the throne but no one left from
the family of Alauddin to rule over Delhi. Khilji Dynasty came to an end in this way.

Tughlaq Dynasty
z Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–35)
Ghazi Malik was Ghiyasuddin Tuglaq. Tughlaqs were the Ist sultans of Delhi who had Indian bloods
in their veins.
Ferishta- According to him, the name of father of Ghazi Malik was kutlug and this kutlug later on
became Tughlaq.
Ibn-Batua came during Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. He wrote Rehla & Marco Polo venetian merchant.
Both Ibn-Batuta & Marco Polo said Ghazi Malik as of mixed caste. Kutlug's wife was a jat lady
There sons of Kutlug and Jat lady were Ghazi Malik Rajjab (father of feroz shah tuglaq) & (Abu
Bakra).

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-25)

z He too gave more relation than Khusrau Khan.
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z He reduced rate of land revenue to 1/10th of of production.

z He removed Gharai
z He discontinued paimaish and relied on cropsharing (Jamai Hasil)
z Tried to bring uncultivated land under cultivation
z He was liberal toward other religion
(Collection from villagers in the name of service Kismat-i-Khuti)
z He continued Dagh and chehra system means he was in mood of any discrepancy (corruption).
z Warrangal was annexed in 1321-22 by Jauna Khan and Warangal was renamed as sultanpur Jauna
Khan was son of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

Nizamuddin Auliya
Mubarak Shah Khilji had constructed a mosque in Delhi and invited all the influential people including
Nizamuddin Auliya but he did not come and sent one of his disciple. On every full moon he organised a
festival to pray from him & ordered to bring Auliya forcefully but at the very next day he was killed by
khusrau khan. Ghiyasuddin reaslised all the money spent by Khusrau khan. He said that Baitulmal →
state resources are not for charity
He told that everyone who took money from Khusrau khan they had to return money to the state.
Khusrau also gave grants to Auliya and hence Ghiyasuddin (he) approached to Auliya for money but
Auliya refused as he never accepted the grants but distributed the money among the poor people.
Hanoz Dilli Durast (Delhi abhi dur hai) said by Nizamuddin Auliya. Ghiyasuddin campaigned in
Bengal and collected elephants & returned to Delhi.
In village of Afghanpur, near fort of Tughlagabad mady by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq made a wooden
stage by Jauna Khan where Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq died
After Ghiyasudding death, Jauna Khan made next sultan in the name of Mohammad bin-Tughlaq
(1325-51)

Mohammad bin Tughlaq (MBT)

Most enlightened Sultan of Delhi in the history. He knew french, Arabic, Sanskrit, etc. He was liberal
& secular person. He used to met Rajshekhar & Jina Prabhasur (Hindu & Jain saints respectively). He
was the person who gave high officials to Hindus both of high caste & lower caste on the basis of merit.
Sairaj one of the minister of Mohammad bin Tughlaq. He made Ratan (Hindu) the governer of Sehwen
(Sindh). He was Ist sultan to start celebrating Hindu festivals. He had love with his own religion. He had
visited shek Muinuddin Chistis dargah.
This man had constructed tomb of Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi. chisti sufi saint-Sheikh
Alauddin's → (son of sufi saind Fareed) tomb was made in Ajodhan, Punjab.
He also maintained friendly relation with other states.

Foreign Relation
Received embassy from Iraq (Sultan Mussa).
He had relation with china (Taughan Taimur was ruler) Taimur had sent delegation with lots of gifts.
Iran – Sultan Abu Sayyid. MBT gave 1 Lakh Tanka to Abu sayyid to destribute among the people
Ibn- Batuta (Morocco) was made Kazi & sent as envoy in China.
Experiments and Measures of MBT – Mohammed bin Tughlaq (MBT) was ruling largest territory of
India. During MBT, almost entire south India had been captured only sultan to rule over a vast territory.
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Capital Transfer
In 1327, MBT transferred the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (earlier Devagiri). He made roads from
Delhi to Daulatabad made wells alongside the roads & rest house too. He started massive construction
in Daulatabad.
3 reasons to shift capital
z To avoid the problem of Mongols.
z Moderate climate of Daulatabad.

Introduction of Token currency of Coppers and Brass

Withdrew of gold & silver currency. Before MBT two more ruler introduced token currency
Qublai Khan of China –Paper currency
Gai Khatu of Iran–Copper coins
The coins were constructed by Royal mint. There were some forged coins mint by everyone in the
house

Khurasan Campaign
1327, Mongol attack took place under tarmasarin he wants to establish friendly ruler war khurasan
he was befriended with tarmasarin. At that time Iran was weakening. He wanted to establish Tarmasarin
as ruler of Khurasan to protest north-western border of India. A triple alliance between MBT, Sultan of
Egypt & Tarmasarin According to this alliance
He recurited 3,70,000 fresh force.
He gave 3 years salary in advance.
In the meantime, some changes happened in equation, Tarmasarin was killed and opposition ruler
of MBT sat on the throne of Khurasan. Sultan of Egypt entered into treaty with Iran and hence he had
to draw back his decision of Khurasan campaign.

Qarachil Campaign
(1330), Qarachil was in near (Kangra) Himachal or Kumaun (Uttarakhand).
Objective was to safeguard India against China. The ruler of Qarachil accepted annual supremacy
of Delhi Sultan and accepted for annual tribute. While returning from the campaign, attack was done
by local people & hence 90% of the force had been killed.

Raising of Tax in doab (1333–1354)

During the same period, famine hit. Income reduced so he decided to raise the tax in doab region
as they can afford but famine was hit at in Doab too. And hence rebel revolt took place as he forced the
farmers to pay the taxes.

Cropping Experiment
Introduced cultivation of multi crops in the same region. At the place of Barley- produced wheat, at
the place of wheat, grow sugarcane and at the place of sugarcane-grow grapes & dates and for this he
granted `70 lakh but this experiment was failed too as the lands were not suitable for different crops
& Delhi was hit by plague.
MBT at swargdwari (at the bank of Ganga) lived for two and half years to protect himself from
famine & plague. When he returned whole economy was ruined.
He introduced Diwan-i-kohi (Agriculture department) headed by Amir-i-kohi to grant sondhari/
taccavi (agricultural loan).
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In 1337 he too attacked at Nagarkot (in Kangra) ruler was Prithvi chand. Meantime revolt took place
in sindh by Targhi. MBT went Targhi did not return & at the place of Thalta → Gondal, he died in 1351
Some scholar say (Barani or Badayani) about MBT that after his death sultan became free from his
people and people became free from their sultan.
34 revolts took place against MBT.
z In 1336, Harihar and Bukka revolted against MBT & established state of Vijayanagar.
z In 1347, Alauddin Bahmanshah/Hasan Gangu attacked revolted and founded Bahamani state.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88)

3 days after the death of Mohammad bin Tughlaq. On the bank of river in the battle itself, Firoz Shah
Tughlaq was coronated. He lacked farsighted. By luck he became sultan. Every section was unhappy
with MBT and the state and hence revolt took place all around. So he decided to follow the policy of
appeasement and pacification. e.g.
He was worried by the revolt of three ulemas nobility and soldiers. Due to secular or non-religious
approach of MBT. Ulemas were dissatisfied. During MBT he was the Ist sultan against whom ulemas
issued Fatwa. For the appeasement. Firoz Shah declared Hindustan to be an Islamic state (sharia)
It means state would run according to sharia and Ulemas would have role to play in state for Ulemas
maulvis he announced allowances and pensions.
He declared higher civil and military offices to be hereditary with pensions for life.
He issued Jagirs for nobles, tax collectors, military personnels (weakening administrative strength
of state). He issued stipends (pocket money) for children of nobles and military personnels.
He was first sultan to establish welfare state. For the welfare of the people he took many welfare
measures. Elphinston said Firozshah as Akbar of Delhi Sultanate. He established a number of department
Daftar-i-Rozgar, Diwan-i-Bandagan. Diwan-i-Khairat, Dar-ul-shifa. Besides all these he constructed roads,
sarais, canals, wells, public kitchens etc.
He diluted the dagh and chehra system.
As the term suggests Daftar-i-Rozgar, it was to generate employment especially for muslims youths
to register themselves in this (not for non-muslims)
It was only for sunni muslims not for shiyas & Mahdavis.
Diwan-i-Bandagan was a department for slaves. Firoz Shah had collected more than 1 lakh slaves.
The department alloted jobs to these slaves according to their skill. Educated slaves were given the task
of translation of Sanskrit text. More than 13 Sanskrit texts had been translated in Persian language.
This man had set up 1200 gardens and orchords all around Delhi (30 gardens by Alauddin Khilji
also included). These gardens generated annual income of more than 2,00,000 tankas. This department
provided jobs to common people also.

Diwan-i-Khairat
The department was to help poor, old, widows. The allowances were fixed. If the family of poor girls
need money for marriage, it provides money to the family but this privilege was not for non-muslims.

Dar-ul-shifa
He established public hospitals. The diagnosis and medicines were provided to all muslims & non
Muslims.
He constructed roads for pilgrimage sarai (rest house), canals, walls & construction of canals started
by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
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Canals made by Firoz

z Satlej to Ghagghar (Ulgha Khani Nahar
z (Yamuna to Hisar (Haryana)-150 miles (longest canal-Rajabahi Nahar)
z Mandavi to Hasi
z Ghagghar to Hirani
z Ghagghar to Firozabad.
Agriculture
Firoz Shah reduced tax on agricultural production. He had established 36 state karkhana under the
department of Diwan-i-khana. The official headed this department was Mustsarrif.

Taxes
He abolished 24 taxes not sanctioned by sharia. He gave lots of relaxation to the people, allowed
only those taxes permitted by sharia.
Taxes retained were-Kharaj, Jakat, Ushra, Khums, Jaziya and introduced new tax that was Haq-i-
sharb. The rate of Kharaj had been reduced to 1/3rd of production. The rate of Zakat was reduced
10th of income it was 2.5% it was only for muslims.
Usra was land revenue tax for Muslims reduced to 1/10th of production if uses natural resources
but if Muslim peasantry uses state irrigation facilities then they had to pay 1/5th of production.
Earlier Jaziya was taxed with Kharaj but he was Ist sultan of Delhi to impose Jaziya on non muslims
as a separate tax under the influence of Ulemas. Haq-i-sharb was an irrigation tax and rate of it was
1/10th of production.

Religious Policy of Firoz Shah Tughlaq

He destroyed a number of Hindu Temples. He removed many of Hindu officials from govt offices. He
destroyed the temple at Jagannath Puri partially. He attacked Jwalamukhi Temple at Kangra (Himachal
Pradesh) & destroyed it. He looted the library at Jwalamukhi temple and translated all the books
(7300 books). Dalyal-i-Firozshahi by Azz-uddin Khalid Khasi. He had burnt a Brahmin in the charge
of converting muslims in Hindu.
Womens were disallowed to go to Mazars. He persecuted Shiyas & M

Military Campaigns
z Ist campaign against Bengal - Two campaigns against Bengal between 1353-59. Ruler of Bengal were
Hazi Ilyas & his son sikandar Ilyas. Hazi Ilyas took shelter in the Fort of Ekdala. made of mud. Firoz
shah could not break the fort. He returned back. Again in 1358-59 he attacked, this time sikandar
Ilyas took shelter in the fort of Ekdala. Once again returned back from Bengal and then in 1360 he
attacked Jajnagar (Orissa)
1361–He attacked Nagarkot famous Jwalamukhi temples looted library.
1362–His last campaign was against Turghi in Sindh. It was successful campaign but people revolted
and he had to retreat its army.
He was a great builder. He established a number of cities example, Hisar--i-Firoza, Firozabad →
Firoz Shah Kotla (fortified city), Jaunpur, Fatehabad (Jaunpur was named in the name of elder brother
Jauna Khan–MBT). He established Kali Masjid.
Firozshahi Madarsa in Delhi at the level of university. he repaired Qutub-Minar. Fourth & fifth
story made of Qutab Minar by white Marble & fifth was added by white marble. He cleaned Hauz-i-
Shamsi and Hauz-i-Alai ( water tanks made by Iltumish & Alauddin Khalji respectively. He made a
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pleasure resort named Hauz-i-Khar in south Delhi. He had added a gate of Sandlwood and a jali to the
tomb of Nizamuddin Auliya, and added sandluxed gate to the tomb of Mohammad bin Tughlaq named
as Dar-ul-Imam.
He took interest in music, Hindu philosophy and made donations to Jaina temple. It proves he was
not as orthodox as it seems but he looks so under the influence of Ulemas.
After Firozshah, next sultan Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. II
z Abu Bakr
z Nasiruddin Mohammad
z Alauddin Sikandar Shah (1390-94)
z Last ruler was Nasiruddin Mahmood-IV (1394-1414)
During the period of Nasiruddin Mohmood-IV, invasion of India took place by Taimur Lang with
this, weakness of Delhi sultanate crept out. The invasion took place in 1398. Taimur Lang belongs to
Barlas Tribe (of Turkey) later on he came to control chagtai Khanate (After 5th generation of these Babar
came). He was born in samarkand (Uzbekistan). established rule in Bulkh (Kazakhastan). He started
for & wide expansion. He went to the neighbouring areas of Europe (caucasus) central Asia, Asia. He
attacked on southern Russia too. He controlled central Asia, Iran & Afghanistan.
Before coming to India he sent his grandson Pir Mohammad for early information and preparatory
work. He invaded Punjab and captured few territories like Multan, Depalpur, Lahore etc. and then in
1398 Taimur attacked India & killed more than 2 crore people almost 5% of population at that time. He
capture pagpattam, Bhagnir. When he attacked Delhi, Wazir & Sultan ran away from Delhi. He attacked
Meerut, Haridwar, Kangra, Jammu and destroyed temples. This attack completely expire the weakness
of Delhi sultanate. He exposed the world that Delhi sultanate is no more a powerful state and led the
future invasion of. He declared shahrukh as his successor and appointed Khizra khan the governor of
Multan, Dipalpur & Lahore.

Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 AD)

The founder of this dynasty was Khizra Khan (1414-21). He had assisted Timur (Taimur) and in
return Taimur gave him governorship of Multan Dipalpur and Lahore. Khizra Khan declared himself as
the successor of Prince shakrukh (son of Timur). This man took a title-Raiyyat-i-Ala. He did not issue
any new coins & continued with the coins of Tughlaq like Addha, Jittal by Firoz shah
After him, Mubarak Shah became next ruler (1421-34). He had patronised great Persian scholar
named yahya bin sirhindi who had written a book named Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi gives general scenario
of sayyid dynasty.
3rd Ruler Muhammad Shah
4th Ruler Alauddin Alam Shah
After, Timur's invasion sharqi Dynasty was established in Jaunpur by Malik-u-shirq actual name
Malik sarwar African slave
Historians used to say-The sultanate of Delhi Sultan started from Alam and ended to Palam. i.e.
empire limited to Delhi only.

Lodhi Dynasty
Founder-Bahlal Lodhi (1451–1589 AD)
Lodhis were the Ist Afghan dynasty to rule over Delhi. Afghans had been recruited in large members in
the reigh of sultan Nasiruddin Mahmood, younger son of Iltutmish. They belonged to Shahukhel branch.
The kind of regime he had established called as oligarchical system, a system where members of the
tribe considered equal to sardar (Tribal system) Every afghan sardars used to be called each other as
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malik considered to be equal as ruler. Bahlal Lodhi never sat on the throne of sultan but he used to sit
on the kalins with other Afghan sardars representing Afthans brotherhood. He ruled Hindustan liberally.

Achievements
He was the person who partially restore return/bring the power of Delhi. He captured Jaunpur by
defeating Hussain Shah Shirq and he made his son Barbak Shah as governor of Jaunpur. He captured
sambhal, Mewat, Gwalior, Itawa etc.
He declared Nizam khan as his successor. War of succession between Barbak Shah & Nizam Khan
took Place. Nizam Khan came victorious and became Sultan in the name of Sikandar Lodi. His mother
was Hindu named Jeeba Khan, daughter of goldsmith.

Sikandar Lodhi (1489–1517)

He followed anti Hindu policy though his mother was a Hindu lady. He ended oligarchical system
and restored the power of sultan. He started sitting on the throne. He had strict eyes on Afghan sardars.
he regulated jagirs of all nobles. He had deployed it behind nobility.
In 1904, he established city of Agra. He made fort of Badalgarh. It was the time of Rana Sanga. He
think that he can control over Rajputs from Agra. He transfered his capital in Delhi.
He had started land measurement (second sultan) introduced a new scale-Gaz-i-Sikandari (30 inch
or cm). He removed tax on food grains including Zakat. He removed all restrictions on trade.
He was patron of scholars also e.g., he had given patronage to Miya Manju (Written a book-Tibb-
i-sikandari named as Mahaayurveda), Nazir Ahmad had written a book on music- Lajjat-i-Sikandari
He himself was a scholar. He composed poems in pen name of Galrukhi.

Religious Policy
Full of bigotry, destroyed number of temples broken the idols of temples & broken idols were given
to butchers. He prohibited Hindus from bathing act at yamuna. He banned barbars for slaving Hindus.
Both Firoz shah and Sikhandar Lodhi promoted conversion. He promoted persian education among
Hindus as a matter of employment.
He had banned the worship of goddess Shitla. He had executed a Brahmin publically as he said Islam
and Hinduism are true religion. He also prohibited womens to go to Dargah and mazars.

3rd Ruler Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526 AD)

Rajputanas were threatening Delhi. It was the period of Rana Sanga.
Battle of Ghatoli (1518)–Ibrahim was defeated but Rana Sanga could not captured Multan.
Alam Khan Lodhi and Daulat khan Lodhi invited Babur Allegations on Rana Sanga to invite Babur
to attack Delhi.

1st Battle of Panipat-1526

Babur defeated and killed Ibrahim

Causes of Decline of Delhi Sultanate

z Responsibility of Mohammad bin Tughlaq (MBT)
z Responsibility of Firoz Shah Tughlaq
z Weak and incapable successors.
z Invasion of Timur (Taimur Lang)
z Invasion of Mughals
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ADMINISTRATION
Nature of State
z Highly centralised
z Theocratic
z No absolutism
z No hereditary succession but might is right.
The officials enjoys only that much of power permitted by sultan. This shows centralisation system.
Theocratic – The state is headed by Dharma Guru.

No Absolutism
There were some effective checks on powers of Sultan–Ulema class nobility, caliph. Many of sultans
took legitimacy from caliph. In the name of caliph actually they feared from Muslim masses.
To assist sultan, there was a council of ministers called as Mazlis-i-Aam or Mazlis-i-Khalwat Various
department–
Diwan-i-Wizarat head by wazir assisted by
Diwan-i-Arz number of officials like Mustafa-i-
Diwan-i-Insha Mumalik. Musrif-i- Mumalik Khanij
Diwan-i-Risalat Mustafa-i-Mumalik was like a
Diwan-i-Sadra comptroller and auditor general, Musrifi.
Diwan-i-Qaza Mumalik was like account general.
Diwan-i-Arz headed by Arz-i-mumalik established by Balban for military
Diwan-i-Insha headed by Dabir-i-Khas for royal correspondence.
Diwan-i-Risalat was like foreign ministry headed
Diwan-i-Sadra was headed by Sadra-Us-Sudur, basic activities of this department were religious
in nature. Its work was to enforce Islamic laws. To help Islamic divines and sehalar.
Diwan-i-Qaza was headed by Qazi-i-Quzzat (chief Qazi) He had judicial function to perform.
He performed helping Muslims, poors, orphans, uncared for etc. The responsibility of execution
was on Diwan - i -Mazlim. MBT had created one more department Diwan - i -Siyasat. MBT bifurcated the
judicial power of Qazi. Qazi would taken only the case of common law (Shariya) and if cases connected
to administration then matter will go to Qiwan-i-Siyasat.
There were other department official too –
z Barid-i-Mumalik like head of department of espionage
z Wakil–Dar head of royal household
z Diwan-i-Riyasat-like finance ministry created by Alauddin Khilji
z Diwan-i-Mustakhraj-
Kotwal headed police department and maintain law and order.

Provincial Government
Provinces could identify only with Ikta headed by Mukta/wali. Basic function was getting revenue
collection & maintaining law & order. qazi for judicial matters
Khwaja created by Balban to audit the income and expenditure of Ikta
Below Ikta, shiq was created by Balban which was headed by shiqdar
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Below shiq-Pargana was there headed by Amils & munsif for revenue collection. This Pargana level
structure was introduced by Alauddin Khilji.
He too introduced Patta system (Patio) which was issued by Amil. Munsif performed record
keeping function.
Below Pargana, group of village has been created chaurasi, sadi (Group of village created by Alauddin)
Village headmen-Mukaddam, Pattwaris, Khuts were tax collectors.

Society
Hindu Society – Muslim Society
There was clear seggregation of among society specially between Hindu & Muslim. Hindus did not
accept Muslims as ruler as they were invaders & muslim class i.e. nobility hates Hindus. This seggregation
is less in rural areas as Muslims in the rural areas were local not foreigners/invaders. Parda system
was there.
Muslims Society
Ashraf (Upper class Muslims = outsiders)
It had two broader divisions

Ajlaf (Convertee Muslims treated as lower class)

Ahl-i-Suyuf (sword)-Warriors (Nobility)

Ashraf
Ahl-i-Qalam-Scholars
Economy
Rahat (Persian wheel): Rahat have been used in India since ancient times. Use of Rahat increased
during sultanate period.
Panchatantra and Rajtarangini mentions Rahat (in the name of Araghatta or ghatyandra also called
as chakka vatakka).
This Rahat was used for irrigation purchase.
India, Initially, his target was only Punjab. As he claimed that Punjab was territory of his ancestors
(Timur)
He started his incursions/ expeditions in Punjab region since 1514 onwards
In 1518, Babur attacked Bajaur (nea, Khaiber pass) and captured.
In 1519 Babur attacked Fort of Bhira & captured it.
Here we see Ist use of gun powder (cannons) by Babur in India.
Note: The introduction of gunpowder was in 3rd century BC. Bahmani & Vijaynagar also used
gunpowder and portuguese too used gunpowder much before Babur in India.
Babur was invited to India by Daulat-Khan Lodhi, governor of Punjab, Dilabar Khan Lodhi, son of
Daulat Khan Lodi and Alam Khan Lodhi- uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi.
Rana Sanga of Chittor (Shisodiya dynasty) too invited Babur to India as he wanted to rule over
north India.
In 1523-24, Babur captured Sialkot, Lahore. This disturbed the ambition of Daulat Khan Lodhi,
When Babar was at Lahore. Daulat Khan captured Sialkot but Babur recaptured it. Babur appointed
Alam Khan Lodhi the governor of Dipalpur.
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1st Battle of Panipat (1526)

Babur had adopted ottoman Technique of Tulghuma and Araba. It was a battle technique Ist used
by ottoman turks. Babur learnt this technique from Uzbek as Uzbek learnt it from ottoman.
Tulghuma–If deals with arrangement of forces Araba–deals with deployment of artillary dig trenches
both sides deployed artillary on left right & central flank.
City
River
trench hundreds of carts without oxes tied to ropes and
in the gap between two carts placed cannons

trench
After this battle Babur captured both agra & Delhi & took the title of Badshah of Hindustan.
Rana Sanga expected that Babur will return but he did not so. Hence Rana Sanga decided to expel
Mughals from Hindustan. He make strong allies with Afghans as they last in Ist battle of Panipat.
Mahmood Lodhi, younger son of Ibrahim Lodhi collected Nusrat Khan (Bengal)....

Battle of Khanwa-1527
Rana Sanga had collected huge confideracy Rajputana States Maldeo of Marwar. Medini Rai of
Chanderi (Malwa region). Raja Siladitya of Raisin joined the forces with 30,000 force. Hasan Khan
Mewati–ruler of Mewat. Afghans under Mahmood Lodhi Sided Rana Sanga.
Rana Sanga while moving towards Agra, the message of advancement of Rana Sanga reached to
Babur, Babur sent a member of contingent to hault the forces of Rana both the times the forces of Babur
were repulsed by Rajputs. The forces of Babur demoralised with this incident but Babur did not loose
his patience. Babur decided to move towards Khanwa & took the advantageous position at Khanwa and
applied the policy of Tulghuma & Araba.

Cart were tied with iron rope

e T
Cavalry Cannon
r
c
Cavalry Rana Sanga's force
e
a
Cavalry r n
t c
:
: h
Attack
Some Rajputs defected Rana Sanga like Raja Sidaditya joined the force of Babur with 30,000 force.
Meantime, Rana Sanga suffered a shot and fainted.
The place of Rana Sanga as a leader taken by Jhala Azza who was not a military commander &
hence defeated.

1528 Battle of Chanderi

Ruler of chanderi was Medini Rai who was vassal of Rana Sanga. Babur tried negotiations but Medini
Rai refused and hence battle took place, Medini Rai was defeated & ready to compromise. Two daughters
of Medini Rai were married to two sons of Babur, Humaun & Kamran. Other son were Askari, Hindal
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1528 Battle of Ghaghra

Afghans were reorganising Themselves in Bihar and Bengal under the leadership of Mahmud Lodhi
as they were defeated but not crushed in the Ist battle of Panipat. Before doing any mischief Babur
decided to crush Afghans and hence reached Bihar & battle took place where he defeated Afghans but
revolt took place in Kabul & hence Babur decided to patch-up the battle & and once again Afghans were
not crushed completely.
Babur died in 1530 to Agra. He was buried at Arambagh. Agra later shifted to Kabuli Bagh (Bagh-
i-Babur in Kabul)

Construction
Aram Bagh in Agra
Kabuli Bagh in Kabul.
4 Mosques had been constructed at 4 different places by Babur–
z At Alwar sambhal, panipat and Ayodhya
Abul Fazl in Akbarnama says that when Humayun was fell ill then at the time of Namaj Babur prayed
for the revival of his son of besides his life."
Wazir of Babur was Nizamuddin Khalifa & Mehdi Khwaja-brother -in-law of Babur.

Humayun [(1530-40) & (1555-1556)]

Challenges
z Succession by brothers Kamran, Askari, Hindal & cousin Zaman Mirza and sultan Mirza & by wazir
of Babur-Nizamuddin khalifa & Mehdi Khwaja-brother-in-law of Babur.
z Afghans of East continued to raise their heads.
z Bahadur Shah of Gujarat wanted to capture Delhi.
Military Campaign
1st military campaign against Kalinjor – 1531
The Bundela ruler of Kalinjor was Pratap Rudra Dev. In the battle Humayun defeated Pratap Rudra
Dev and hence captured the area of Bundelkhand.
Battle of daurah against Afghans. Humayun laid a seige of Fort of chunar (Gatway of East). This fort
was under Sher Khar later on known as Sher Shah (Farid Khan). Before sher khan, the faujdar effort was
Taj Khan Sharwani. When he died, sher khan offer nikah to the wife of Taj khan sharwani Lad Malika.
She accepted the proposal & hence Sher Shah became Faujdar of the Fort of Chunnar. The siege of Fort
of Chunnar continued for 4 months and after that Sher Khan surrendered, after that Humayun did not
make any effort to capture this fort and this was a great mistake.
Sher Khan offered his son Jalal Khan. humayun had established town of Dinpanah.
Meantime, Bahadur of Gujarat captured Malwa, Chanderi, Ranthambhor and attacked chittor. Rani
Karnavati was ruler of chittor at that time as Rana Sanga had died. Chittor had been attacked in 1534
by Bahadur Shah. Rani Karnavati sent a letter & Rakhi & seeking help from Humayun but not help done
by Humayun.
Humayun arrived in Mandasor (Malwa-M.P) to block the road of returning of Bahadur Shah. Bahadur
shah went Mandu and then champa & then to Goa. Humayun captured Malwa, chanderi & Gujarat too.
Humayun made Askari younger brother as governor of Gujarat
He divided the territory and gave Kamran the territory of Kabul & Kandahar, Askari was given
sambhal & Hindal was given ______
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The moment Humayun returned to Delhi & busy himself in making town of Dinpanah. Bahadur
Shah recovered his lost territory as Humayun did not arrange military for the defence.
Meantime sher shah arises. In 1534 battle of Surajgarh took place on the bank of River qiul. Battle
was in between Sher Shah & Afghans of East. Sher Khan defeated Afghans collectively. Humayun did
not take any action primitively. Meantime, Sher Khan had constructed a fort-fort of Rohtasgarh in Bihar.
It was a powerful fort. Being angry Humayun decided to teach a lesson to Sher Shah.
Around 1538, Humayun moved to East against Sher Khan. Before this, Sher Khan sent a letter to ask
for Bihar & Bengal on the condition that he will not cross Bihar but Humayun refused. When Sher Khan
came to know that Humayun is coming Bihar. Sher Khan attacked Bengal & captured huge resources.
Humayun wasted 6-months at chunar and then moved towards Bengal through one route & Sher Shah
was returning through another route and decided to block the route of returning from Bihar.
Humayun gave a new name of Bengal Jannatabad and again wasted time in Bengal.
Meantime, Hindal declared his independence on side & other side Askari attacked agra however
he could not capture Agra Kamran prevent him to do so. Humayun decided to go to Agra. Sher Shah
knew all things.
Sher Khan had positioned himself on bank of River Karmanasha at chausa near Buxer. When
Humayun reached at the river he saw Sher Shah entrenched the position at elevation.
Humayun camped his force in between Ganga & Karmanasha in the low lying region. It was a
strategic blunder as rainy season could flood the low lying region where Humayun camped his force.
Sher Shah knew the situation very well and taking the advantage of this situation he attacked on Mughals.
Humayun somehow reached Agra.
Battle of Chausa–1539.

1540-Battle of Kannauj or Belgram

After battle of chausa, Sher Khan took the title of Sher Shah and nobles advised him to move towards
Agra. They started moving Agra. Humayun decided not to reach the Sher Shah at Agra as he recruited
new soldiers. Humayun flew to Kannauj where battle took place where Humayun was defeated & rushed
back to Agra to collect treasury and the family. He left Agra towards Rajputana. Sher Shah occupied
Delhi & Agra & declared himself as Badshah (Ist Afghan to take the title of Badshah).
Raja Maldeo of Marwar assured Humayun for help. Meantime Humayun went to Lahore, then in
Sindh and lived a life of wanderer. In 1541, in sindh he married to Hamida Bano Beghum (Mariam
Makani). She was a shiya lady daughter of Shiya saint. She was not a religious bigot.
In Sindh, there was Hindu state Amarket where ruler was Raja Virsal who gave shelter to Humayun.
Here only. Akbar was born Humayun and Hamida Bano Begum both went to persia to ruler Shah Tahmasp.
Akbar was kept under the custody of Hindal and Maham Anga Shah Tahmasp accepted for help
of Humayun. Humayun also seeking help from Raja Maldev but sher Shah threatened Raja Maldev of
Marwar in order to help Humayun.

Sur Empire
Sher Shah Suri (1540-45)
2nd Afghan ruling dynasty in India
(Ist Afghans were Lodhis). Bahlul Lodhi invited Afghans to came to make their fortune
in India. At that time ground father of Sher Shah-Ibrahim Khan Sher Shur came to India Father of
sher shah was Hasan Khan Sur. He Joined the forces of Lodhis and lodhis gave him jagirs of Shasaram.
Tanda and Khawaspur. Childhood name of sher sheh was Farid. hasan Khan sur gave the Jagir of shasaram
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to his son to administer it while jagirs of Tanda and Khawaspur managed by Hasan Khan himself. He
came to learn/trend himself as a ruler.
As he was growing up, his step mothers got jealous of him. Younger wifes of Hasan forced him to
take back the jagirs from sher shah.
After leaving Bahur. Sher Shah came to Bihar where the ruler was Bahar Khan Lohani who was also
as Afghan. Lohani made Sher Shah (Farid), the tutor of Jamal Khan, son of Bahar Khan Lohani. Bahar
Khan gave him the title of sher khan after killing a lion single handedly.
Mean time, Bahar Khan died, the widow of Bahar khan was Dudu Begum. Sher khan offered marriage
to Dudu Begum &became ruler of Bihar. Afghans of the East felt trouble. Jemal khan got troubled, went
to Bengal to take help of other Afghans against Sher shah & hence battle of Surajgarh took place in which
sher Khan defeated the collective forces of other Afghans.
z Bengal, Bihar, East UP were captured.
z He captured Malwa, defeated Raisin (Puranmal). Captured Gwalior (Vikramjit ruler). Ranthambhor.
Nagaur, Alwar, Ajmer.
In 1544, he captured Marwar the ruler of Marwar was Maldeo.
Sher shah made an statement after this war-for a handful of grains, I had almost last all Hindustan.
He captured Punjab, Multan, Sindh.
In 1546, he attacked Bundelkhand, he was attacking the fort of Kalinjar. When cannons balls fires
on the fort, he himself was standing side of the cannons. One of the cannon ball fixed to fort but rebound
and fall on the cannon palls at the same place where sher khan was standing and in this way he died.

Measures and Reforms

z Revenue Reforms
z Land Revenue Reforms
He got land measured for land measurement he introduced Gaz-i-Sikandari. He instructed his Amin
(assessment) to assess the revenue in liberal manner but once revenue assessment is fixed collect it
with in every manner.
z Division of Land into good, bad & middling land. Good land-high fertility giving 2-3 crops, middling
land fertile but giving 1-2 crops, Bad land-Barren land
z Production estimation had to be done separately (for different land good, bad, middling land) and
average of estimated production from three land was calculated
z 1/3 of average estimated production was fixed as state demand (He recognised the problem of
peasants and made the rule humane).
z Peasants hence the option to pay in cash or kind.
For paying in cash he decided the prices for different cash (decided on prevailing market prices
at Agra and Delhi) but peasants got less prices in other region in comparison to Agra & Delhi but they
have to pay from the same rate decided in Agra & Delhi.
Patta and Qabuliyat
Both Patta & qabuliyat together introduced by Sher Shah while Patta was introduced by Alauddin
Khilji.
Patta–Title deed, Qabuliyat–Deed agreement

Name
Measurement in Bigha
Cash amount has been written in Rupaya and Dam (Coin)
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Qabuliyat

Name
how much land cultivate?
signed with peasant's own stamp & state stamp.
This whole system of taxation was known as Zabt/Zabti system.
He also established the system of agricultural loan to peasants if famine, flood like situation
happened.
He introduced tax like Zaribana–2.5 and of Production.
Mahasilana –5% of Production.
Famine cess -2.5% seers/Bigha of land (1.250 kg = 1 Seer)
Zarib was the rope used for measurment of land and hence Zaribana means tax for paying service
men.
Mahasilana is taking paying for tax collectors like Kanoongo etc.
Trade
He prohibited many tax and allowed customs duty, exercise duty and sell tax. One good should be
taxed only two times.
For export & import – custom duty has been taken either on Indus or at sikrigal in Bengal
z This man constructed many roads for smooth transportation of trade or for smooth movement of
military.
z Badshahi Marg– From Indus (Peshwar) to Sonargaon (Bengal) Present day GT Road, lengthiest road)
z Agra–Jodhpur–Chittor–Broach
z 3rd road from Lahore to Multan
z 4th from Agra to Mandu
z From Agra to Barhanpur where (MP ends & Maharashtra starts)
He had made 1700 sarais at every 4 miles regarding law & order various officials in hierarchy. He
had emphasised over local responsibility for road protection on Muqaddam, Qanungos & Khuts etc.
Abbas Khan sharvani in his book Trikh-i-Sher Shahi mentions that if an old woman walking with
gold in her buckel, no one can trouble her such was the law & order condition.
He established a number of dark chowkis at every 4 miles throughout the road. Dark chowkis were
headed by Daroga-i-Dak Chowki.
Administrative Reforms
At Centre–badshah (head of the state)
He continued Dagh & Chehra system of Alauddin. He had paid great attention in recruiting the
soldiers.
He maintained elephantry, cavalry, Infantry and added artillary.
At Provincial level-
Proper provincial level could not develop during sultanate period & during sher Shah's reign. He
united a number of shigs together called this new unit as Khitta/Vilayat headed by Hakim
He reorganised district administration.
Sarkar was headed by Siqdar-i-Siqdaran, Munsif-v-Munsifan responsible for district administration
Siqdar-i-Sigdaran as criminal Judge
Munsif-v-Munsifan as civil judge.
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Munsif dealt with only revenue matters & other cases related to common laws dealt with Qazi a
Mir-adl at Pargana level.
Below sarkar pargana headed by shiqdar.
Munsif, Fatedar, Karkun, Amin
Shiqdar and Munsif enjoys same power as checks and balance for each other.
Fatedar-treasurer, karkun-clerk (record keeper)
two Karkuns at Pargana level to maintain record in two languages (i) persian (official language)
(ii) Hindavi (local language).
Amin-measurement of land
Below pargana, there was village administration headed by Gram Pradhan (Muqaddam), Khuts,
Qanungos.
The state had appointed two sets of official at villages-Patwaris and Chowkidars (first time came
into Picture)
The matters goes from Qazi & Mir Adl to Qazi-i-Quzzat.
Coins–Initially allowed the coins of Delhi sultanate. He introduced new coins.
Gold coins-Mohar-169 grains
Silver coins–Rupiya–178 grains continued by Mughals.
copper coins – Dam–
Contribution to Architecture
he made sher Shahi nagar (Purana Qila)
In the loving memory of his mother he had constructed a mosque Qila-i-Kunha Masjid in the Purana
Qila.
z He got constructed his own tomb at sasaram example of fabulous architecture double dome building
use of chajja made middle of a Pond.
2 Ruler Islam Shah Sur (1545–54)
He transferred his capital from Agra and treasury from chunnar to Gwalior.
z He codified Islamic laws.
He built sarais every 2 miles
z He converted entire Iqta into Khalisa
He did not allow Ulemas to interfere in state matters.
Iqta was the land under control of nobility and Khalisa was crown land. This makes nobility rebellious.
3rd Rule Firoz Shah Sur ruled for few months.
He was killed by nobility. Sur empire got divided into three parts among three princes after his death
z Sikandar Shah Sur–Punjab
z Ibrahim Shah Sur–Delhi & Agra
z Adil Shah sur–Chunnar & Bihar.
By 1555, Humayun defeated Sikandar Shah & Ibrahim & established Mughal empire once again.

Mughals
Humayun
Shan Tahmasp of persia decided to help Humayun on three condition
z he (Mughals) had to adopt Shiya
z he was promise to give Qandhar of capture
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Hindal joined hands with Kamran & Askari & got the governorship of Ghazni. Hindal handed over
Akbar to Askari & Askari handed it Akbar to Kamran.
In 1545–Humayun recovered Qandhar from Askari. Askari was defeated and sent to Mecca.
Humayun handed over Qandhar to Shah of Persia as promised. After taking Qandhar, he stopped
taking interest in covering the Mughals territory as the border of Iran was secured. He disappointed
and recaptured Qandhar from Shah of Persia & he could not do anything. Then he moved to Kabul and
defeated Kamran as Kamran had hanged up Akbar at the top of fort of Kabul in respect that if Humayun
fired cannons. First target will be Akbar. Kamran was blinded into piercing in his eyes and sent to Mecca.
In 1554, he attacked Punjab. In 1555, two battles were fought against Sikandar shah sur–
(i) battle of Machhiwada- Mughals and Bairam Khan crushed the forces of Sikandor Shah.
(ii) Battle of Sirhind–Mughals defeated Sikandar Shah sur & lived life of wanderer in Punjab. By
this time Sikandar Sheh defeated Ibrahim Shah & captured Delhi & Agra. Hence defeating Sikandar.
Humayun captured Delhi and Agra too.
According to Lane Pul-Humayun was stumbling throughout his life and death with stumbling-this
statement sumed up his life.
3rd Ruler (Mughal) Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (1556-1605)
When Humayun died, Akbar was at Kalanaur in Gurudaspur is Punjab. he was chasing Sikandar
shah to hunting him down. At Kalanaur, Akbar was coronated by Mirza abul Qasim. Bairam Khan was
with him at this time... Ist Guardian of Akbar Munim Khan and then Bairam Khan appointed as regent
(2nd guardian) when Akbar was made governor of Punjab. Sikandar Shah fled to fort of Mankot in
Shivalik. In Shivalik, Sikandar was defeated & fort was captured & Sikandar was sent to manage Bihar.
Bul Mazaffar Bahadur Shah, sultan of Bengal killed Adil Shah.
Regency of Bairam Khan (1556-60)

Period of Haram party (1560–62

Rule of Akbar
or Period of Peticot Sarkar

Akbar as Independent Ruler (1562 onwards)

Regency of Bairam Khan
The final act which crushed afghans was
2nd Battle of Panipat-1556
Adil Shah Sur-his commander was Hemu of Rewari (Hence fought 22 wars in his life & never lost).
Hemu attacked Delhi & Mughals were defeated as Delhi was under the care of an official targhi Beg).
Hence defeated Tardi Beg, he fled away to Agra. After this defeat. Hemu himself placed at the throne of
Delhi & took the title of Vikaramaditya. He was the 14th person to take the title of Vikramaditya.
Bairam Khan beheaded Tardi Beg with his sword. Both the parties gathered at the field of Panipat.
initially Mughals were at loosing site but hemu was leading from front sitting on the elephant. One of
the arrow sought into eye of Hemu and he fell down from elephant and fainted down. Bairam Khan
beheaded Hemu. Bairam was married to solima sultan Begum, the daughter of Gurumukhi Begum, the
sister of Humayun
Bairam Khan had become Vakil-us-sultan etc. He started behaving in very oppressive manner. He
started recurting Shiyas in military.
There were many things in Bairam Khan which Akbar did not like
In 1660-When Akbar moved towards Aligarh on hunting pretext but actually went to Delhi & sat on
the throne & issued a farman that he took his decision himself and put 3 options before Bairam Khan–
(i) Either be a political leader in his court
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(ii) Take some Jagirs and live happily

(iii) Either go to Haj.
Bairam Khan chooses Haj. But the nobility who was against Bairam Khan poisoned the ears of Akbar
& hence Akbar sent Peer Muhammad to told Bairam Khan to leave but Peer Muhammad mishehaved &
hence Bairam Khan revolted. To crush the revolt, Akbar himself proceeded & further gave same three
options to Bairam Khan
Akbar married salima sultana after the death of Bairam Khan. Son of Bairam Khan Abdur Rahim
was adopted by Akbar and arranged all for the education of Rahim, later on he became great scholar
named as Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana.

Akbar (1556–1605)
Period of Petikot Sarkar (Harem Party) (1560–62)
(i) Hamida Bano Begum (Mariyam Makani)
(ii) Maham Anga (Wazir)
(iii) Jiji Anga
(iv) Adham Khan
(v) Shasuddin Atga khan (Akbar made him vakil next to emperor)
(vi) Pir Mohammad Munim Khan etc.
Jiji Anga was daughter of Maham Anga (breast feeding) to Akbar
Adham Khan-brother of Jiji Anga & son of Maham Anga.
Shamsuddin-husband of Jiji Anga & brother -in- law of Adham Khan.
When Akbar entered into matrimonial relation with the daughter of Bharmal, named Harakha. The
group of Petikot sarkar did not happy
Many of the nobles in Akbar's court became victim of neferious activities of maham Anga. She has
started revengeful politics. Akbar thought the power of this lady should be restricted.
In 1562 campaign against Malwa ruler, the Bagh Bahadur the wife of Bagh Bahadur was Rupmati,
she was utterly beautiful. Akbar said to surrender him but he refused. This campaign was led by Adham
Khan from Akbar's side. After Bairam Khan all the power came in the hand of Moham Anga. Adham, the
son of Maham Anga suoppased Akbar as pabbet as the state was run by his mother.
In the compaign, Mughals defeated Malwa, Bagh Bahadur fed away. Adham Khan tried to capture
Rupmati to put in his haram. But the lady poisoned herself to save her honour. This was the violation
of instruction of Akbar of not capturing women & children.
The treasury they had captured from Malwa was misappropriated by Adham Khan. He also kept
the elephants he had captured But Akbar was silent.
Akbar used to call Shamsuddin Afga Khan as khan Baba like Bairam Khan. He was going through
enquiry of all campaign, he found Adham Khan misappropriated the treasury of Malwa Afgha khan
informed Adham died warned to submit all the treasury either he will tell Akbar all these incident. In
anger, Adham Khan took out the sword and killed Afga khan. Akbar got angry & gave order to throw
this person from the roof by the side of his head.
Maham Anga was stripped out from the position of Wazir & pettikot sarkar came to an end.

Akbar as Independent Rule (1562-1605)

1562 campaign against Garhkatanga (Gondwana.covered present day M.P, telangana, Andra Pradesh)
Ruler was Dalpat Shah
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Queen-Rani Durgavati
Minor son-Vir Narayan
Meantime Dalpat Shah died & Vir Narayan became the ruler. Rani durgavati became regent of Vir
Narayan. Akbar offered to surrender but Rani Durgavati refused to do so.
This campaign was lead by Asaf Khan
The first state to surrender was Amber. (Raja Bharmal). He offered marriage with her daughter.
Akbar offered Rajputs states to surrender before him & acceptance of supremacy of Akbar & ready, for
military service of of Mughals but the matter of succession was decided by Mughals. Rajputs did not
agree to this.
After Gharkatanga, Campaign against Mewar
Ruler was Uday Singh II:
Mughals attacked Mewar in 1567. They tried to beseize the fort but for a number of days they did
not succeed to besieze. Whoever came near to wall of fort they were killed But one day Akbar ordered
to bring 12-19 kg of gunpowder & these gunpowder was put in the ditch & fired, the fort's wall was
broken. Rajputs were on the surge of defeat, nobles advised him to go but from Mewar. Jaimal was took
the position of uday Sindh-II & Fatta/Patta/Fateh Singh. These two play great valour & Akbar himself
shoot these two Person & after that Akbar butchered many innocent people. Eastern Part of Mewar was
captured as these regions were very fertile. The family of Uday Singh-II could not be captured. Meantime
sisodiyas captured some of the territories.
1572 –Maharana Pratap
He was coronated at fort of Kumbhalgarh. Rai Surjan Hada of Ranthambhor did not accept the
surrender but in 1569 he also surrendered and agreed to personal service of Mughals.
Akbar tried to persuade Maharana Pratap. He sent a number of emissaries–Ist Jalal Khan
2nd-Man Singh grand son of Bharmal son of Bhagwant Dass tried to persuade but refused and
humiliated too.
3rd- Bhagwant Das came to persuade he was somewhat successful in persuading Maharana Pratap.
(i) Maharana Pratap agreed to put upon Robe sent by akbar
(ii) Maharana Prapat agreed to sent his son Amar Singh to Mughal court to serve but akbar did not
agree to this.
4th Todar mal (All tandon)[Akbar had given the title of Diwan-i-Ashraf to Todar Mal] went to
persuade Rana but Pratap refused to do so.
So, Akbar decided to go for a battle and hence battle of Haldi Ghati took place-in 1576 (Mewar/
Chittor). It was a mountain pass. The stones were yellow if powedered the stone it look liks turmeric
and hence named Haldi Ghati.
Mughal army was headed by Man Singh, battle was witnessed by Abdul Qadir Badayuni
According to Abul Fazal, contemporary of Akbar. Rana was having around 3400 soldiers out of
which 3000 were Rajputs & 400 were Bheel archers. According to Badayuni, Mughals have the army of
10,000 soldiers out of which 5000 were muslims & 5000 were Rajputs.
When the battle started Rana had planned a two way attack on Mughal army. Mughals were taken
back their step and had faced heavy causality.
Mughals at Rakttalai (Pool of Blood) hide themselves.
Maharana Pratap had attacked on Man Singh. Chetak, the horse of Rana Pratap had itself jumped on
Man Singh, But Rajputs from the side of Mughals fought with great valour as they were famous for their
loyality. When Rajputs seemed that they will losing the battle their commander advised Rana Pratap to
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save his life. He had to hide in Kumbhal Garh. He retrieved and his place was taken by Man Singh Jhala
disguising as Maharana Pratap. But Man Singh Jhala had killed.
After few days one more battle took Place Battle of Gogunda-1576. Kumbhalgarh fort was on a hill
and Gogunda was in the valley. Maharana Pratap made gogunda as base and challenged Mughals. Man
singh was leading Mughal army. Maharana Pratap again defeated and flew to hilly region. Mughals
captured Gogunda, the fort of Kumbhalgarh. However Mughals can not retain these regions for long
and Man Singh retired. He did not chase Maharana Pratap. After returning of the Mughals, Maharana
Pratap again captured these areas. During his life time, Pratap never surrendered before Mughals and
due to an accident he died in 1597.
He was succeeded by his son Amar singh

Invasion of Gujarat-1571
Gujarat had to be annexed because Muslims went Mecca through Gujarat. Gujarat was a prosporous
Province and could have given lots of revenue to the state.
At this time ruler of Gujarat was Muzaffar Shah III He was considered as weak & incapable ruler.
Akbar had sent a powerful expedition to Gujarat & Muzaffar shah fled away & Gujarat was captured.
The movement Mughal army returned back to agra. Muzzafar shah came back & with the support of his
people as Mughals were treated as outsiders by the local people of Gujarat. Mughals army/official that
remained in Gujarat were expelled by the local people. Akbar got angry at this incident and he himself in
1573 proceeded against Gujarat. One of the fastest expedition of the world. They had reached in Gujarat
from Agra within 10-11 days. Akbar went Baroach also. It was a port town. Akbar first time saw the sea.
Akbar in order to commemorate this victory he had started construction of Buland Darwaza at
Fatehpur Sikri. It is the southern gate of the fort of Fatepur Sikri & is situated at some hills.
In 1574 Bihar was captured
In 1575 Bengal was captured by killing Daud.
In 1585-Kabul, Kandhar was captured
In 1586he captured Kashmir, he had constructed Hari Palace there

Southern Campaign
There were states of Khandesh, Ahmednagar. Barar,, Bidor. Bizapur and the state of Golkunda. All
these were muslim states so akbar had sent them message to surrender & accept the supremacy of
mughals and agree to pay the annual tribute. Initially every state refused & when Mughals started their
campaign under Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana & Prince Murad in 1595 but campaign was not successful
as they were fighting each other and then Akbar proceeded himself and finally when Mughals (Akbar)
arrived, khandesh surrendered by 1596

Deccan Expedition-1595
Khandesh surrendered, and fort of Asirgarh was captured in 1601
After Khandesh campaign was against Ahmadnagar-ruler was Burhan-ul-Mulk his sister was chand
Biwi, later Married to Adil Shah of Beezapur. She was very capable and politically active too. Meantime
Burhan-ul-Mulk died and chand Biwi became regent of the of Bahadur. Nizam shah, son of Burhan-
ul-Mulk. Before Akbar could proceed against the state of Ahmadnagar, Salim son of Akbar revolted
against him. Jhangir had got Abul Fazal killed by one of his friend Veer Singh Bundela, the ruler of Orcha
(Bundelkhand)
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Akbar's Policy
Mansabdari System
It was a system of unified and personalized bureaucracy also inspired from decimal system of
Mongols.
Whoever became the part of Mansabdari system were called as Mansabdars. These Mansabdars
had to conduct in military service also and civil service also it means same official could be deployed
by the state in any capacity in the capacity of revenue official higher or lower civil servant. Very such
official were expected to serve militarily also. This really helped Akbar in giving a strong foundation
and stabilizing his empire.
Personalised Bureaucracy-who will be a Mansabdar the proposal of Mansabdar was presented before
Akbar (During Sultane the office was Diwan-i-Arz). At this time the office was Mir Bakshi. If any one
was available for the recruitment as Mansabdar then such a request had to be made before Mir Bakshi
& then with the approval of Mughal emperor the Mansabdar had been financial. Every Mansabdar was
personally appointed by the emperor. A Mansabdar remained loyal to the emperor only who appointed
him as Mansabdar. It means it was not necessary that the same Mansabdar will remain loyal to the
successor of the Akbar.
Why this term Mansab?
Mansab used to be a rank. On mansab there are two types of ranks. Every Mansabdar enjoyed these
two ranks.
(i) Jat Rank
(ii) Sawar Rank
Jat rank indicated the position in the official hierarchy of the person. Higher the jat rank higher is
the official (High salary, more responsibilities, more power). Jat rank also divided his personal salary.
Besides on the basis of Jat Rank it is to be decided that how more animals he had to maintain apart
from the horses.
Sawar rank indicated only one thing i.e., Cavalry liability. Cavalry liability means the number of
horsemen a mansabdar has to maintain for the state. Higher the sawar rank. It means more sawar,
more cavalrymen he had to maintain. Sawar rank could not have been higher than Jat rank. This rule
was maintain till the Mughal empire was enact.
During Akbar, people were given rank ranging between 10-10,000 as a rule however nobody was
granted more than 7000. In fact apart from two person. Nobody had been granted even more than
5000 rank. (7000 Rank was given to Man Singh of Amber and Mirza Azia Koka the milk brother of Akbar,
son of Jiji Anga & Shamsuddin Afga Khan)
Mansab upto 500 or less than 500 called as Mansabdar Masab upto 2500-called as Amir
Mansab more than 25000-Amir -ul-Umda.
There were 66 categories of Mansab & Mansab was granted in multiples of 10 and 100. These who
held lower Mansab (7500) they were paid in cash & the person who hold higher mansab they were
paid through allotment of Jagirs
How the salary of a Mansabdar is decided?
Dependent on Jat & Sawar Rank
How many cavalry he had to maintain Equal to Sawar Rank Less than Sawar rank
Double the Sawar Rank
Dashbish/Dabish System

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Sawar Rank-2000
he could maintain 4000 sawar, 2000 sawar or less than 2000 sawar
z For every sawar state paid `240
Total pay = personal salary + Sawar Pay
of Mansabdar J at Rank + Sawar Rank

Jagirdari System
10 Mansabdar – `2,00,000 (total pay)
The person would be alloted such number of villages whose estimated revenue will be equal to
Mansabdar's salary
Mansabdar was not having any administrative rights over the jagirs.
Mansabdar was not having any ownership right and even the jagirs were subject to transfer
As jagir was alloted on expected revenue not on actual revenue they could collect tax less than the
state provided and hence jagirdari system became crisis at the Mansabdars could not maintain more
sawars as they were not getting the salary alloted by the state.

Changes during Jahangir

(i) He reduced sawar pay to Rs 200/Sawar
(ii) He introduced a system Duh-Aspa-Sih-Aspa (20-30)
Duh-Aspa-Sih Aspa system was for these Mansabdars who somehow maintained the sawars as
they had committed to maintain.
For good mansabdards, he came out with the proposal-he wanted them to maintain more sawars
without increasing Jat Rank
can maintain × 2 = 4000 sawars
Mansab of 2000
can maintain × 3 = 6000 sawars
Duh-Aspa-Sih Aspa

Change under Shah Jahan

(i) He reduced sawar liability by 1/2, 1/3, 1/4
(ii) Mansabdars were alloted 10/8/6/4 months of revenue from a jagir (It means he reduced the
income of Mansabdars. It remains persistent problem.

Revenue Reforms by Akbar

In early part of his life, he allowed to continue Zabti systems, Gaz-i-sikandari. Soon he felt, the
peasants were revolting but the revolt of by the peasantry were revolting but the revolt of by the
peasantry remained persistent then he required some changes and in 1567 he asked Muzaffar Khan &
Todar Mal to collect more & more information with regard to revenue collection. They asked Qanungas
for getting information. The Ganungoer were Indian Jamindars who had manipulated the system to have
more money in their pocket. These qanungos did not provide real information and peasants continued
to revolt. So Akbar found another method –
(1) The report of 10 Qanangos were provided to 1 senior Qanungo to check the reality.
(2) In 1574, he appointed another class of revenue officials called as kararis
(3) Whole Mughal empire was divided into revenue circle. For each revenue circle, one karari was

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deputed. Every year they needed to collect 1 Crore Dam (copper coin). Those who fail to pay 1
crore Dam 1 they would have been treated very harshly.
In 1576 he converted entire Iqta into Khalisa from Lahore to Allahabad Akbar divided land into 4
Polaj
Paruti
categories
Chachar
Banjar
1. Polaj–Most fertile land cultivated every year and gave 2-3 crops a year. they had to pay full revenue
every year.
2. Paruti Land–Paruti means follow land a land after year to year cultivation when a peasant realised
that its production is reducing or less than previous year, peasants used to leave that land
uncultivated for 1 year so that land could revive its fertility. The land was not subjected to taxation
3. Chachar Land–Chechar was such a land which was cultivated once after 2-3 years. It means there
were less fertile land and could not have cultivated every year.
4. Banjar Land–Tax would have been charge only once in 5 years

Reforms for Tax collection

(i) He introduced a new scale system-Gaz-i-Illahi
(ii) He introduced new system of revenue collection -Dahsala system. It is also called as 10 years
settlement.
Every land under cultivation had to be measured again on the basis of new scale Gaz-i-illahi. After
measurement - tax had to be fixed.

Estimated Production
On the basis of production data of last 10 years. Average of last 10 year production would be
estimated production for the coming cropping system.
1/3 of estimated production would be state demand Peasants can pay in cash & as well as in kind.
For paying in cash, he decided price list on basis of prices prevailing in local market (In this way he
reformed or improved the system of Sher Shah & Alauddin Khilji).
Price of a crop = Average of prices of that crop in local Mandi in last 10 years
By the year 1582, 1583 he had implemented Dahsala system throughout the country. (except Bengal).
In Multan & Rajasthan, the rate was 1/4 of estimated production. For Kashmir, 1/2 of the production
was the state demand.
This Dahsala system was not applicable on cash crops. For cash crops, the rate was 50% of the
production
He had given some more options to peasants like Galla Bakshi. It was system of share cropping
under this system, there was Bhaoli Batai, Khet Batai/Lang batai, Nasaq system, Karkut system.
he had allowed 7 different revenue system to sperate parallely-Ist Zabti, 2nd Dahsala - 3rd to 5th- Batai
system, 6th Nasaq, 7th Kankut.

Bhaali Batai
Crops were sown, grew and harvested & threshed. In the presence of state officials the crops had
been divided into three hips. One was taken by state and two remains with peasants.
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Khet batai
1/3 of the form was year marked that the production of this 1/3rd form will go to state treasury, a
line was drawn known as khet.

Lang Batai
Bandal of the crops were known as lang. After harvesting the standing crops were bundled in equal
proportion &counted and out of the total no bundles 1/3 of the number of bundles crop taken by the
state. That bundle was known as lang and hence known as lang Batai.

Nasak System–(Bengal)
The state official used to decide the state production on the basis of previous years of production
and its 1/3 of was decided as state demand.

Kankut System
By seeing the standing crops the production was estimated.

Religious Policy of Akbar

Mother Hamida Band Begum daughter of Shia saint. There were two sufi saints Hafir & Rumi
Shamsuddin Afga Khan.
Akbar was impacted by his mother as she was religiously very liberal. Hafiz and Rumi were influ-
enced Akbar. Most of the sufi orders were very much liberal in their approach and orientation except
Nakshbandi, sufrabandi.
Akbar never compelled any of his hindu wife to convert into Islam.
Akbar had promoted the concept of Sulh-i-Kulh policy of universal peace and brotherhood.
In 1563, Akbar abolished pilgrimage tax.
In 1554, he abolished Jaziya.
Shekh Mumark and his sons Abul Fazal & Fazii One of the navratana of Akbars court were liberal
muslims who told him about these things (Pilgrimage tax and Jaziya). Fazii Translated Mahabharata
in Persian language.
In 1575 Akbar opened Ibadat Khana for discussion It is inside the fort of Fatehpur Sikri. In 1573-74
he had shifted his capital from Agra to Fatehpur Sikri. Though named was Ibadat Khana but no ibadat
happened there it was opened for discussion of religious matter. Discussion he had called to get himself
enlightened but he realised that on Provisions of Quran, Hadis or sariyat, these Maulvis. Ulemas are
highly divided he was confused.
In 1577 he opened Ibadatkhana for every religious gurus. Hindu saints/Gurus were Purushottam
& Devi Jain gurus-Hari Vijaya Suri. _____ Prabha Suri parsi-Mehar ji Rana. Christian saint-Aqua Viva.
and Mouserrate.
Instead of enlightenment, there started religious unity and the religious leaders of every religion
started attacking on other religions. Akbar felt disenchantment. In 1579, Ibadat Khana was closed.
Akbar identified some scholarly persons like purushottam. Devi Meharji Rana. He closed Ibadatkhana
but continued personal discussion with them one to one.
In 1579 Akbar issued a religious declaration named Mahzar in case of leek of unanimity over any
provision of islamic scripture the decision of emperor would be final and binding.
He started a new religion Din-i-Illahi for everyone actually mixture of Hinduism & Islam. These who
wanted to join Din-i-Illahi they were required to sacrifice four things-life, property, honour & religion
(faith). A new entrant could join the religion only on the day of sunday.
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Akbar's Rajput Policy

For non-Rajput states Akbar had adopted policy of defeat and annexation but for Rajputs no policy
of annexation but to accept the supremacy of Mughals and be ready for their service.
Personal service to Mughal emperor.
Regulation of succession by Mughal emperor.
Rajputana states were given to Rajputs as Watan jagir Raisal Darbari of Shekhawati and Rai
Surjenthada of Ranthambhor had come to join mughal service but these two had not offered their
daughters in marriage to Mughal emperor and he too did not force to do so.

Jahangir (1605-1628)
Jahangir was son of Harakha Bai. Akbar had given her title 'nariam-uj-Jamani. He was liberal from
religious prospect. Jahangir was married to Man Bai, the daughter of Bhagvant Das. Jahangir has a son,
Shahjada Khushrau from Man Bai. Akbar's beloved wife Rukkaiya Begum was issueless (nochild). She
started loving Khushrau as her son. There started some murmering in the court as Khushrau is more
capable than Jahangir. Khushrau has two strong support of Mirza Aziz koka & Man Singh. Jahangir had
a doubt on Abul Fazal about persuading Akbar. When Jahangir was governor of Allahabad, there he
revolted. He issued/got red khutba in his name. He also tried to attack agra. When Akbar asked Abul
Fazal to suppress the rebellion of Jahangir, then he got Abul Fazal killed by his Bundela friend Veer Singh
Bundela, the ruler of orcha in Bundelkhand.
He too was married with Jodha Bai (Jagat Gosai) daughter of Raja Uday Singh of Marwar.
Jahangir had written Autobiography. Tuzk-i-Jahangir from this book, we can say he had good sense
of justice. According to this book, when Jahangir had succeded the throne, he had issued 12 famous
instructions for state officials-
(i) Prohibition on imposition of taxes like cess like Tamgha, Bahri etc.
(ii) No one should open the bells of merchants who died on the road without the permission of the
state.
(iii) Ban on the manufacturing sell of wine and other intoxicants.
(iv) Officials not to occupy the houses of others.
(v) No tax collector or jagirdar will establish matrimonial relation with the people of their pergana
without the permission of the state
(vi) Government hospital should be establish for the poor people.
(vii) No amputation of nose & ear.
(viii) State official not to occupy the land of the peasants
(xi) Government should build sarais Mosques, roads.
(x) There should not be slaughtering of animals on certain days (Sunday and Thursday)
(xi) Property of the deceased person should go to their heirs.
At Agra, he had got installed a bell of justice 60 bells of gold and a rope was hanging till land.

Revolt fo Khusrau (1605-06)

In Punjab, Khusrau have a meeting with 5th Sikh guru- Arjan Dev. When Jahangir got to know from
his official that Guru Arjan Dev had given blessings to Khusrau, he got furious and then he captured
Arjan Dev & executed him. Meanwhile a battle took place between the forces of Jahangir and Khusrau,
in the battle, Khusrau was defeated and captured and was put in jail where he was killed by his own
brother Khurram (Shah Jahan).
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Military Campaign in 1613 against Mewar

The rular of Mewar was Rana Amar Singh son of Maharana Pratap. Jahangir had sent three campaigns
against Sisodiya ruler of Mewar but all the three were failed but the 4th campaign/expedition was led by
Shahjada (Khurram), son of Jodha Bai. Rana Amar Singh was forced to show for peace, Mewaris had a
compromise with Mughals. Rana Amar Singh Accepted the supremacy of Mughals. He accepted vassales
of Mughals except that he should be exempted from personal service and he decided to sent his son a
Karan Singh for the personal service of emperor. Jahangir accepted it. After all this Amar Singh realised
that he did something which his father had denied. He was very embarrassed and retired from politics
and went to forest as an ascetic.
In 1610, he attacked Kangra & defeated. He defiled the temple of Jwalamukhi, only slot on the
secular reputation of Jahangir.
Nur Jahan
Her original name was Mehrunnisa, the daughter of Mirza Ghiyas Beg, His another title was Itimad-
ud-Daula. Her mother name was Asmat Begum having great expertise in making perfume from rose
pettles. Asaf Khan was brother of Mehrunnisa. The daughter of Asaf Khan was Arjumand Bano Begum
(Later known as Mumtaz Mahal). Before the meeting of Nur Janah & Jahangir, she was married to Ali
ule Khan (Sher Afghan). The issue from this marriage was Ladli Begum.
Ali Buli Khan was jagirdar of Bardwan (Bengal) and he had revolted against Mughals. To crush the
revolt of Sher Afghan, Jahangir had dispatched an army and in the clash, shere Afghan was defeated and
killed and Nur Jahan & her daughter were captured and brought them to Agra to Royal palace (haram).
The marriage between Nur Jahan & Jahangir took place in 1611. By her beauty she came closer to
Jahangir. She started interfering in political & administrative matters too. She became most dominant
influence on Jahangir. She was given one more title by Jahangir Padshah Begum Depiction of Nur Jahan
along with Jahangir on royal coins started she was first Mughal lady to have been depicted on royal
coins of the Mughals. She attended Royal Darbar along with Jahangir in open court.
Nurjahan's Junta
The family of Nur Jahan along with Shah Jahan were member of this Junta. There came a crack in
this Junta Arjumand Bano Begum was married to Shah Jahan, there started a tussel between Asaf Khan
& Nur Jahan. As a result Shah Jahan started feeling disaffected.
Begum Khurram wanted to marry with Ladli Begum in order to be 1st choice of Nur Jahan as the
next successor. But Nur Jahan understood the plot of Khurram and she wanted that her daughter was
married to Sahariyar khan (son of Jahangir from mistress), Nur Jahan persuaded Jahangir and Ladli
Begum was married to Sahariyar Khan. In response to this Shah Jahan had revolted against Jahangir.
Deccan Expedition of Jahangir
Jahangir wanted to accomplish the unfinished task of his father that is defeating & making
Ahmednagar to surrender. He started number of campaigns. 1st success he received in 1617, when
Khurram compelled Ahmednagar for peace. The wazir of Ahmednagar was Malik Amber, who was an
abisinian slave (Ethiopia), also known as Todar Mal of Deccan. He had also restructured and reform
the revenue system of Ahmednagar. He trained his people to go for gureilla war. Maratha was riding
with the state of Ahmednagar but Shah Jahan came victorious Fort of Ahmednagar & region of Balaghat
surrendered to Mughals.
In 1621, again there was an agreement some territory along with fort was given to Mughals but
whole Ahmednagar could not be captured.
Meantime around 1621-22, Khurram revolted. Jahangir deputed a large army under Mahabat Khan,
capable & trusted commander of Jahangir. Sometimes the closeness between Mahabat Khan & Jahangir
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had started annoying Nur Jahan. Actually Mahabat Khan was very close to Parvez, the son of Jahangir.
Mahabat Khan was like a teacher for Shahzada Parvez & hence she got annoyed with Mahabat Khan
when Khurram went to Deccan, Malik Amber got to know that son had revolted against father he decided
to use Shahjahan against Jahangir. Mahabat Khan arrived in deccan & defeated Shah Jahan. In 1622 he
surrendered before Jahangir.
This situation of chaos was exploited by shah of Persia & in 1622, shah of Persia captured Kandahar.
Kandhar ws forever lost to Mughals. Meantime, ordered him to recover Kandahar and Shah Jahan agree
on the condition of leaving his two child to jahangir. Shah Jahan has 14 children, 7 had died out of 7
remaining. 4 were male child and 3 were daughters 4 sons were Dara Sikoh, Aurangzeb, Shah Shuja &
Murad Baksh. Shah Jahan could not captured Kandahar.
Nur Jahan started poisoning the ear of Jahangir against Parvez as he did not follow royal orders.
When Mahabat Khan returned to Agra, he wanted to explain Jahangir that charges are false but Nur
Jahan ensured that both should not have meeting.
Once upon a time Nur Jahan & & Jahangir were going to Kabul & when they were crossing the rivers,
Mahabat Khan took action and imprisoned both. It was the cleverness of Nur Jahan that both escaped
from Jail.
Religious Policy of Jahangir
He maintained everything what Akbar had given to him Akbar had adopted a number of Hindu
practices, e.g., Jharokha Darshan. He introduced Shijda (Jahangir continued it), Tula dan.

Shah Jahan (1628-1658)

1st Military campaign was against Jujhar Singh Bundela. This man was revolting continuously against
the Mughals though his father was a friend of Jahangir. In the campaign Jujhar Singh was defeated
and Killed. After successful campaign in route ShahJahan had attacked Mathura & Vrindavan also and
destroyed many temples.
2nd Military campaign in Deccan in 1636–38. During this period he was having struggle with
Ahmednagar. By 1636, Malik Amber was dead and his son was Fateh Khan, next wazir of Ahmednagar.
Sultan was earlier Murfaza Nizam Shah. Both did not enjoy good relation with each other. Murtaza
Nizam Shah 1st imprisoned Fateh Khan but after some days he was released and then he organised his
group and imprisoned Sultan & killed. After Murtaza, Mussain Shah was put on throne of Ahmednagar.
Meantime Mughals have arrived in deccan and Fateh Khan started establishing contact with Mughals
and ready to join Mughals on the condition that he should be provided higher official. Fateh Khan handed
over Hussain Shah to Mughals along with the area of Daulatabad to Mughals and Ahmednagar become
Sultanless. In this condition Mughal attacked Ahmednagar and it was captured in 1630, however there
was a Maratha Sardar Shah ji Bhonsle, Father of Shivaji was resisting but later on Shah ji came to join
the service of Mughal in Bijapur.
Expeditions against Bijapur and Golconda – in 1636 These two states could not meet the challenge
of Mughals and finally both had surrendered and charged huge wealth. Had Shah Jahan wanted he could
easily annexed bijapur & Golconda both but he decided not to annex Bijapur & Golconda following the
policy of Akbar as these states were situated in for south and a ruler sitting in Agra. Delhi could not
have been expected to govern the deep southern state. Both the states agreed to pay annual tribute to
Mughal. They accepted supremacy and striked coins in the name of Mughals and read Khutba in the
name of Mughal emperor and offer your royal Princesses in Marriage to Mughal emperor and Shahjadas.
The campaign of Balkh – 1646 – He was having ambition not only took central Aisa but also to
capture his homeland Fargana, Samrkand. With this dream he sent a campaign against Balkh, initially it
was againts Uzbeks He captured Balkh & Samarkand. Meantime father and son (Uzbeks) came together
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and attacked on Mughals and Balkh & Samarkand was lost to Mughal. Ultimately Mughals captured Balkh
and Badakshan (Aurangzeb) Aurangzeb realised that here in central Asia, the climate is very harsh.
Summers are extremely hot and winters are extremely cold, he found the area unlivable, inhospitable
and decided to leave and having negotiation with Uzbeks again and he left back Balkh & Badakshan
come back to India. They could not capture Farjana.
Campaign against Kandahar
Started in 1636 & by 1638, Kandahar was captured. Shah of Persia Shah Mirza gave no reaction and
he continued to exchange pleasantry with Mughals. Mughals thought that Ruler of Persia has reconciled
with the loss of Kandahar. In due course of time Mughal weakened & Persia recaptured Kandahar in
1649. Kandahar was forever lost to Mughals.
Religious Policy of Shah Jahan
Can be divided into two phase –
1st Phase during Mumtaz Mahal
2nd Phase during Dara Shikoh
Coming under the influence of Mumtaz Mahal. Shah Jahan had followed in early part of his reign a
bigot policy against Hindu – like
(i) no Hindu should be allowed to have Muslim slave and ordered free them immediately.
(ii) Those Hindus who had married Muslim ladies such Muslim wives should be released immediately.
(iii) If one Hindu person loves his Muslim wife he should convert himself into Islam remarry with
Muslim lady according to Muslim practices & tradition.
(iv) He established a religious conversion department moto was to convert Hindus into Muslims by
hook or by crook.
In 1583 Akbar had started a new lander system – Illahi samvat. His wife said that Illahi samvat was
not in accordance with islamic tradition or arabic tradition so he discontinued This illahi samvat and he
introduced Islamic Samvat i.e. Hijari samvat. It was an arabic calender system. He (Shah Jahan) banned
shizda & Zameen bash. To respect Badshah he introduced a new system called as Chahar Taslim. He
revived pilgrimage tax & Jaziya. He removed ban on cow slaughter. The moment Mumtaz Mahal died,
he came under the influence of his elder son Dara Sikoh, who was liberal Sufi Muslim perhaps followed
Qadri Sufi tradition. So under his influence all these measures were cancelled.
As the time pass, Shah Jahan fell ill At that time Dara Sikoh's mansab was raised to 60,000 zat. Dara
Sikoh was declared successor (hier apparent).
Aurangzeb was governor of Deccan.
Murad Baksh was governor of Gujarat and Shah Shuja was governor of Bengal.
All brothers fell anoyed with the declaration of Dara Sikoh as successor. Aurangzeb hated Dara
Sikoh since childhood - 1st on religious differences Aurangzeb established communication with both
Murad Baksh & Shah shuja. He offered them to collectively attack on Agra & Dara Sikoh & we will divide
Mughal empire into three parts.
When Dara Sikoh came to know that Shah shuja was approaching towards Agra he sent forces
under his son Suleman Sikoh & Jai Singh-I of Amber. They had no information that Aurangzeb was
also approaching. The most powerful force of Mughals was sent against shah shuja, there took place
a battle – Battle of Bahadurpur in Jan – 1658. In this battle, Mughals prevailed and Shah Shuja was
defeated and returned back to Bengal. Suleman Sikoh chased Shah shuja meantime Mughals came to
know that Aurangzeb is also approaching Agra & Mughal main force was not there in Agra. And, in the
absence of main force, battle of Dharmat took place in April – 1658. Mughal force was led by Qasim
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khan (Trusted of Shah Jahan) & Raja jaswant Singh of Marwar. In this battle. Aurangzeb defeated the
Mughal force. Meantime Suleman Sikoh had arrived with his force and so took place 3rd battle – Battle
of Samugarh May 1658, Battle of Deorai – 1659. On the other hand, force of Aurangzeb had joined by
the force of murad Baksh so collective army of Aurangzeb & Murad Baksh had defeated the Mughal
force and after this defeat, Dara sikoh along with his family they fed away from Agra. Next year in 1659
Dara Sikoh came back to take his throne & took the pattie of Deorai in 1659. Dara Sikoh was defeated
and fled away & went to some Hindu Ruler for shelter where they mixed some intoxicants in their food
handed them over to Aurangzeb and he executed all of them. Aurangzeb had given Dara sikoh a title of
Rais-ul-Malahida.
Aurangzeb had got him coronated 1st time in 1658 itself after the battle of Samugarh & after the
battle of Deorai, he coronated himself 2nd time. One of the son of Dara Sikoh named Sipihr Sikoh left
alive & married his daughter with Sipihr sikoh.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
Aurangzeb reversed all the policy of Akbar. He was a religious bigot. He said India is Dar-ul-Harb
and he will make India Dar-ul-Islam. He ended Hindu festivals & traditions like Jharokha Darshan,
Tula dan etc. He had started interfering into Rajputana states. He dismissed all royal astrologers, royal
musicians & painters. He decided what should be the length of beared for muslims, what should be the
trousers Muslim wear. He stopped recruiting Hindus particularly of north India (basically Rajputs). On
the bank of yamuna & sabarmati, no Hindu should cremate the dead bodies. No hindu other than Rajputs
& Maratha will sit on horse & palanquin. He destroyed many temples. He banned on the construction
of new temples & repairing of old temples.
Administration
Centralised, destotic, a palice state
↓ ↓
Liberty to do no direct check but
anything practical check like class
of ulemas, customary law
& revolts by people
People like Akbar deliberately tried to avoid the rebellion by the people. Period of Akbar was not
police state to some extent but not completely.
Mughal emperor was assisted by a number of officials like –
1. Vakil vs Sultanate : First vakil was Bairam khan
2nd – Shamsuddin Afga Khan
Chief adviser to Sultan & next after sultan.
2. Wazir – After vakil, wazir was more powerful, finance, Diwan came under the responsibility
of wazir.
Akbar had also experimented with Diwan–i–wazarat. Sometimes Akbar mad Diwan, an
independent office from Wazir to check the power.
3. Mir Bakshi
4. Mir–i–Atish
5. Mir Arz
6. Khan–i–Sama
7. Sadr–us–Sudur
8. Qazi–i–Quzzat
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9. Muhtashib
10. Diwan–i–Bayutat
11. Daroga–i–Dak chouki
12. Mustaufi
13. Mushrif
14. Mir Bahar
Mir Bakshi used to be the head of military department He had to see recruitment salary of military
He presented the proposal of Mansabdar before emperor.
Mir–i–Atish used to work under Mir Bakshi. He headed artillary wing of army.
Mir Arz was the person who used to present petition to Badsah in judicial matters.
Khan–i–Sama was the head of royal household.
Sadr–us–Sudur his duty was to see whether Islam rules or tradition/laws are followed or not his
work was also charity.
Qazi–i–Quzzat – Muslim civil laws.
Muhtasib for public moral. During Aurangzeb this office was removed.
Diwan–i–Buyatat to take care of royal Karkhana and he used to register record the property of
deceased person.
Dargha –i–Dakchowki – He performed like intelligence office Akbar had introduced wagia navis –
news writer who assist Darogha–i–Dakchowki to gather information.
Mustaufi – He was auditor general
Mushrif– He was accountant general
Mir–i–Bahar – It was head of department of sea port.
Provincial Level Administration
Empire was divided into provinces (subo). For the Ist time in medieval period proper provincial
administration was developed. During akbar total provinces were 15 while during Aurangzeb number
of provinces were 21.
Every province was headed by Governor called as Subedar/Subahdar directly appointed by emperor
Subedar was also called as Nazim (criminal matters, Law and order).
To assist Subedar, there used to be number of officials– like Diwan, Bakshi, Sadr, Qazi, Fauzdar,
Bitikehi, Khazandar, Kotwal, Wagia Navis.
Diwan – head of revenue system.
Bakshi – Military
Sadr – Subjected to Sadr–i–Sudur
Qazi – Judicial matters independent from criminal matter
Fauzdar – headed military contigent
Bitikchi – accounting function like tax collection.
Khazandar – Treasurer
Kotwal – city commissioner
District Administration
Provinces were divided into sarkar. Administrative head of Sarkar was Fauzdar (Present day S.P)–
to maintain law & order.
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There were kotwal and Qazi in Sarkar, also Amalguzar, Bitikchi, Khazander

Regulate the function of revenue assisted by Bitikchi

Below Sarkar, there was a unit Porgana headed by Sikadar assisted by Amils (revenue collector)
Fotedar (Treasurer at Porgana level). Tax collectors were Qanungas. Clerical function was performed
by Karkons (record keeping – shershah introduced karkuns).
Below Porgana, there were village. Mughals did not interfere into village administration Mughals
wants only tax collection from village and if revolt by villagers then crushed by military action.
State appointed an official Patwari for record keeping.
Judicial function – The appeal of Qazi can be seen by Subedar. Subedar also see criminal matters.
But law violation of sariyat matter goes to Qazi.
Some Brahmins were appointed for civil matters in Hindus.
Military Administration – Headed by Mir Bakshi. A number of forces had to be maintain. Special
categories of cavalry used to be there – like Ahadis, Dakhilis Kumakis, Barawardis, Bergis.
Ahadis – was raised and trained by central government this force remained at the disposal of Mughal
emperor. They were specially taken care by the state.
Dakhilis were cavalry raised and trained by centre but provided to Mansabdars.
Kumakis were raised and trained by centre but given to Mansabdar as additional force during wars.
Barawardis used to be the cavalry man who did not have the money to purchase horse and the
equipments so their horses and equipments provided by the centre and assigned to Mansabdars.
Bergirs were like irregular forces working during wars.

Pratiharas, Palas, Rashtrakutas and The Tripartite Struggle

Why the fight among three?
Palas were basically situated in Bihar & Bengal. Pratiharas – basically situated in gujarat & Part of
Rajasthan & Malwa. Most of the time they controlled territory upto Kannauj.
Rashtrakutas – Basically situated in Karnataka and Andhra region.
Tripartite struggle was basically for state of Kannauj & Doab region. All the three wanted to rule
north India. Among three – Rashtrakutas were more powerful than Pratiharas and then Palas most
of the time but during the period of Deopal the Palas captured territories upto Punjab Pratiharas had
defeated Palas many times except Deopal's period but Pratiharas could not capture the territories in
north India because of interference of Rashtrakutas. Rashtrakutas as defeated Pratiharas many times
& sometimes Palas and used to returned back to south India as a result Palas could be able to central
the state of Kannauj as Pratiharas were suffered loss by the defeat from Rashtrakutas
Pratiharas (Gurjara Pratiharas)
Why Gurjara?
Majority opinion – Pratiharas' origin from gurjar tribe. It was central Asian tribe. They had come
to India after the invasion of Hunas (Tormad & Meharkul). It is the same Gurjar tribe from where
Pratiharas & Parmaras were emerged. When Gurjaras had come to India they had divided into many
parts started living in different regions. As they were fighting tribe Brahmanas given them status of
Kshatriyas (Hindu). Pratiharas claim their ancestry from Raghukul as their state part of Rajshekhar
who had written Kavyamimansa and Karpuramanjari (Poetic & Drama respectively). Pratiharas were
descendent's of Laxman as he had played the role of door keeper and Pratiharas itself means, door
keeper – claim.
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They had ruling from many places like malwa, jagor, Jodhpur.
Ist Ruler of Pratiharas – Nagbhatt – I (730 AD – 760 AD)
He started uniting Pratiharas He captured Mandor (Jodhpur). Mandor was being ruled by Harichandra
at this time. He had captured Gujarat, Part of Rajputana and Malwa. he was called founder of this dynasty.
At this time, conflict of Kannauj had not been started. this was also the time of Invasion of Arabs. It
was he who defeated Arabs and captured Rajasthan, Gujarat from them. During his period , Ist time
Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurga had performed Hiranyagarbh dana at Ujjain and made Nagbhatt a door
keeper. Rashtrakutas were well know that rule north India from South India is not easy but they did
not left the wish to dominate over the north India.
2nd Ruler – Kakkuka and Devraj – Kakkuka & Devraj came after Nagbhatt.
2nd most important ruler was vatsaraj (178 AD – 805 AD) – Vatsaraj was son of Devraj. He also
continued the control over the region got from his predecessor. He too continued fighting against Arabs.
He defeated Bhandi elan of Kannauj and put on throne of Kannauj directly and hence he appointed
Indrayudha. For the 1st time Pratiharas dominated Palas & controlled Kannauj.
He defeated Dharmpal of Bengal and captured his royal insignia – while umbrella Dharmpal was
the ruler of Bengal who established Vikram Shila University. Fight was in Doab region Dharmpal was
badly defeated.
After this war Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva-1 invaded north India and defeated Vatsoraj & the fled
away to Maru (Rajasthan). He left Kannauj & remained stick to Gujarat and Rajasthan region. Dhruva
too defeated Dharmpal when Dhruva II returned South India, Dharmpal captured Kannauj once again
after defeating Indrayudha and Chakrayudha was placed throne of Kannauj.
Dharmpal had taken the title of Uttarpatha Swamin After Vatsaraj, 3rd important ruler was Nagbhatt
–II (805 AD – 833 AD) – He was son of vatsaraj. He too defeated Dharmpal. He defeated Chakroyudha
of Kannauj who was nominee of Dharmpal. Domination of Pratiharas over Kannauj had established
again. Meantime Rashtrakuta ruler Govind–III invaded north India. He was most forbiddable ruler
of Rashtrakuta dynasty. He defeated Nagbhatt–II and Nagbhatt–II ran away to Rajasthan. Number of
vassals states had surrendered before Govind–III. Dharmpal too surrendered before him as he knew
that Rashtrakutas were not remained for long time in north India & after sometime he returned to South
India. After the return of Rashtrakutas, Dharmpal recaptured Kannauj and Kannauj hereafter remained
for 50+ years under the control of Pratiharas.
After Nagbhatt, Ruler was Rambhadra
He was son of Nagbhatt–II. He was a weak ruler. he ruled only for 3 years.
Next important rulers was Mihirbhoj (836 AD – 885) – He was son of Rambhadra. After the invasion
of Govinda–III, Pratiharas confined to Gujarat, Rajasthan & Malwa, Mihirbhoj captured Malwa . All states
upto Himalayas accepted his suzerainty. He was defeated by Deopal, it means Kannauj remained under
the control of Palas. He captured Ujjain & regions upto Narmada. He was also defeated by Dhurva–II
when he was trying to capture Gujarat. Dhruva–II was ruler of Gujarat – branch of Rashtrakutas. He
was having battle with Rashtrakutas ruler Krishna–II but the result was inconclusive. He expanded in
the region of Saurashtra, Karnal and even beyond This was the man who reestablished the dignity of
Pratiharas.
There was an Arab traveller sulaiman visited India during the time of Mihirbhoj. He mentioned/
appreciated kingdom of Mihirbhoj. Mihirbhoj had maintained very fine cavalry. He criticised him that
he was against Islam.
According to R.C. Majumdar – Mihirbhoj was the bullwark of India's defence against Arabs.
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After Mihirbhoj Ruler was Mahendra Pal–I (885 – 910 AD)

Rajshekhar was court poet of Mahendra Pal–I. Historians gave him title Nirbhayaraj as Mahendrapal
defeated Palas and captured Magadh & North Bengal. Finally Pratiharas established their domination
over north India. Rashtrakutas wanted to rule over north India but they could not stay for long time in
north India so could not control Kannauj.
After Mahendrapal, Bhoj–II (for two years) and after him – Mahipal (912 AD – 944) AD was ruler
Mahipal was defeated by Rashtrakuta ruler Indra–III. Taking advantage, Pala ruler Narayan Pal captured
Kannauj.
After Mahipal, Rajyapal–II was ruler (insignificant) After that Devapal became ruler (Pratihara).
feudatories were revolted. Many small states formed – Chandelas of Jejabhukti, Chehdis of chellas.
Gohillas of southern Rajasthan, Chemanas of Shakambari, Ghatas of Gwalior.
Last ruler of Pratiharas Dyanasty – Yashpal.

Palas of Bengal
After the death of Shasank, the anarchy spread over Bengal. In Bengal, Matasyaraj Prevailed.
(i) Gopala (760AD – 770AD) – His father was also military general named vapyata Among the people
of Bengal he bacame popular & selected Gopala as their king. He may had started his rule from
vanga (Eastern Bengal) It is assured that in due course of time this man conquered entire Bengal
but with whom he fought is not known in the absence of sources.
Tibetan Historian Lama Taranath had mentioned that Gopala had constructed monastries in
Odantapuri (Bihar).
Later on his dynasty was constructed by two able successor.
(ii) Dharmpal (770 AD – 810 AD)
He was the son of Gopal & his successor. It was Gopal who established domination over Bengal,
Bihar He had done many expedition. He was very ambitious. During him, he was the first ruler
who started battle for Kannauj. He was moving towards Kannauj, then a battle took place in Doab
region with Vatsaraj and in the battle Vatsaraj defeated Dharmpal and he fled away from Bengal.
But very soon luck prevailed over him as Vatsaraj was defeated by Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva–I.
Before this battle Dharmpal defeated nominee of Pratiharas in Kannauj. Dhruva–I defeated
Dharampal too but the impact of this defeat on Pratiharas were more disastrous whereas defeat
of Palas were beneficial as Rashtrakutas ruler returned after some and Pratiharas gone out of
picture. Dharmpal placed on the throne of Kannauj his nominee named Chakrayudha. He was
ruling directly over Bihar & Bengal Thirdly, he was dominating a number of Vassel states. He had
taken a title of Uttarapath Swamin i.e. the lord of North India. Very soon Pratiharas revived their
fortune as Nagbhatt–II became next Pratiharas ruler. He defeated chakrayudh of Kannauj (nominee
of Dharmpal) & established domination over Kannauj. He moved towards Dharmpal & defeated
him in the battle of Munger. He attacked Munger, the capital of Palas. Once again Nagbhatt was
defeated by Govinda–II, the Rashtrakuta ruler very badly and fled away from battlefield. Rashtrakuta
ruler Govinda–III came north India to capture Kannauj but Intrayudh (nominee of Pratiharas in
Kannauj) surrendered before him. Govinda–III also defeated Dharmpal but defeat was not harmful
as Rashtrakuta ruler returned south India after some time and then Dharmpal captured the Kannauj
and from here after Palas dominated over Kannauj for 50 years.
It was Dharmpal who had accomplished the dream of Shashank which was destroyed by
Harshavardhan. Dharmpal led to the establishment of Vikramshila university to impart the quality
of education as Nalanda university was declining. Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Khalji destroyed Vikram
Shila University.
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Deva Pala (810 AD-850 AD)

He was the greatest and last able Pala ruler. He extracted tributes from Himalayas to Vindhyas and
from eastern to western seas. He had campaigned in far and wide areas. He was defeated by none.
He conquered Pragjyotishpur (Assam), Utkals (Orissa) the claim is that he defeated Munas, Gurjaras
& Dravidas. he had defeated two Pratihara (Gurjaras) rulers Rambhadra & Mihirbhoj, one of the most
powerful Pratihara ruler. The defeat of these two Pratiharas ruler signify that Kannauj will remain under
the control of Palas. he captured Malwa for the some time.
Devapal had defeated Amoghvarsh, the Rashtrakuta ruler, he was religious not a great warrior.
Devapal war the only Pala ruler who defeated Rashtrakuta (Dravid) Ruler.
till Devpala alive Pratiharas could not control over Kannauj.
4th Vigrahopal (3–4 years) – son of Devapal.
5th Ruler: Narayan Pal (not significant) – He was defeated by Krishna–III, the Rashtrakuta ruler, taking
the advantage of this defeat Mihirbhoj, Pratiharas captured Magadh for some time. After this Pratihara
ruler Mahendra Pal was too defeated by Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna–III and taking advantage of this
Narayan Pal recaptured Magadh. Feudatories started revolting against Narayan Pal as he was weak ruler.
Ist Pragjyotish & then Utkal (Orissa) started revolting and declared themselves as independent states.
During Gopal –II north Bengal & Bihar was captured by Pratiharas ruler. Pratihara captured entire
Bihar.
8th Ruler (significant) – Mahipal – (988 AD – 1038)
He was son of Vigrah Pala–II, He recovered north Bengal also covered the areas like Dinajpur,
Muzzaffarpur etc i.e., some parts of Bihar. During this period, one important incident took place in 1021
– 1025, the invasion of chola king, Rajendra Chola, 2nd great ruler of Chola dynasty. He had campaigned
in north India and arrived upto Bengal & defeated Mahipal. He had come to north India to bring Holy
Ganga water to purity his state. He had defeated many rulers and forced them to carry Ganga water
upto his state.
Madanpal had been expelled from Bengal by senas and during him, major part of Bihar was captured
by Gahadvalas of Kannauj (In Kannauj, the successors of Pratiharas were Gahadvalas).
Last ruler of Pala dynasty was Govind Pala Inscription of 1175 AD mentioned about him.
Rashtrakutas: They ruled from Manyakhed/Malkhed in Gulbarga (Karnataka). Perhaps kanarese
was their mother language. Many opinions were there about origin of Rashtrakutas.
Sanjan Copper-Plate Inscription – It says that Rashtrakutas were connected to yaduvansh and
belong to the branch of Yaduvanshi Satyaki. It syas that Lord Krishna was their Progenitor (ancestors).
Rastrakuta's court poet also compared Govinda–III with Lord Krishna.
In Deccan, there were some class of official (Maratha family) who used to hold high offices like
Rashtika/Rathika/Maharathis. In due course of time, these officials started capturing territories and
may carved out as independent ruler.
They had some early rulers like Dantivarman, Indra–I, Govinda–I, Karka–I, Indraraja–II mentioned
in Sanjan Inscription. They had no achievement. The history of Rashtrakutas started from the rule of
Dantidurg as he had achieved something.
Dantidurg (735–758AD): He had defeated king of Kanchi (Pallavas). He defeated Malwa Lata. He
had come to north India & defeated many ruler. It was he who defeated Nagbhatt–I. At Ujjain, Dantidurg
performed "Miranyagarbhdana". Lord Vishnu was worshiped to legitimate the new origin of dynasty .
He had established domination over south & central Gujarat. He conquered Barar. This man was
the part of confideracy with Viramaditya–II They took participation against Arabs.
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In due course of time, he established his domination over Maharashtra.

2nd Ruler Krishan–II (uncle of Dantidurg) defeated chalukyas.
3rd Ruler Govinda–II (773 AD – 780 AD) – He was son of Krishna–II During his father's reign he had
defeated western chalukyas. When he became king, he was turned lethargic and indulge in luxurious
& pleasurous life. The administration was in the hand of his younger brother Dhruva–I can claim the
throne. He took action & dismissed Dhruva–I. There started clash between two, Dhruva defeated &
killed Govind–II
4th Ruler Dhruva–I (780 AD – 793 AD) – In south, he had defeated number of ruler like ganger of
Mysore, wangis of Andra, Pallavas of Kanchi.
Dhruva had defeated Vatsaraj (Pratiharas) & Dharmpal (Pala ruler).
5th Ruler – Govinda–III (793AD – 814) – He wanted to capture Kannauj. He defeated Nagbhatt–II,
Dharmpal, Indrayudh. He brought number of ruler under the flag of Rashtrakutas for brief time. He had
defeated a confederacy of Cheras, Pallavas, Pandyas & Ganges. Only Rashtrakuta ruler were Unchallenged
by any ruler. Before him the ruler of ceylon surrendered. The ruler of ceylon sent him two statue – the
statue of one of ministers of him & statue of him. He placed his statue in the Shiva temple of Kanchi.
6th Ruler – Amoghvarsh (814AD – 878)– He came to throne at the age of 14 years. As formidable
and great his father was he was not equivalent. Since he was at the age of 14 years he could not
manage administration. The work of administration was seen by his minister Karka. There prevailed
mismanagement and chaos. His officials turned hostile against him. His feudatries, he lost his throne
too. By 821, he recaptured throne after replacing Karka with the help of other friendly feudatries.
He defeated chalukyas of Wangi only military success.
He was more inclined to religion and literature. He was too much inclined towards Jainism. He also
worshiped Mahalaxmi. In his court he patronised a number of scholars. Some of the important scholars
were – Jina sen had written Adi puran, Mahaviracharya had written Gaditsarasomgraha Saktayana has
written Amoghwriti, Amoghvarsh himself written Kavirajamarg (in Kanarese Language) Poetic back.
7th Ruler : Krishna–II (878–914 AD) – he too inclined towards jainism.
Unlike his father he had involved in numbers of wars. He had battle with Pratiharas (Mihirbhoj),
battle with Palas, Narayan Pal was defeated by him. He defeated ruler of Anga, Ganges and Magadh.
8th Ruler – Indra–III (914–922 AD) – He had defeated Pratihara ruler Mahipal–I He was the only
Rashtrakuta ruler who captured Kannauj for the some time.
Last ruler of significance (13th ruler actually) – Krishna – III (940 – 968 AD)– He had defeated
Pallavas and Cholas ravaged upto Rameshwaram: and there at Kanyakumari he raised a pillar of victory.
He captured for the brief period Kanchi and Tanjore (Parantak–I). He took up a title – Tanjayunkonda.
Next Ruler: Khottiga – during his reign, Parmor ruler siyak invaded Malkhed & ravaged the entire
city and plundered including the treasury of Rashtrakutas.
Last Ruler of Dynasty: Karka – II – Karka–II had been overthrown by Taila–II feudatory of Rashtrakutas.

CHOLAS
They were the same Cholas who have lost into uglivian in 2nd century AD. In 9th century AD Cholas
were reviving again. The decline of Pallavas paved the way for the rise of Cholas. Before this, Cholas
were vassals of Pallavas.
1st Ruler: Vijayalaya (before 850 – 880 AD)
When Pallavas and Pandyas were fighting with each other, he annexed Tanjore.
2nd Rule : Aditya–I (880 AD – 907)
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1. Daring his time the conflict had started between Cholas and Rashtrakutas but he went for a
diplomatic way and he entered into matrimonial alliance with Krishna–II. He had married with
the daughter of Krishna–II. For a time being Cholas were safe from the formidable Rashtrakutas.
2. He defeated Pallava ruler Aparajita.
3rd Ruler: Parantak–I (907AD – 955AD):
1. He could be called the real founder of Chola supremacy in South India. He was son of Aditya–I. He
had started for and wide campaign. He defeated pandya ruler & they fled away to ceylon. As a result
of this he annexed Madurai and took up a title of "Madurai Kanda".
2. He tried to capture ceylon, but failed. He too had defeated Pallavas, domination of Pallavas had
completely ended by him. He captured Pallava territory Kanchi, Pandy territory Madurai. It was
during his period, he was defeated by Krishna–III who had caputred Kanchi & Tanjore both.
In his court he had patronised a scholar named venkat Mahadev who had written commentary on
Rigved which was considered as one of the earliest commentories on Rigveda.
4th Ruler: Rajaraja Chola–I (985 – 1014AD) –
Cholas rulers were in habit of assuming high sound & promptous title like – Rajaraja Chola–I had
taken title of Rajkeshari, Arumoli, Mummadi Chola.
Tanjore Inscription describes his achievements. He had constructed a number of temples – like
great Shiva temple – Vrihadeshwara (Rajarajeshwara).
1st campaign against cheras of Kerala – cheras were defeated & he captured their territory and
chera navy was completely destroyed at Trivendrum.
A time came, when Cholas captured entire ceylon. They captured Maldives and defeated the ruler
of Indonesia & Malaysia.
He also annexed northern ceylon ravaged Anuradhapur and made Polonnuruva as Chola capital in
Ceylon. He annexed Maldives.
He had attacked western Chalukyas (badami) ravaged with all brutality, killing children, raping
women & did not allow to both Chalukyas as he entered into a good relation of his daughter to wangi
Prince.
Upto the River Tungabhadra had effectively passed under the domination of Cholas. He was the
1st Chola ruler to have undertaken land service for the determination of revenue. He started one more
practice. He started involving his successor in administrative matters. There would not have been a
battle of successor as it was clear who will succeed.
5th Ruler: Rajendra Chola–I (1014 AD – 1044 AD)
He was son of Rajaraja Chola. As he was involved in administrative matters during his father's reign
so before becoming the King he had enough experience and he utilised them and did commendable
work and achieved more than his father.
Title – Gangaikonda as he had conquered territories on Ganga, Uttam Chola, Mudikonda, Pandita
chola.
Somewhere around in 1024–25 AD, he invaded north India and defeated Mahipal & many other
rulers. He brought Ganga water and purified his state. He dug up a tank and put Holy Ganga water in
it. The name of the tanks was Chola Gangam.
He had conducted an expedition against Kadaram (Malaysia). He had campaigned against Srivijaya–
Sumata i.e., part of Indonesia.
He annexed entire ceylon. He too had attacked Chalukyas of Badami (defeated Someshwar–I,
Kritivarman) did lot of ravages & brutality.
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He had established a friendly relation with china and on two occasion, he had sent embassy to china –
for the 1st time in the year 1016 AD and then in 1030 AD. Cholas had established the most powerful navy
in India with the help of that he established domination over Bay of Bengal as Chola's lake.
He had provided 45 velies of land of land to a vedic college where 340 students studied.
13th Ruler – Rajadhirg – III. During his period Pandyar ravaged Chola capital of Tanjore.

Administration of Cholas
Chola empire divided into provinces (6 -8 provinces) Provinces were called as Mandalam. Mandalam
was divided into. Kottam was further divided into Nadu (districts) and it further divided into groups
of villages called as Kurram/Tar - Kurram. This groups of villages were basic unit of administration.
King was the head of administration. All powers vested in him. They were fond of high sounding &
prompting titles. They had hereditary succession. Chola rulers started the practice of putting the
pictures/idols of their king and queen in the temple.
Cholas had established autocracy but this autocracy was tempered by council of ministers (CoM)
and bureaucracy
As far as Mandalam are concerned, ruled by royal family/governors. As far as their taxation is
concerned – land revenue being most source of income – it was 1/3 of estimated production. Income – it
was 1/3 of estimated production. The responsibility of collection of land revenue on village assembly.
Individual who cultivated their land known as owners of the land.
Taxes on profession, trade etc. custom, toll tax etc. state had monopoly over forest, mines and salt-
pans etc.
Valaikkaras were the bodyguards of King. They were so much committed to the king that they were
ready to sacrifice their life for the king.

Village Administration
They had village assembly called Mahasabha. All male members used to be the members of
Mahasabha. It was a powerful body. It had authority to use the wealth of temples for public welfare.
Even if the king passes some order and it effect the public then order will be check by Mahasabha.
Village assemblies were autonomous. They used to divide villages under one Mahasabha – into
30 wards. Every ward has to nominate one member. These 30 members will enter into executive
committees which were called Variyam.
There used to be three committees. Mahasabha can constitute even more committees. Three
Committees were Annual Committee, Garden committee, Tank Committee. There used to be Gold
committee also.
Annual committee had 12 members. Garden committee had 12 members and tank committee had
6 members.
Annual committee. like general administration. Garden committee had work of construction of
road, repair them.
Tank committee responsible for dugging tank to provide water.
To become the member of these committees they had some qualifications like –
(i) A person having 1/4 veli of land (minimum) (1 veli = 6 Acre land)
(ii) The age should be 35–70 years.
(iii) Candidates should have a house constructed on its own land.
(iv) One should have the knowledge of Vedic literature and Brahmanas.
Or
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(v) One should own 1/8 veli of land (alternative)

(vi) One should have knowledge of at least one veda and 1 Bhasya (commentary)
What person can debarred from being a member of the committee?
(i) Any one who remained member of any committee for last 3 years.
(ii) If one has remained the member of committee and did not give/submitted the account of his/his
family.
(iii) If anybody committed stealing
(iv) If conducted any sin
(v) If anyone has insist (sexual relations) with closer one (family relative).
These member of the committee were known as Variya Perumakkal.
Village Mahasabha were called as Perunguri. The member of Mahasabha were called as
Perumakkal. If they misappropriate fund of temples – they were punished.
In judicial matters they had power to give capital punishment but king's order/wish should be
compulsory.

The Vijaynagar Empire

It included present day region of Kerala,Tamil Nadu. major part of Karnataka, Andhra and Telangana
contrary there was Bahemi state (Muslim State).
Vijaynagar established in 1336 by two brothers Harihar and Bukka. Bahmani had started in 1337
by Hasan Gangu (Alauddin Bahman Shah).
Initially, conflicts had taken between VIjaynagar & Bahmani but after 1527 the conflict had taken
between Vijaynagar and successor states of Bahami (as Bahami had divided into 5 states in 1527 state
of Ahmednagar Golconda, Bidar, Berar, Bijapur).
Harihar and Bukka were the sons of Sangam. They worked under the state of Warangal (ruled by
Kakatiya dynasty).
4 dynasties who ruled over Vijaynagar were – (SSTA)
(i) Sangam dynasty
(ii) Saluva dynasty
(iii) Tuluva dynasty
(iv) Aravidu dynasty
1. Harihar–I (1336 – 1356 AD)
He made his capital in Anegundi & not warrangal as he respect the king of Warangal – Ballal III
under whom they worked. By this time conflict had started between Bahami & Vijaynagar specially
for Raichur doab between Krishna and Tungabhadra. It was Hindu state while Bahami was Muslim
state. He started far and wide campaign. He captured valley of Tungabhadra, captured some territory
in Konkan and Malabar. By the end of his life he captured territories between Krishna and Cauvery.
He had defeated Pandyas of Madurai but could not captured Madurai. He defeated and captured
Hoysalas in 1346.
Till the rise of Krishnadev Rai, almost in every battle Vijaynagar had been defeated but the tide was
changed with the emergence of Tuluva ruler.
2nd Ruler–Bukka –I (1356 – 1379 AD)
He completed the city of Vijayanagar and capital was transferred to Vijayanagar. The battle
started with Bahamani and he was defeated by them. Under his reign finally Madurai was captured in
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1377. He started ruling according to Dharma that is why historian had given him title- Vedamarga
Pratisthapaka. He also had tried to establish friendly relation with China. He sent an embassy to China.
During his period, some negotiations had taken place between Bahamani and Vijayanagar.
3rd Ruler-Harihar II (1379-1406 AD)
He was son of Bukka. Under him lots of expansion done in deep south. Almost whole south annexed.
He annexed Mysore, Kanchi, Trichirupalli. He tried to capture Raichur doab but badly defeated by Firoz
Shah Bahami (They had better supplies of Cavalry, arms & ammunition).After defeating him, Firoz shah
charged huge indemnity from Harihar-II.
He had taken title of Maharajadhiraj Rajparmeshwara.
He captured Goa and Belgaon from Bahamani
He constructed Virupaksh temple.
He exacted tribute from Srilanka.
4th Ruler-Devaraya-I (1406-1422 AD)
He also revived the battle for Raichur doab but defeated by Bahamanis. After being defeated he
had surrendered Bankapur to Firoz Shah Bahmani and had to marry his daugther with Firoz Shah.
There was a venetian traveller name Nicolo de conti gave description about Bahami, came into court
of Devaraya-I. He made a dam on Tungabhadra river.
5th Ruler-Devaraya-II (1422-1446 AD)
He too had employed large number of Muslim archers into his army. Bahamani attacked on
Vijayanagar and 20,000 people butchered after this victory.
One more Persian Scholar had visited his court named Abdur Razzak. He had appreciated the
beauty of Vijayanagar. He had mentioned that the ruler of Vijayanagar used to live in seven story
fortified palace.
He used to consider himself Indra avator. He took title of Emmadi Devaraya, Gajabetka. He himself
was a scholar and had written commentaries (Tika) on (Vedantic Philosophy) Sudhanidhi (Book on
Ayurveda) and Brahmasutra (Vedantic philosophy).
6th Ruler: Mallikarjuna(1446-1465)
He was son of Devaray-II. He defeated the combined army of Bahamanis and Gajapati rulers of
Orissa. During his period Chinese traveller Mahuan visited India.
He took a title – proud Devaray.
The last ruler of Sangam Dynasty was Virupaksha he was brother of Mallikarjuna. He was totally
incompitent.
One of his ministers Narasimha Suluva took action and removed Virupaksha & captured the throne.
This capturing of power has been called as Pratham Balapahar. Rule of Samgam dynasty came to
an end.
(2) Suluva Dynasty
1st Ruler : Narsimha Suluva (1486 – 92 AD) He reestablished order in Vijayanagar.
2nd Ruler : Thimma Bhupala
3rd Ruler : Immadi Narsimha (1492 – 1505)
Narsh Nayak, the minister of Narsimha Suluva worked under Immadi Narsimha. Narsh Nayaka
placed Immadi on the throne and all power of administration came under the hand of Narsh Nayak.
After the death of Narsh Nayak – The son of Narsh Nayak – Vir Narsimha got him Immadi Narsimha
killed in the fort of Penukonda. This episode was known as 2nd Balapahar.
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(3) Tuluva Dynasty

1st Ruler : Vir Narsimha (1505 – 1609 AD) He was incapable his younger brother Krishnadevaraya
thrown him from the power.
2nd Ruler : Krishnadeva Rai (1509 – 1530 AD):
He was great patron of art and literature. In his court, there was Ashtadiggaj (8 great scholar) like–
(i) Allasani Peddana (Read about him)
(ii) Tenali Ramkrishna
(iii) Dhurjati
(iv) Nandithimanna
(v) Madayagari Malanna
(vi) Alarajju ramabhadrudu
(vii) Ramarajbhushnadu
Krishnadevaray had written himself Amuktamallida (putting one's own garland on the shoulders
of others) an epic in Tamil language.
He had established friendly relation with Portuguese and they started supplying better horses and
artillary and hence Bahamani started declining and took place disintegration of Bahamani.
He defeated Gajapati ruler– PratapRudra of Orissa. He captured fort of Udaygiri (District of
Kanyakumari) he conquered Kondavidu, He captured Kondapalli. He defeated Ismail Adi Shah and
destroyed the city of Gulbarg and in 1520 he captured Raichur Doab region. He had ruled from
Krishna to Kanyakumari and east from Konkan to Kanyakumari.
During his time, two Portuguese travellers came in his court named Domingo Paes, and Duarte
barbosa (read)
He abolished marriage tax.
He had build a fort – fort of Bhatkal
He took title of Abhinav Bhoj.
3rd Ruler: Achyut Rai (1530–42 AD):
Completely embasile person, Provincial governors started revolting. He handed over the
administration in the hand of his brother in law, Tirumuala.
4th Ruler: Venkata – I
He could rule for only six months.
Last Ruler of Tuluva dynasty – Sadashiva Rai (1542–70 AD). Pradhan Mantri of Sadashiva Rai was
Ramraya. Power war in the hand of Ram Rai.
In 1565, there was a decisive battle took place – Battle of talicotta – except Berar, all the other states
joined hand and defeated Sadashiva Rai.
4th Dynasty : Aravidu
1st Ruler: Tirumala – I
He established his capital at Penukonda. He was brother of RamRai.
2nd Ruler– Ranga-II
3rd Ruler – Venkata- II (1586 – 1614)
After 1614, the provincial governor i.e., Nayakas started revolting in this way, Vijayanagar came to
an end.
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Administration
King was superior. He was assisted by COM which was headed by Mahapradhani (like PM). It
contains 20 ministers and the meeting held in hall named Venkatvilas Mandapam. The COM included
representatives from every upper class. Besides they had bureaucracy. The (COM) & bureaucracy's
salary paid through land grants. When Yuvraj declared it is known as Yuvaraj-Pattabhishekam.
The empire was divided into Prant/Rajya (Provinces). The Rajyas were further divided into Mandalam
(commissionary) Mandalam was divided into Kottam. Kottam was divided into Nadu. Below Nadu, there
was Melagram (group of 50 villages), Melagram divided into Gram/ur/ it was basic unit of administration.
As far as Prant is considered, it was headed by Governors or called as Mahadandanayaka. These
governors used to be from royal family. Village was administered by village Assemblies which were
called as Mahasabha/Ur.
There were special categories of villages called as Brahmadeyas - land assigned for Brahamanas
forever. Brahmadeyas - village assembly was called as Chaturvedi Mangalam. Here, village divided
into wards, from each ward one member had to be nominated.
Village were having some hereditary officials like waterman/chaukidar – Talas/Talari. There was
an official for unpaid labour called as – Begra. Here also traders, guilds and merchants used to be there.
Certain members of guilds use to be member of village assemblies.
How state exercise control over villages? State used to appoint Mahanayakacharya. Two more
systems were there –
(i) Nayankar system
(ii) Ayangar system
Nayankar System-
Administration was almost feudal organisation. State appoints powerful person called Nayak to
maintain forces for the king. State used to allot them jagir and this jagis used to be called as amaram. If
state pays salary to maintain the forces then it used to be simple Nayak. Those who got jagirs (amaram)
called as Amarnayak. These nayakas has to pay a part from thier jagirs. If there is any complaint against
the nayakas then as a punishment state could snatch 1/3 of the revenue collection or either state could
snatch whole jagir from the nayakas. They had autonomies and started misusing powers. Achyuta raya
established Mahamandaleshwar to have control over Mahanayakas.
Ayangar System
This system was applied in village. It was a body of 12 state official. They perform judicial functions
in civil matters. They registered properties, sale, transfer of land. Initially it was not hereditary but later
on it became hereditary. Be it the member of ayangar, no one paid salary from state.
Revenue Administration
Revenue administration of Vijayanagar has been termed as Athavane. Land has to be divided into
three parts – wetland, dryland, orchard and forests.
Rate of land revenue used to be 1/6 of production called as Shashti/Raya. Later on it was increased
to 1/4th of Production.
There was taxes on every type of profession. There used to be tax on marriage, prostitution. If
involved in any economic activity it was Subjected to taxation. There used to be tax on grazing, barbers.
The taxes used for prostitution, it was used to pay police personnel.
Judicial Administration
There was hierarchy in judicial administration. King's court was called as Sabha. In Sabha when king
used to be sit, apart from Brahamanas and other there used to be Yanak sitting on a high platform.
final judgement was pronounced by this yanak. This yanak used to be called as Daing.
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