TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

PBG 101 INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURAL BOTANY (1+1)

COMMON PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING

TAMILNADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
COIMBATORE - 641 003
2022-2023
 TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

PBG 101 INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURAL BOTANY (1+1)

COMMON PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING

TAMILNADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
COIMBATORE - 641 003
2022-2023
 PBG 101 INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURAL BOTANY (1+1)
CONTRIBUTORS (2022-2023)

Agricultural College & Research Institute, Dr. R. Kalaiyarasi, Professor (PBG)

Coimbatore Dr. N. Kumari Vinodhana, Asst. Prof. (PBG)
Dr. R. Sasikala, Asst. Prof. (PBG)
Dr. M. Umadevi, Asst. Prof. (PBG)
Dr. C. Priyadharshini, Teaching Asst. (PBG)
Dr. D. Nagarajan, Teaching Asst. (PBG)
Dr. R. Premkumar, Teaching Asst. (PBG)
Dr. N. Meenakshi ganesan, Prof. (PBG) & Head
Dr. P. Shanthi, Assoc. Prof.(PBG)
Dr. R. Ravikesavan, Director (CPBG)
Agricultural College & Research Institute, Dr. G. Anand, Assoc. Prof.(PBG)
Madurai Dr. P. Arunachalam, Assoc. Prof. (PBG)
Dr. K. Thangaraj, Professor (PBG)
Agricultural College & Research Institute, Dr. D. Shoba, Asst. Prof. (PBG)
Killikulam Dr. S. Saravanan, Assoc. Prof. (PBG)
Anbil Dharmalingam Agricultural College and Dr. A.Thanga Hemavathy, Assoc. Prof. (PBG)
Research Institute, Trichy Dr. N. Malini, Asst. Prof. (PBG)
Dr. V. Rajan Babu, Asst. Prof. (Biotech)
Agricultural College & Research Institute, Dr. V. Thiruvengadam, Assoc. Prof. (PBG) & Head
Kudumiyanmalai, Pudukkottai Dr. M. Shanmuganathan, Assoc. Prof.(PBG)
Agricultural College & Research Institute, Dr. M. Pandian, Professor (PBG)
Eachankottai, Thanjavur Dr. S. Hari RamaKrishnan, Asst. Prof .(PBG)
Dr. A. Bharathi, Asst. Prof .(PBG)
Agricultural College & Research Institute, Dr. A. Mothilal, Professor (PBG)
Valavachanur, Thiruvannamalai Dr. S. Ganapathy, Assoc. Prof. (PBG)
Agricultural College & Research Institute, Dr. A. Muthuswamy, Professor (PBG)
Karur
Agricultural College & Research Institute, Dr. S. Saravanan, Assoc. Prof.(PBG)
Kezhavelur, Nagapattinam
Agricultural College & Research Institute, Dr. M. Jayaramachandran, Assoc. Prof.(PBG)
Chettinad
 TAMILNADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

PBG 101 INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURAL BOTANY (1+1)

COMMON PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is a bonafide record of work done by the student

Mr./Ms. (ID. No. ) of

I B.Sc.(Hons.) Agriculture for the course, PBG 101 Introduction to Agricultural Botany (1+1)

during I semester of the academic year 2022 - 2023.

COURSE ASSOCIATE COURSE TEACHER

EXTERNAL EXAMINER
 CONTENTS

Name : I.D.No. :

Ex. Date Page Date of

Title Signature
No No. Submission
1 General Morphology of Root, Stem and Leaves.
2 General morphology of inflorescence, flower and
fruits
Family characters, Botany, Economic parts, Floral diagram and Floral formula of the crops
3 Family Poaceae: Rice and Wheat
4 Family Poaceae: Maize, Sorghum, Pearl millet and
Finger millet.
5 Family Poaceae: Guinea grass, Napier grass,
Cenchrus and Sugarcane
6 Family Papilionaceae: Redgram, Bengal gram and
Soybean
7 Family Papilionaceae: Blackgram, Greengram,
Cowpea, Lab-lab, Horse gram and Groundnut
8 Family Papilionaceae: Lucerne, Stylosanthes,
Clitoria, Agathi, Sunnhemp and Daincha
9 Family Pedaliaceae: Gingelly ; Family Asteraceae:
Sunflower, Safflower and Chrysanthemum; Family
Oleaceae: Jasmine
10 Family Brassicaceae: Rapeseed, Mustard, Cabbage
and Cauliflower
11 Family Euphorbiaceae: Castor, Jatropha, Tapioca
Family Arecaceae: Coconut, Arecanut, Oilpalm and
Sugar Palm
12 Family Malvaceae: Cotton, Mesta and Bhendi
13 Family Tiliaceae: Jute; Family Piperaceae: Betelvine;
Family Chenopodiaceae: Sugar beet
14 Family Solanaceae: Tobacco, Potato, Chilli, Tomato,
Brinjal; Family Mimosae: Desmanthes, Subabul
Family Moraceae: Mulberry
15 Family Cucurbitaceae: Cucumber, Pumpkin and
Ashgourd; Family Alliaceae: Onion and Garlic
16 Family Musaceae: Banana, Manila Hemp;
Family Rubiaceae: Coffee; Family Theaceae: Tea
Glossary
 Ex. No. 1 Date:
GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF ROOT, STEM AND LEAVES

Morphology – (Morphe = form: logos = study). It deals with the study of forms and
features of different plant organs like roots, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits etc.,
  Typical angiospermic plant is differentiated into:
i. An underground root system
ii. An aerial shoot system consists of stem (including branches), leaves, flowers and fruits.
 The roots, stems and leaves are vegetative parts, while flowers constitute the reproductive
part.

CLASSIFICATION
1. Duration: Depending upon their life span, plants are classified as
Duration Description Example
Annuals Complete their life cycle in one year or single growing season Sunflower,
Paddy etc.,
Biennials Complete their life cycle in two years i.e., They attain full Radish,
vegetative growth in the first year and produce flowers and cabbage,
fruits in the second year. They die off after producing flowers turnip, carrot
and fruits. etc.,
Perennials Survives for several years. These plants usually bear flowers Mango, Guava
and fruits every year (Polycarpic). etc.,
Multiennials Survives for several years like the perennials but do not flower Agave,
every year. They will produce flowers and fruits only once in Bamboo
their life cycle (Monocarpic).

2. Growth habit: Depending upon the habit, plants can be classified into
Herbs These are small plants with soft stem Grasses
Shrubs They are medium sized plants of hard and woody stem Garden
which branches profusely near the ground Crotons
Bushy in habit without having a clear trunk.
They are larger than herbs and smaller than trees.
Trees They are very tall plants with clear trunk and have hard Mango
woody broader stem.

A. MORPHOLOGY OF ROOT
Root is the portion of the plant which grows downward into the soil. There are two types
of root system.
TYPES OF ROOTS
1. Tap root
2. Adventitious root

1
 Parts of a plant Types of roots

Taproot modification

a) For food storage b) for respiration

2
 1. TAP ROOT
The primary root and its secondary and tertiary branches form the tap root system of the
plant.
  The root which arises from the radicle is called primary root.
  Secondary and tertiary branches arise from the primary root
  The primary root is longer and stronger than its branches. Hence, it is called tap root.
 Example: All dicot roots.

2. ADVENTITIOUS ROOT
  Root developing from any part other than the radicle is called an adventitious root.
  In monocot plants, the primary root is short lived.
 Before it dies, other adventitious roots have already originated from shoot or mesocotyl
tissues to become the new root system called as fibrous root system.
 Example: All monocot roots.
MODIFICATION OF ROOT
Modified roots are grouped into two categories
1. Tap root modifications
2. Adventitious roots modifications
1. TAP ROOT MODIFICATION
a) For food storage
i. Fusiform root: The roots are swollen in the middle and gradually tapering towards
apexwith a spindle shaped appearance. (eg) Radish.
ii. Napiform root: The roots become swollen at the upper part and sharply tapering like
athread at their lower part. (eg.) Turnip and Beetroot.
iii. Conical root: The roots are broad at the base and gradually taper towards the apex like
acone. (e.) Carrot.
b) For respiration (Pneumatophores)
 In marshy places, certain plants develop a special kind of roots called respiratory roots or
pneumatophores for respiration.
 Each root is provided with numerous pores or respiratory spaces at the top through which
 air is taken for respiration. (eg.) Rhizophora.
2. ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS MODIFICATION
a) For food storage
i. Tuberous / tubercular root: Swollen roots without any definite shape. Tuberous
rootsmay be in single or in clusters. (eg) Sweet Potato.
ii. Fasciculated roots: Roots arises in bunch (cluster) from lower node of the stem
andbecome fleshy eg. Dahlia, Asparagus.
iii. Nodulose roots: When the slender root becomes suddenly swollen at the apex. (eg)Mango
ginger.
iv. Moniliform / Beaded roots: Roots swell like a bead at frequent intervals. (eg.)
Momordica,Portulaca and Wild vine.
v. Annulated roots: Roots with a series of ring like
swellings.(eg.) Psychotria – a medicinal plant
3
 Adventitious root modification for food storage

Adventitious root modification for mechanical support

i) Stilt roots ii) Prop roots iii) Buttress roots

iv) Climbing roots v) Foliar roots

4
b) For mechanical support
i. Stilt roots / brace roots: When root arises from lower nodes and enter in soil
obliquely,known as stilt roots eg. Maize, Sugarcane, Pandanus (screwpine)
ii. Prop root / pillar roots: when root arises from branches of plant and grows
downwardtowards soil. It functions as supporting stem for the plant. eg. Banyan.
iii. Butteress root: It is a characteristic feature of tropical rain forest. Such roots appear
fromthe basal part of stem and spread in different directions in the soil. eg. Ficus, Bombax
,Terminalia.
iv. Climbing roots: Roots arise from nodes and helps in climbing of plants. eg. Money
plant(Pothos), Betel, Black pepper, Techoma.
v. Foliar roots / Epiphyllous roots: Roots arise from leaf are called foliar roots.
eg. Bryophyllum, Bignonia.

c) For vital functions

i. Parasitic roots / Haustoria: Parasites develop sucking roots that penetrate intothe host
plant to absorb nutrition from host. eg. Dendrophthoe, Cuscuta, Viscum
ii. Respiratory roots: In aquatic plants, the floating branches develop adventitious
rootswhich are soft, light, spongy and colourless. They usually develop above the water
level to store air for respiration. (eg.) Jussiaea
iii. Hygroscopic / Epiphytic roots: These are found in epiphytes. They develop a specialkind
of aerial roots which hang freely in the air, and help in absorption of moisture from the
atmosphere using special tissue called velamen. eg. Orchids, Vanda
iv. Assimilatory roots: The aerial roots of Tinospora and submerged roots of Trapa
(Water chestnut) become green, smooth and thread like roots develop from the stem is
called assimilatory roots. They carry out photosynthesis.

II. MORPHOLOGY OF STEM

  It is the aerial part of plant axis.
  It develops from plumule.
  It is negatively geotropic and hydrotropic and positively phototropic.
  It is distinguished into nodes and internodes.
  The region between two successive nodes is called internode.
  An apical bud occurs at the tip of stem causes growth in elongation of main axis.
  An axillary bud occurs in the axil of a leaf and develops new branches
 In the beginning, the stem is green and soft. Later it becomes woody.
FORMS OF STEM
1. Caudex: It is unbranched, erect, cylindrical stout stem and marked with scars of
fallen leaves. Crown of leaves are present at the top of plant. eg. Palm
2. Culm : Stem joined with solid nodes and hollow internodes. eg.Bamboo (Graminae)
MODIFICATION OF STEM
Modified stems are grouped into three categories
1. Underground modification
2. Sub aerial modification and
3. Aerial Modification
5
 Adventitious root modification for vital functions

i) Parasitic roots ii) Respiratory roots

iii) Hygroscopic roots iv) Assimilatory roots

Forms of Stem

1. Caudex 2. Culm

6
1. UNDERGROUND MODIFICATION
i. Rhizome: It is fleshy and horizontal stem found in soil. Small nodes and internodes
arefound which are covered by scaly leaves. It possesses a bud in the axil of the scaly leaf
and ends in a terminal bud.Some slender adventitious roots are given off from its lower
side. It remains dormant underground and with the approach of the vegetative season, the
terminal bud and axillary buds grow into aerial shoots. Eg. Ginger, Turmeric, Canna,
Water lily, Banana.
ii. Tuber: The tip of underground stem branch and becomes swollen in the soil. Eyes
arefound on them which are axillary buds covered with scaly leaves which grow up into
new plants. A tuber is often very much swollen owing to a heavy deposit of food material,
become almost spherical.Eg. Potato
iii. Bulb:This is an underground modified shoot consists of shortened convex or
slightlyconical stem, a terminal bud and numerous scale leaves The stem has reduced to
disc like structure and surrounds with numerous fleshly scaly leaves. Many roots arise
from its base. The inner scales are fleshy, the outer ones are dry. The scales may occur
surrounding the stem in concentric rings, as in onion. The fleshy scales store food, while
the dry scales give protection. The bulb is vertical in direction and its terminal bud gives
rise to the aerial shoots. Eg.Onion, Garlic.
iv. Corm: This is a condensed form of rhizome consisting of a stout, solid,
fleshy,underground stem growing in the vertical direction. It is more or less round in shape
or often flattened from top to bottom. It contains a heavy deposit of food material and
often grows to considerable size. It bears one or more buds in the axils of scale leaves and
some of these buds grow up into daughter corms. It has spherical nodes and internodes.
Eg. Colocasia, Saffron, Gladiolus and Colchicum

2. SUB AERIAL MODIFICATION

i. Runner: It is a slender, prostrate branch with long or short internodes, creeping on
theground and rooting at the nodes. The runner arises as an axillary bud and creeps some
distance away from the mother plant, then strikes roots and grows into a new plant. They
may break off from the mother plant and grow up as independent daughter plant eg.
Oxalis,Marsilea, Strawberry
ii. Stolon: It is a slender lateral branch arising from the base of the plant. At first it
growsobliquely upwards to some extent and then it bends down to the ground, striking
roots at the tip and producing a bud. The later soon grows into a daughter plant eg.
Fragaria (Wild strawberry), Colocasia,Jasmine
iii. Sucker: Main stem grows horizontally in the soil and branches develop obliquely
fromnodes above the soil, eg. Mint, Pineapple, Chrysanthemum.
iv. Offset: Lateral branch with short internode bearing a rossette of leaves and tuft of roots
atbase. eg. Eichhornea. water lettuce
v. Sobole: The runner does not have any reserve food material. eg.Agropyron

7
 Stem modification

1. Underground modification

i) Bulb ii) Tuber

iii) Rhizome iv) Corm

2. SUB AERIAL MODIFICATION

3. AERIAL MODIFICATION

i) Stem tendril ii) Thorn iii) Phylloclade iv) Cladode

8
3. AERIAL MODIFICATION
i. Vegetative and floral buds normally develop into branches and flowers often undergo extreme
degrees of modification. Metamorphosed organs are, stem tendril for climbing, thorn for
protection, phylloclade for food manufacture and bulbil for vegetative
reproduction.Stemtendril (Climbing)
 This is a thin, wiry, leafless, spirally curled branch, by which climbers attach themselves
 to neighbouring objects and climb e.g. Pisum sativum
ii. Thorn (Protection)
 In some plants, the apical or the axillary bud develops into a sharp pointed structure called
thorn. They are protective.
  Sometimes leaves and flowers may have thorns.
  The pointed, curved sharp structures on the surface of stem in rose are called prickles.
  Example: lemon, Pomegranate, Carissa and Rose
iii. Phylloclade (Photosynthesis)
  Xerophytic plants.
  They shed their leaves to reduce transpiration.
 It is a green, flattened, cylindrical stem or branch of unlimited growth consisting of
succession of nodes and internodes at short or long intervals.
 It then takes over all the functions of leaves, particularly photosynthesis are called
phylloclades or cladophyll
  Example: Opuntia, Casuarina, Euphorbia, Cactus.
iv. Cladode
 In some plants, one or more short, green, cylindrical or sometimes flattened branches of
limited growth develop from the node of the stem or branch in the axil of a scale leaf.
 Such a branch is known as the cladode. Example: Asparagus, Ruscus.
v. Bulbil (Reproduction)
  A condensed, axillary fleshy bud is called bulbils. It helps in vegetative reproduction.
 Example: Dioscorea, Agave, Oxalis
III. BRANCHING
  The pattern of development of branches on the stem is known as branching.
  There are two types of branching namely,
1. Lateral and 2. Dichotomous
1. Lateral branching
 Branches arise from the sides of the stem is called Lateral. It
is divided into two types as(i) Racemose and (ii) Cymose
i. Racemose or Monopodial or Indefinite Type
  Stem indefinitely grows by the terminal bud.
  The lateral branches of the main stem are arranged in an acropetal succession
  Plant appears conical or pyramidal in shape. e.g. Casurina, Polyalthia etc.
ii. Cymose or Definite Type
  Growth of the main stem is definite.
  The main stem produces lateral branches which grow more vigorously than the main axis.
  The plant spreads out above and becomes more or less dome shaped.
 The cymose branching is of the following kinds.
9
 Branching

Racemose Cymose

Monopodial Uniparous Biparous Dichotomous

Parts of a leaf

Simple leaf Compound leaf

Cymose branching may be of the following kinds

10
 Uniparous cyme: If in the cymose type, only one lateral branch is produced at a time,
thebranching is said to be uniparous or monochasial. The uniparous type of branching is
 otherwise called sympodial. It has two distinct forms:
1. Helicoid or one sided cyme: When successive branches develop on the same
side,forming a sort of helix as in Saraca.
2. Scorpioid or alternate side cyme: When successive lateral branches develop on
alternatesides forming a zig zag as in Vitis vinifera.
 Biparous cyme: If in the cymose branching two lateral axes develop at a time it is
calledbiparous or dichasial (eg.) Four O‟ clock plant, Datura.
 Multiparous cyme: If more than two branches develop at a time, the branching is said to
bemultiparous or polychasial as in Croton sparsiflorus.
2. Dichotomous branching
 When the terminal bud bifurcates, that is divided into two producing two branches in a
forked manner, the branching is termed as dichotomous. It is common among the
„flowerless‟ plants as in Riccia, Lycopodium phlegmeria and in flowering plants such as
Hyphaene.

IV. MORPHOLOGY OF LEAF (PHYLLOPODIUM)

  The leaves are generally flattened structure borne on the stem.
  The leaves develop from the nodes.
  The main function is photosynthesis, axillary buds are found in its axil.
 All the foliar parts of a plant is known as phyllome. Axillary bud later develops into a
branch. Leaves originated from shoot apical meristem and are arranged in acropetal order.
Leaf is divided into 3 main parts:
i. Leaf base (Hypopodium)
  Leaves are attached to the stem by leaf base.
 In some plants, leaf base becomes swollen and is called pulvinus e.g., Cassia, mimosa,
bean.
 In some plants, leaf base expands into sheath (Sheathing leaf base), e.g., grasses and
banana (monocots).
 When the leaf base partially encloses the stem, it is called semi-amplexicaul e.g., Prickly
poppy, Calotropis procera (Madar).
  It completely encloses the stem, it is called amplexicaul e.g., Sonchus, Polygonum.
ii. Petiole (Mesopodium)
 The part of leaf connecting the lamina with the branch of stem. In Eichornia petiole swell
and in citrus it is winged.
  Petiole is modified in tendrils in Nepenthes.
  In Australian acacia petiole is modified in phyllode.
  Absence of petiole is called sessile
iii. Leaf blade or lamina (Epipodium)
  It is a broad and flattened part of leaf.
 Its main functions are photosynthesis and transpiration.

11
 Types of Stipules

Types of compound leaves

Types of pinnately compound leaf

12
STIPULES
Stipules are the lateral appendages of the leaf borne at its base. This portion is to protect
the young leaves in bud and when green they manufacture food material in the same way as in the
leaves. When stipules are present, the leaf is said to be stipulate and when absent exstipulate.
Kinds of stipules
According to the shape, colour and size of the stipules they are of the following kinds.
 The lateral stipules: These are two free stipules usually small and green in colour
borneon the two sides of the leaf base as in china rose, cotton etc.
 Scaly stipules: These are small dry scales, usually two in number borne on the two
sidesof the leaf base as in Desmodium.
 Adnate stipules: These are the two lateral stipules that grow along the petiole upto
acertain height adhering to it and making it somewhat winged in appearance as in rose,
peanuts and strawberry.
 Interpetiolar stipules: These are the two stipules that lie between the petioles of opposite
orwhorled leaves, thus alternating with the later. They are seen in Ixora.
 Ochreate stipules: They form a hollow tube encircling the stem from the node upto
acertain height of the internode in front of petiole as in Polygonum.
  Foliaceous stipules: These are two large green leafy structures as in pea,Cassiaauriculata.
 Bud scales: These are scaly stipules which enclose and protect the vegetative buds andfall
 off as soon as the leaves unfold. (e.g.) banyan, jack.
 Spinous stipules: In gum tree, Indian plum, Mimosa, the stipules become modified
intotwo wharp pointed structures known as spines one each on each side of the leaf base.
Such spinous stipules give protection to the leaf against the attack of herbivorous animals.
TYPES OF LEAF
1. Simple Leaf
 A leaf is said to be simple when it consists of a single blade which may be entire or
 incised. Eg. Mango, China rose, Ficus, etc.
2. Compound leaf
 A leaf in which the leaf blade is incised upto the midrib or petiole, thus dividing it into
several small parts, known as leaflets.
It is of two types as (a) Pinnately compound leaf
(b) Palmately compound leaf
(a) Pinnately compound leaf
  In this type of leaf mid rib is known as rachis.
  Leaflets are arranged on both sides of rachis. eg. Neem.
Types of Pinnately Compound
 Leaf i.Unipinnate
 In this type of leaf, division occurs only once and leaflets are directly attached on both
 sides of rachis
 If the number of leaflet is even, then leaf is known as paripinnate. eg. Cassia
 fistula,Sesbania
 If the number of leaflet is odd, it is known as imparipinnate. eg. Rose, Neem.

13
Types of palmately compound leaf

LEAF TIPS

LEAF BASE

14
ii. Bipinnate
 A twice pinnate compound leaf eg. Acacia, Gulmohar,
Mimosa.iii. Tripinnate
 A thrice pinnate compound leaf eg. Moringa.
iv.Decompound
 A compound leaf, which is more than thrice pinnate. eg. Carrot, Coriander.

(b) Palmately compound leaf
 In this type incision of leaf are directed from leaf margin to apex of petiole and all
leaflets are attached on the upper end of petiole.
Types of Palmately Compound leaf
i. Unifoliate : When single leaflet is found. eg. Lemon
ii. Bifoliate : When two leaflets are present. eg. Bauhinia, Regnelidium, Bignonia.
iii. Trifoliate : When three leaflets are attached. eg. Oxalis, Aegle, Trifolium
iv. Tetrafoliate : When four leaflets are attached to the petiole. eg. Marsilea.
v. Multifoliate : When more than four leaflet are found,. eg. Silkcotton.

DURATION OF THE LEAF: The leaf varies in its duration.

i. Caducous: The leaf may fall off soon after it appears and then it is said to be caducous.
ii. Deciduous or annual: If it is lost for one season, usually falling off in winter
iii. Persistent or evergreen: If persists for more than one season.
SHAPE OF LAMINA
1. Acicular: Leaf is long, narrow and cylindrical as in Onion.
2. Linear: Leaf is long, narrow and flat as in many Grasses.
3. Lanceolate :Shape is like that of a lance, as in Bamboo.
4. Elliptical: Leaf has more or less the ellipse shape as in Guava.
5. Ovate : Egg shaped leaf, broader at the base than apex as in Banyan.
6. Obovate: Inversely egg shaped leaf as in Jack.
7. Oblong: Blade is wide, long with two margins running straight -Banana.
8. Round: Leaf is circular as in Lotus.
9. Cordate: Heart shaped blade as in Betel.
10. Obcordate : Inversely heart shaped
11. Reniform : Leaf is kidney shaped as in Indian pennywort
12. Oblique: Two halves of the leaves are unequal as in Begonia.
13. Spathulate : Like spatula as in Calendula.
14. Sagittate : Arrow shape.
15. Hastate:Two lobes of a sagittate leaf are directed outwards as in Ipomoea.
16. Cuneate: Shallow notch.
17. Falcate: Sickle shaped leaf as in Eucalyptus.
18. Lyrate: Like a lyre, a large terminal and smaller lateral lobe as in Radish.
19. Pedate: Like the claw of a bird with lobes spreading outwards as in Vitis.
20. Fistular:Cylinder and hollow throughout as in Onion and Garlic
21. Rhomboidal : Like a Rhombus as inHelianthus tuberosa, Solanum nigrum.
22. Lunate: Like half moon as in Passiflora lunata, Adiantum lunatum
15
LEAF MARGINS

16
APEX OF LAMINA
1. Obtuse : It is rounded as in banyan.
2. Acute : It is pointed in the form of an acute angle, but not stiff as in China rose.
3. Acuminate : Also caudate: Like a long slender tail as inFicus religiosa.
4. Cuspidate : It ends in a long rigid shape (spiny) point, as in Date palm,Pineapple.
5. Truncate : It ends abruptly as if cuts off in a straight line as in Indian sago palm.
6. Retuse : The obtuse or truncate apex with a shallow notch as in water lettuce.
7. Emarginate : The apex is pointed with a deep notch as in Bauhinia.
8. Mucronate : The rounded apex abruptly ends in a short point as in Ixora.

MARGIN OF LEAF
1. Entire : Even and smooth as in Paddy, Mango, Guava, Jack, Banyan etc.
2. Repand : Shallowly wavy or undulating as in Polyalthia.
3. Serrate : Cut like the teeth of a saw and the teeth directing upwards as in Rose.
4. Biserrate : Doubly serrate (each tooth serrated again) as inHibiscus esculentus
5. Retroserrate : Obliquely placed teeth facing downwards (reverse to serrate).
6. Dentate : Teeth directly outwards at right angles to the margin as in Melon and
Water lily.
7. Bidendate : Teeth seen on each of the teeth placed at right angles in dentate manner
8. Runcinate : Serrated with the teeth pointed backwards.
9. Crenate : Teeth round as in Bryophyllum.
10. Bicrenate : Each of the rounded teeth being again crenate.Hydrocotyle javanicum
11. Fimbriate : Fringed with fine segments.
12. Ciliate : Fringed with hairs
13. Spinous : Margin with spiny projections -Argemone mexicana
BASE OF THE LAMINA
The base of the lamina is of ten types
1. Attenuate 6. Cordate
2. Cuneate 7. Auriculate
3. Oblique 8. Sagittate
4. Obtuse 9. Hastate
5. Truncate 10. Peltate

SURFACE OF THE LEAF

1. Glabrous : Surface is smooth and free from hairs or outgrowth of any kind.
2. Rugose : Wrinkled surface as in Plums.
3. Glutinous : Surface is covered with a sticky exudation as in tobacco.
4. Glaucous : Bluish or whitish surface with waxy coating as inCalotropis.
5. Scabrous : Rough surface due to presence of short rigid points.
6. Gland dotted : Glandular surface as in Lemon.
7. Spiny : Provided with spines.
8. Hairy : Covered densely or sparsely with hairs.

17
Types of venation

Phyllotaxy

18
TEXTURE OF THE LAMINA
1. Herbaceous : Lamina thin and membranous. eg. Rosa
2. Coriaceous : Leaf firm and leathery. eg. Mangifera
3. Succulent : Soft and juicy which is brittle. eg. Bryophyllum
4. Scarious : Leaf thin, dry but neither green nor transparent.
5. Hyaline : Leaf transparent and translucent
6. Scabrous : Surface rough due to presence of hard points. eg.Clerodendron infortunatum

MODIFICATION OF LEAVES
1. Leaf tendril: Whole leaf is modified into thin thread like structure which is called leaf
tendril.eg. Lathyrus aphaca (wild pea).
2. Leaflet tendril: When leaflet is modified into tendril like structure then it is called
leaflettendril. eg. Pisum sativum(Garden pea), Lathyrus odoratus(sweet pea)
3. Leaf spine: Leaves or any part of leaflet are modified into pointed spine. eg.
Asparagus,Opuntia,
4. Leaf scale: Leaves become thin, dry and form a membrane or paper like structure and serve to
protect axillary buds as in Ficus and Tamarix, Ruscus, Casurina.
5. Leaf pitcher: Leaves of some plants are modified to pitcher shape. eg. Nepenthes, Dischidia.
6. Leaf bladder: In some plants, leaves are modified into bladder like structure eg. Utricularia.
7. Leaf Hooks: In some plants, terminal leaflets are modified into curved hooks for helping
theplant in climbing. eg. Argemone, Opuntia.

VENATION
The arrangement of veins and veinlets in leaves (Lamina) is known as venation. It is of
two types viz., reticulate and parallel.
A. Reticulate venation
It is found in all dicots except Calophyllum, Eryngium. The main vein divided into various
branches (veinlets) and forms a net like structure. Reticulate venation is of two types.
i. Pinnate or unicostate type (unus – one; costa – a rib)
There is a strong midrib or costa, this gives off lateral veins which proceed towards the
margin or apex of the leaf like plumes in a feather. These are then connected by smaller veins
which pass in all directions forming a network as in mango.
ii. Palmate or multicostate type;
In this type, there are a number of more or less equally strong ribs which arise from the tip
of the petiole and proceed outwards or upwards. There are two types.
Divergent: When the main veins diverge towards the margin of the leaf as in castor.
Convergent: when the veins converge to the apex of the leaf as in Indian palm.
Eg.Mango and guava
B. Parallel venation
It is found in monocots except Smilax, Dioscorea, Alocasia, Colocasia. All veins run parallel
to each other and they do not form network. Eg.Banana, Ginger, Canna.It has two types
i. Pinnate or unicostate type:
In this type of venation, the leaf has a predominant midrib and this gives off lateral veins
which proceed to each other towards the margin or apex of the leaf blade as in banana , ginger.
19
ii. Palmate type: There are two forms.
Divergent type: The veins arise from the tip of the petiole and proceed towards the margin of
theleaf blade in a more or less parallel manner. (eg.) Palmyra
Convergent type: when a number of more or less equally strong veins proceed from the base ofthe
leaf blade to apex in a somewhat parallel direction as in rice. (eg.) Grass, Bamboo.

Functions of the veins: Veins are rigid structures and their mechanical function is to givenecessary
strength to the leaf blade. A very important physiological function of the veins is to carry water and
inorganic salts into the leaf blade and finally the prepared food material from the leaf into the main
body of the plant, particularly the storage organs.

PHYLLOTAXY
The mode of arrangement of leaves in the stem or the branch.It is of following types
1. Alternate / spiral : Single leaf arising at each node. eg.Cyprus rotandus,China rose,
Mustard and Sunflower
2. Opposite: Leaves occurring in pairs at the node.eg.Calotropis, Mussaenda.
3. Whorled : More than two leaves at each node eg.Nerium, Alstonia.
4. Heterophylly: It is the occurrence of more than one type of leaves on the sameplant.
eg. Jack fruit.

EXERCISE
Collect the different plant species in and around your locality and observe the following
1. Root morphology and modification
2. Stem morphology and modification
3. Leaf morphology, modification and phyllotaxy

20
 Ex. No. 2 Date:

GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF INFLORESCENCE, FLOWER AND FRUITS

I. INFLORESCENCE
Arrangement of flower on floral axis is called inflorescence. It may be terminal or axillary
and may be branched in various ways. It may primarily be classified into two distinct groups viz.,
(A) Racemose / indefinite and (B) Cymose / definite.

A. RACEMOSE INFLORESCENCE
The main axis continues to grow and does not flower terminally. Flowers laterally in acropetal
manner where old flowers are arranged towards base and young flowers are at tip. When peduncle
is broad then flowers are centripetally arranged.
The various forms of racemose inflorescence may be described under three heads.
i) those in which the main axis is elongated
ii) those in which the main axis is shortened.
iii) those in which the main axis becomes flattened, concave or convex.

i. Racemose inflorescence with elongated main axis

a. Raceme
Elongated peduncle (main axis). Flowers are pedicellate. Characteristic feature of
Cruciferae family. Eg: Radish. When peduncle is branched and each branch bear pedicellated
flowers like racemose and are arranged in acropetal manner known as compound raceme or
panicle. Eg: Redgram, Lablab
b. Spike
The main axis elongated and the lower flowers are older, opening earlier than the
upper ones as in raceme. Flowers are bisexual and sessile. Eg: Ragi, Amaranthus
c. Panicle
A branched or compound raceme very small spikes with one or few flowers (florets).
Spikelets are arranged in a spike, raceme or panicle and may be sessile or stalked on the main
inflorescence. Each spikelet bears at its base two minute scales or bracts called empty glumes,
slightly higher up it bears a third bract called flowering glume or lemmas and opposite to the
lemma it bears a small two nerved bracteole called palea. Each flower of the spikelet remains
enclosed by the lemma and the palea. Each flower of the spikelet in opposite rows. Spikelets are
characteristic feature of the graminae. Eg. Paddy, wheat
d.Catkin
Long, thin and weak peduncle. Flowers are sessile and unisexual. Peduncle is pendulous.
Eg. Mulberry, Betelvine, Pepper.
e. Spadix
Long, thick, and fleshy peduncle.Unisexual male and female. Flowers covered with one or
more green or colourful bracts known as spathe. Eg. Colocasia, Maize, Palms and Banana

21
 Types of inflorescence

Various forms of Racemose Inflorescence

22
ii) Racemose inflorescence with shortened main axis
a. Corymb
The main axis is comparatively short and the lower flowers have much longer stalks or
pedicles then the upper ones so that all the flowers are brought more or less to the same level as in
wall flower (Cheiranthus).
b. Umbel
The primary axis is shortened and it bears at its tip a group of flowers which have pedicels of
more or less equal length so that the flowers are seen to spread out from a common point in the
umbel, there is always a whorl of bracts forming an involucres, and each flower develops from the
axil of a bract. There are two types compound umbel or branched one and simple umbel or
unbranched one. Eg. Coriander
iii) Racemose inflorescence with flattened, concave /convex main axis
Head or capitulum: The main axis or receptacle is suppressed, becoming almost flat and
theflowers are also without any stalk so that they become crowded together on the flat surface of
the receptacle. In the receptacle, the outer flowers are older and open earlier than the inner ones.
Although the inflorescence looks like a single flower, it really consisted of a clustered mass of
small sessile flowers (florets) usually of two kinds viz., ray florets (marginal strap shaped ones)
and disc florets (central tubular ones). The inflorescence is surrounded at the base by one or more
whorls of often green bracts forming an involucre. Eg. Sunflower, Safflower.
B. CYMOSE INFLORESCENCE
The growth of the main axis ends with the development of a flower at its apex and the
lateral which develops below the terminal flower also ends in a flower and therefore its growth is
also terminated. The flowers may be with or without stalks. The flowers develop in basipetal
succession i.e. the terminal flower is the oldest and the lateral ones younger or in other words the
order of opening of the flower is centrifugal. The cymose inflorescence may be uniparous,
biparous or multiparous.
1. Uniparous or monochasial cyme: (unus: one; paresre: to produce). Here the main axis
endsin a flower and it produces only one lateral branch at a time ending in a flower (Simple
monochasium). If the lateral and succeeding branches again produce only one branch at a time
like the primary one, it is called compound monochasium. There are two forms of uniparous
cymes.
a) Helicoid or one sided cyme: The lateral axes develop successively on the same
side,evidently forming a sort of helix. Eg. Begonia.
b) Scorpioid or alternate sided: The lateral branches develop on alternate sides,
evidentlyforming a zig zag. Eg. Cotton.
2. Biparous or Dichasial cyme: (True cyme): Here the main axis ends in a flower and at
thesame time it produces two lateral younger flowers or two lateral branches. The lateral and
succeeding branches in their turn behave in the same manner. Eg. Jasmine, Ixora.
3. Multiparous or polychasial cyme: The main axis, as usual ends in a flower and at the
sametime it again produces a number of lateral flowers around. There being a number of
lateral flowers developing more or less simultaneously, the whole inflorescence looks like an
umbel, but it is readily distinguished from the latter by the opening of the middle flower first.
Eg. Madar, Calotropis.

23
Types of Cymose Inflorescence

Special type of inflorescence

Parts of a flower

24
4. Compound and mixed forms: If the main axis of the inflorescence is branched and
thebranches bear the flowers, the inflorescence is said to be compound. For example, when
raceme is branched, it is called a compound raceme or panicle. Eg. Paddy, Sorghum
C. SPECIAL TYPES
i.Cyathium
The bracts or the involucre become fused to form a cup shaped structure on the margin. In the
central part of cup shaped structure, a single female flower is found, which matures earlier. Due to
the growth of pedicel this come out from the cup shaped structure. Female flower is surrounded
by large number of small male flowers. The male flowers, which lie towards centre mature earlier
than the flowers which are towards periphery. This inflorescence is found in Euphorbiaceae
family like Euphorbia, Poinsettia, Pedilanthus. Eg. Castor, Jatropha, Tapioca
ii. Verticillaster
A cluster of sessile flowers borne on a dichasial cyme ending in monochasial cyme (scorpioid)
in the form of condensed whorl on either side of the node. The opposite clusters give the
appearance of whorl or verticel due to over crowding. It is the characteristic inflorescence of
Labiateae family. The verticels are further arranged in a racemose manner Eg: Ocimum (Tulsi),
Salvia.
iii. Hypanthodium
When the fleshy receptacles form a hollow cavity, more or less pear shaped with a narrow
apical opening guarded by scales and the flowers are borne on the inner wall of the cavity, the
inflorescence is a hypanthodium as in Ficus. Hence, the female flowers develop at the base of the
cavity and the male flowers higher up towards its mouth. Eg: Banyan, Peepal, Ficus species.
II. FLOWER
Flower is defined as highly condensed and modified reproductive shoot.The part from where
flower arise is called bract. Flower has short or long flower stalk which is called pedicel. In a
flower there are 4 types of floral leaves are found. 1. Sepal 2. Petal 3.Stamen 4.Carpel
A. CALYX
The outermost whorl of flower is called calyx. Each member of this whorl is called sepal.
 When all the sepals are free from each other it is called polysepalous condition. Eg:
Mustard and Radish.
 When the sepals are fused with each other it is called gamosepalous condition. Eg:
Cotton, Datura, Brinjal.
Epicalyx
A calyx-like extra whorl of floral appendages, positioned below the calyx. The individual
segments resemble sepals and are termed episepals. An epicalyx is found in the members of the
family Malvaceae.
B. COROLLA
The second whorl of flower is called corolla. Each member of this whorl is called Petals.
When the shape and size of petals are similar it is called symmetrical. When they are not similar
then they are asymmetrical.

 When all the petals are free it is called polypetalous. Eg. : Cotton, Hibiscus
 When petals are fused it is called gamopetalous. Eg. : Sesame
25
 Forms of Corolla

i. Actinomorphic and polypetalous

ii. Actinomorphic and gamopetalous

iii. Zygomorphic and polypetalous

iv.Zygomorphic and gamopetalous

26
FORMS OF COROLLA
i. Actinomorphic and polypetalous
1. Cruciform It consists of four petals. The lower narrow part of petal is called claw
while the outer broad part is called limb. These petals are arranged
crosswise. Eg: Radish and Mustard.
2. Caryophyllaceous It consists of five petals. The claw of petals are short and the limb
ofpetals from right angle to the claw Eg: Dianthus
3. Rosaceous It consists of five or more petals. Claws are absent in it and limbs are
spread regularly outwards. Eg: Rose, Coconut.
ii. Actinomorphic and gamopetalous
1. Campanulate Five petals are arranged like bell shape. Eg. Tobacco, Raspberry and
Gooseberry
2. Funnel shaped or Funnel like petal arrangement Eg: Datura
infundibuliform
3. Tubular Tubular like petal arrangement Eg: Disc florets of sunflower.
4. Rotate or wheel The corolla resembles like wheel. Eg. Jasmine.
shaped
5. Hypocrateriform The corolla tube is comparatively long. The corolla as
or Salver shaped a whole more or less salva-shaped. Eg. Ixora

iii. Zygomorphic and polypetalous

1. Papilionaceous Five petals are present. It's posterior petal is largest and is known
asstandard or vexillum.Vexillum covers two lateral petals which are
called as wings and the innermost basal petals are united to form a keel
or carina. Both lateral parts cover the keel. Eg: Pea, Gram, Arhar

iv.Zygomorphic and gamopetalous

1. Bilabiate / Two The petal of gamopetalous corolla is divided into two lips. The place
lipped between two lips is called corolla mouth. Eg: Ocimum, Salvia.
2. Personate / This is also two lipped like the previous one, but in this case the lips are
Masked placed near to each other so as to close the mouth of the corolla. The
projection of the lower lip closing the mouth of the corolla is known as
the palate Eg: Antirrhinum
3. Ligulate / Star When the corolla forms into a short narrow tube below but it is flattened
shaped above, like a strap as in the outer florets of sunflower, it is said to be
Ligulate. Eg: Ray florets of sunflower.
C. AESTIVATION
The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with respect to the other
members of the same whorl is known as aestivation. It is of following types.
i. Valvate
When the petals of a whorl lie adjacent to each other. The petals slightly touch each other but
not overlapping or overlapped. by their margin petal and just touches it. Petals do not
overlapping.Eg: Calotropis, Custard-apple, Mustard.

27
 Types of aestivation

Types of Androecium

a. Attachment of filament to anther lobe

b. Cohesion of stamens

28
ii. Twisted or contorted
One part of a petal covers adjacent petals and the other part is covered by posterior petal.
One margin of the petal overlaps that of the next one, and the other margin is overlapped by the
third one. Eg: Cotton, Ladiesfinger
iii. Imbricate
In aestivation of five parts one being exterior, one interior and rest three having one margin
exterior and the other interior.
a) Descending imbricate: Posterior petal is outermost as in pea. It is otherwise called
asvexillary aestivation.
b) Ascending imbricate: Posterior petal is innermost as in Cassias.
iv.Convoluted
Petals and sepals folded and rolled like a scroll. Eg. Datura
v.Quincuncial
It is a modification of imbricate type. Out of the five petals, two are completely internal, two
completely external and in the remaining petal, one margin is internal and the other margin is
external. Eg: Guava.
D. PERIANTH
When there is no distinction between calyx and corolla the whorl is described as
perianth.Individual perianth segments are called as Tepals. Green tepals are called sepaloid and
coloured tepals are called petaloid. Tepals are free (polytepalous) or fused (gamotepalous). Eg:
Graminae, Musaceae, Arecaceae family

E. ANDROECIUM
It constitutes the third whorl of the flower and is made up of one or more stamens. Each
stamen consists of filament, anther and connective tissues. Each anther is usually bilobed and
each lobe has two chambers called pollen sac or micro sporangia. The pollen grains are produced
in pollen sac.

a. Attachment of filament to anther lobe

The attachment of filament to anther lobe is of four types
i. Adnate Filament runs through the whole length of the anther from the base
to the apex. Eg: Verbena
ii. Basifixed or innate Filament is attached to the base of the anther. Eg. Mustard.
iii. Dorsifixed The filament is attached to the back of the anther. Eg: Citrus
iv. Versatile Filament attached to the back of the anther at a point only, thus the
anther can swing freely. Eg: Wheat, Maize.

b. Cohesion of stamens
The term „cohesion‟, „connate‟ and „coherent‟ are used to designate the union of members of
the same whorl (e.g): stamens with each other, carpels with each other. When stamens are united
by their filament only, it is called adelphous. There are five types:
i. Monoadelphous When all the filaments are united into a single bundle but anthers are free
from each other. Eg: Malvaceae family

29
 d. Based on length of stamens

e. Based on dehiscence from anther

30
ii. Diadelphous When the filaments are united in two bundles but the anther remains free.
Eg: Chickpea, Peas, Redgram. In these plants among 10 stamens (9+1),
nine stamens are arranged in a bundle while one stamen remains free.
iii. PolyadelphousWhen filaments are united into more than two bundles. Eg: Castor
iv. Syngenesious The anthers are united in bundle but filaments remain free Eg:
Compositaefamily
v. Synandrous When anthers as well as filaments of stamens are united through their
whole length Eg: Cucurbitaceae family.
.
c. Adhesion of stamens
When the stamens are attached to other parts of flower, then it is called adhesion of stamens.
i. Epipetalous: When stamens are attached to petals. Eg: Sesame and Sunflower.
ii. Epiphyllous: When stamens are attached to tepals. Eg: Liliaceae family.
iii. Gynandrous: When stamens are attached to gynoecium either throughout their whole length
or by their anther Eg: Calotropis

d. Length of stamens
i. Didynamous :Out of four stamens, if two are long and two are short. Eg: Sesame
ii. Tetradynamous :Out of six stamens, the inner four are long and the outer two are short.
Eg: Cruciferae.

e. Dehiscence of the pollen from anther

Dehiscence of the anther refers to the opening of anther to release pollen grains. It may be
1. Longitudinal : Dehiscing along the suture parallel to the long axis of thecae
Eg. Cotton, Datura
2. Transverse: Dehiscing at right angle to the long axis of thecae Eg. Basil
3. Porous : Dehiscing by a pore at one end of thecae Eg. Solanum sp.
4. Valvular: Dehiscing through a pore covered by a flap of tissue (anther lobes open like
a trap door or shutter). Eg. Cinnamon, Camphor, Bay leaf

F. GYNOECIUM OR PISTIL (GYNO: FEMALE)

It is the fourth and second essential whorl of the flower. It is female part of the flower
comprising of the inner whorl of megasporophylls in the form of carpels bearing ovules. It
consists of ovary, style and stigma. Ovary is the enlarged basal part, which lies on the the style
and the style connects the ovary to the stigma. The stigma is usually at the tip of the style and is
receptive surface for pollen grains. The gynoecium may be monocarpellary or multicarpellary. If
only one carpel is present in gynoecium this condition is called monocarpellary.If more than one
carpel is present in gynoecium this condition is called polycarpellary.If all the carpels in
polycarpellary / multicarpellary condition are free, then the condition is called apocarpous. Eg:
Polyalthia. If all the carpels are fused together, then the condition is called syncarpous.

G. PLACENTATION
The placentation is a ridge of tissue – a parenchymatous outgrowth – in the inner wall of
the ovary to which the ovule or ovules remain attached. The placenta most frequently develop.
31
 G. Plancentation

(a) Marginal (b) Axile (c) Parietal (d) Free central (e) Basal (f) superficial
Floral Formula
+ - Actinomorphic
Ø - Zygomorphic
♂ - Staminate
♀ - Pistillate flower
Br - Bracteate
Ebr - Ebracteate
Brl - Bracteolate
K - Calyx
C - Corolla
P - Perianth
A - Androecium
G - Gynoecium
K5 - Calyx polysepalous
K(5) - Calyx gamosepalous
C5 - Corolla polypetalous
C(5) - Corolla gamopetalous
P6 - Perianth polyphyllous
P(6) - Perianth gamophyllous
C 5- A5 - Stamens epipetalous
P3+3- A3+ 3 - Stamens epiphyllous
G (2) - Carpels 2, syncarpous with superior ovary
G (2 ) - Carpels 2, syncarpous with inferior ovary
G2 - Carpels 2, apocarpous with superior ovary
G2 - Carpels 2, apocarpous with inferior ovary
G - Ovary perigynous
A5- G5 - Gynandrous
A2+2 - Didynamous
A3+2 - Tridynamous
A4+2 - Tetradynamous

32
on the margins of the carpels, along with their whole line of union called the suture or at their
base or apex. The manner in which the placenta are distributed in the cavity of the ovary is
known as placentation. It is of following types
i. Marginal: In marginal placentation, the ovary is one chambered and the placenta
developsalong the junction of the two margins of the carpel, called the ventral suture as in
Leguminaceae. The line or suture corresponding to the midrib of the carpel is known as the
dorsal suture. No placenta develops here. Eg. Chickpea, Peas
ii. Axile: In axile placentation, the ovary is two to many chambered usually as many as
thenumber of carpels and the placenta bearing the ovules develop from the central axis
corresponding to the congluent margins of carpels and hence the name axile (lying in the axis)
Eg. Lemon, Orange, Tomato, Ladiesfinger etc.
iii. Parietal: (parieties: wall): In parietal placentation, the ovary is one chambered and
theplacentae bearing the ovules develop on the inner wall of the ovary. In Cruciferae family,
the placentation is also parietal although the ovary is two chambered. The ovary is at first
unilocular but soon a false partition wall develops across the ovary dividing it into two
chamber while the seeds remain attached to a wiry frame work called the replum. Eg.
Mustard, Cucumber
iv. Free-central: In free-central placentation, the placenta arises from the base of the
ovary,projects far into its cavity as a swollen central axis and bears the ovules all over its
surface. Since the placenta lies free in the single chamber of the ovary, the placentation is said
to be free central. Eg. Primrose, Dianthus
v. Basal: In basal placentation, the ovary is unilocular and the placentae develops directly on the
thalamus and bears a single ovule at the base of the ovary as in Compositae. Eg. Sunflower,
Safflower
vi. Superficial: In superficial placentation, the ovary is multilocular, carpels being numerous asin
axile placentation but the placenta in this case develop all around the inner surface of the
partition walls. Eg. Waterlily (Nymphaea).

FLORAL DIAGRAM
The number and parts of a flower, their general structure, arrangement and the relation
they bear to one another (aestivation), the adhesion, cohesion and position with respect to the
mother axis is represented by a diagram known as floral diagram.
It is the ground plan of a flower. In the floral diagram, the calyx lies outermost, the corolla
internal to the calyx, the androecium in the middle, and the gynoecium in the centre. Adhesion
and cohesion of members of different whorls can also be shown clearly by connecting the
respective parts with lines. In the family fabaceae, the stamens will be arranged in two bundles
(9+1). All the nine are united into one bundle (cohesion) and the remaining one is free.
In some flowers, the petals and stamens are united. The black dot on the top represents the
position of mother axis which bears the flower (not the pedicel). The axis lies behind the flower
and therefore, the side of the flower nearest to the axis is called the posterior side and the other
side away from the axis, the anterior side.

33
 Anatomy of ovule

Forms of ovule

A) Orthotropous B) Anatropous C) Hemianatropous

D) Campylotropous E) Amphitropous F) Circinotropous

34
FLORAL FORMULA
The different whorls of a flower, their number, cohesion and adhesion may be represented
by a formula named floral formula. In the floral formula, K stands for calyx, C for corolla, P for
perianth, A for androecium and G for gynoecium. The figures following the letters K, C, P, A and
G indicate the number and parts of those whorls.
Cohesion of a whorl is shown by enclosing the figure within brackets G(2) and the
adhesion is shown by a line drawn on the top of the two whorls C5 A(∞) concerned. In case of
gynoecium, the position of ovary is shown by a line drawn below or above G. if the ovary is
superior, the line should be drawn below (G); if it is inferior, the line should be on the top(G).
Besides some more symbols are used to represent certain features of flower. They are
III. MORPHOLOGY OF OVULE
1. OVULE
Each ovule is attached to the placenta by a slender stalk known as the funicle. The part of
attachment of the body of the ovule to its stalk or funicle is known as the hilum. In the inverted
ovule, the funicle continues beyond the hilum forming a sort of ridge, called the raphe. The upper
end of the raphe which is the junction of the integuments and the nucellus is called the chalaza.
The main body of the ovule is called the nucellus and it is surrounded by two coats termed as the
integuments. A small opening left at the apex of the integuments is called the micropyle. Within
the nucellus, there is a large oval cell lying embedded towards the micropylar ends, this is the
embryosac which bears the embryo, the most important part of the ovule.

FORMS OF OVULE
1. Orthotropous: (ortho- straight; tropos – a turn): or straight: When the ovule is erect
orstraight so that the funicle, chalaza and micropyle lie on one and the same vertical line as in
Piperaceae, Casuarinaceae. Eg. : Piper, Polygonium

2. Anatropous: (ana – backwards) or inverted: When the ovule bends along the funicle sothat
the micropyle lies close to the hilum, the micropyle and the chalaza, but not the funicle lie on
the same straight line. This is the common form of ovule found in 82% of angiosperm
families.

3. Amphitropous: (amphi-on both sides) or transverse: When the ovule is placed

transverselyat a right angle to its stalk or funicle. Ovule as well as embryo sac is curved like
horse shoe. Eg. Lemna, Poppy, Alisma

4. Campylotropous (Kampylos – curved) or curved: When the transverse ovule is bent

roundlike a horse shoe so that the micropyle and the chalaza do not lie on the same straight
line as in Leguminosae and Cruciferae. Eg. : Crucifers

o
5. Hemianatropous: Ovule turns at 90 angle upon the funicle or body of ovule and is at
rightangle to the funicle Eg. Ranunculus.
o
6. Circinotropous: The ovule turns at more than 360 angle, so funicle becomes coiled
aroundthe ovule Eg. Opuntia (Cactaceae).

35
 Types of fruits

Simple Fruits
Types of fleshy fruits

A. Drupe B.Berry C. Balausta

D. Pepo E. Pome E. Hesperidium
36
IV. MORPHOLOGY OF FRUITS
FRUIT
The fruit can be mentioned as a mature or ripened ovary. It consists of two portions viz.,
the pericarp (peri-around; carpos – fruit) developed from the wall of the ovary and the seeds, that
develop from the ovules. When only the ovary of the flower grows into the fruit it is commonly
known as the true fruit, but after, it is found that the floral parts such as the thalamus, receptacle
or calyx may also grow and form a part of the fruit. Such a fruit is known as the false or
spuriousfruit.
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS
Fruits are divided in three groups A) Simple B) Aggregate C) Multiple or Composite
A. SIMPLE FRUIT
These fruit develop from monocarpellary ovary or multicarpellary syncarpous ovary. Only
one fruit is formed by the gynoecium. Simple fruits are of two types viz., Fleshy fruit and Dry
fruit.
1. Fleshy Fruit
Fruits develop from superior or inferior syncarpous gynoecium. It may be unilocular or
multilocular. Fruits are indehiscent. Dispersal of seeds occurs after pericarp is destroyed.
Types of Fleshy fruits
a. Drupe
Fruit developed from mono or multicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary. Endocarp is
hard and stony so called stony fruits. Eg: Mango, Coconut, Almond, Peach, Walnut and Plum. In
mango edible fleshy part is mesocarp and the part where seed is protected is called as endocarp.In
ber both the epicarp and mesocarp are edible part. The rind of Almond and walnut are endocarp
and their edible part is seed. In coconut epicarp is hard and thin while mesocarp is thick and
consists of hard fibers. The endocarp is hard and seed is protected in it.
b.Bacca or Berry
Fruits developed from mono or multicarpellary syncarpous ovary. Ovary may be superior
or inferior. Placentation is axile or parietal. Plants with superior ovary: Tomato, Grapes, Brinjal.
Plants with inferior ovary: Guava, Banana. In these epicarp is thin and seeds are embedded in
fleshy part.
c.Pepo
These fruits develop from tricarpellary, syncarpous and inferior ovary. Fruit is unilocular and
have parietal placentation. Fruits are fleshy and spongy. Sometimes fruits are bitter in taste due to
presence of tetracyclic triterpine in flashy pulp. Eg: Fruits of cucurbitaceae family.
d.Pome
Fruits developed from bi or multicarpellary syncarpous inferior ovary. The rind and fleshy
pulp are made up of thalamus. Seeds are present in it. Eg: Apple and Pear.
e.Hesperidium
This fruit develops from multicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary. This fruit is specially
found in plants of Rutaceae family. Eg: Orange, Lemon and Citrus. Epicarp of this fruit is made
up of thick rind which is leathery and many oil glands are found in it.Mesocarp is white fibrous
structure which is attached with epicarp. Membranous endocarp projects inward and form many
chambers. Many glandular hairs are present on the inner side of endocarp.These glandular hairs
are only edible parts.
37
 Dry Fruits
Types of dehiscent or Capsular Fruits

Types of indehiscent or Achenial Fruits

38
f.Balausta
It is a multilocular and multiseeded fruit developed from inferior ovary. Pericarp and endocarp
are hard. Persistent calyx is arranged in the form of crown. Seeds are irregularly arranged on
placenta. Testa is fleshy. This is the edible part of fruit. Eg: Pomegranate

B. DRY FRUIT
Pericarp of simple dry fruit is hard and dry and not differentiated into epicarp, mesocarp and
endocarp. Such fruits are called dry fruit. Simple dry fruits can be divided into following three
groups
a. Dehiscent fruits
b. Indehiscent fruits and
c. Schizocarpic fruits.

a. DEHISCENT OR CAPSULAR FRUITS

After ripening pericarp is ruptured and seeds are dispersed outside.
i. Legume or pods
These fruits develop from monocarpellary, unilocular, superior ovary. It is generally long and
multiseeded fruit.Dehiscence of fruit occurs at both sutures i.e. Dorsal and ventral side.
Dehiscence start from apex and reaches to basal part. Eg: Pea, Beans.When only one or two seeds
are present in fruit, then it is also called as pod.
ii. Follicle
It is also multiseeded fruit which develops from superior unilocular, monocarpellary
ovary. Dehiscence occurs only at ventral suture. Eg: Asclepias, Rauwolfia, Vinca, Michelia,
Delphinium.
iii.Siliqua
This fruit develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous superior ovary with parietal
placentation. Dehiscence occurs at both dorsal and ventral suture and starts from lower part and
proceeds upward. Due to formation of false septum ovary becomes bilocular. On false septum,
seeds are attached. This type of fruit is found in Cruciferae family. Eg: Mustard.
iv.Capsule
This is dry multichambered and multiseeded fruit and develops from multicarpellary
syncarpus, superior ovary. Presence of axile placentation. All dehiscent fruits developing from a
syncarpous ovary are commonly known as capsules. Eg: Cotton and Bhendi.

b. INDEHISCENT FRUITS OR ACHENIAL FRUITS

These simple dry fruits are generally of small size and single seeded pericarp does not
rupture even after maturity.
i.Caryopsis
These are small, single seeded dry fruits.It developed from monocarpellary, superior
ovary. Pericarp of these fruits is fused with the seed coat and form a joint surface. These fruits are
present in family gramineae. Wheat grain or rice grain is a fruit.
ii.Achene
These are single seeded fruits which develop from monocarpellary superior ovary. Pericarp
and seed coat are free from each other. Eg: Sunflower, Safflower
39
 Types of Splitting or Schizocarpic Fruit

Cremocarp Cacerule Regma Lomentum Double Samara

Types of Aggregate Fruits

40
iii.Cypsela
It is a small, single seeded dry fruit which develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous inferior
ovary. Pericarp and seed coat are free from each other.In these fruits a bunch of hairs is attached
with the fruit which is known as Pappus. Pappus helps in fruit dispersal. Eg: Tridax

iv. Samara
This is a dry, indehiscent one or two seeded fruit developing from a superior bi or tri
carpellary ovary with one or more flattened wing like outgrowths. Eg: Yam (Dioscorea).
v.Nut
This is a single seeded fruit developed from monocarpellary syncarpous superior ovary. Hard
pericarp Eg : Anacardium occidentale (Cashewnut) and Litchi. In Litchi epicarp and mesocarp are
fused and give a leathery appearance. Endocarp is membrane like thin. Outer seed coat grows
forward and forms an additional coat around the seed which is called as aril. In mature fruit, this
aril is fleshy and is only edible part.

c. SPLITTING OR SCHIZOCARPIC FRUIT

It is a multiseeded fruit. After ripening, it is divided into mericarp and seeds come out after
destruction of pericarp. The fruits develop from mono or bi or multicarpellary superior or inferior
ovary. The mericarp contains one or two seeds.
i. Lomentum: This is a type of dry, indehiscent legume constricted or partitioned between
theseeds into a number of one seeded compartments. The fruit splits transversely along the
constructions or partitions into one seeded pieces as in sensitive plant. Eg. Acacia, Mimosa
ii. Cremocarp: This is a dry, indehiscent, two chambered fruit developing from an
inferior,bicarpellary ovary. When ripe, the fruit splits apart into indehiscent one seeded pieces
called mericarps. The mericarps remain attached to the prolonged end (carpophore) of the
axis. Cremocarp is the characteristic fruit of umbelliferae. Eg. Coriander
iii. Double samara: In maple (Acer), the fruit develops from a superior, bicarpellary ovary
andwhen mature it splits into two samaras each with a wing and a seed.
iv. Regma: This is a dry, indehiscent fruit developing from a syncarpous pistil. It splits
awayfrom the central axis into as many parts called cocci as there are carpels, each part
containing one or two seeds. The seeds are liberated later on the decay of dry pericarp. Eg.
Castor.
v. Carcerule: This is small, dry indehiscent four chambered fruit developing from a
superiorbicarpellary pistil. This is the characteristic fruit of labiatae.

C. AGGREGATE FRUIT
An aggregate fruit is a collection of simple fruits developing from the apocarpous pistil of
a flower. Fruits are made up of bunch of fruitlets and are known as etaerio. Common forms are:
1. an etaerio of follicle: madar .
2. an etaerio of achene: rose, lotus
3. an etaerio of drupes: raspberry
4. an etaerio of berries: custard apple.
Eg: Polyalthia, Annona squamosa

41
MULTIPLE OR COMPOSITE FRUITS

Sorosis
Pineapple

Syconus

42
D. MULTIPLE OR COMPOSITE FRUITS
All composite fruits are false fruits. These types of fruits differ from aggregate fruit that in
place of single ovary to many ovaries and other floral parts combine together to form fruit. In
composite fruits, generally whole inflorescence is modified into fruit. These are of two types.

i. Sorosis: This is a multiple fruit developing from a Spike or Spadix. The florets fuse togetherby
their succulent sepals and at the same time the axis bearing them grows and becomes fleshy or
woody and as a result the whole inflorescence forms into a compact mass Eg. Pineapple, Jack
fruit.
If the Jack fruit is cut longitudinally into two halves, there is a long central axis which is
the inflorescence axis or peduncle. The edible part is perianth, which becomes thick, succulent
and juicy. Inside the edible portion, there is a membranous bag containing one seed. The bag
represents the pericarp. Between the edible flakes, there are numerous elongated whitish
structures, these are sterile flowers. The spines on the tough rind represent the stigmas of the
carpels.

ii. Syconus: Syconus develops from a hollow, pear shaped, fleshy receptacle which encloses
anumber of minute male and female flowers. The receptacle grow, becomes fleshy and forms
fruit. It really encloses a number of true fruits or achenes which develop from the female flowers
lying within the receptacle at its base Eg. Ficus.

EXERCISE
1. List out the different types of inflorescence observed in crop plants.
2. Write down the different types of androecium and gynoecium present in plants.
3. Observe and draw the different types of ovules.
4. Distinguish between dehiscent and indehiscent fruit.
5. Differentiate aestivation and placentation.
6. Differentiate between actinomorphic and zygomorphic flower from given specimen
and draw the floral diagram (Solanaceae, Euphorbiaceae)

43
 Parts of rice plant

Paddy inflorescence Paddy spikelet

44
 Ex. No. 3 Date:

FAMILY : POACEAE - Rice and Wheat

1. RICE – Oryza sativa L. (2n = 24)

Habitat : Tropical and subtropical

Habit : Semiaquatic, free tillering, annual herbaceous species with fibrous
adventitious root system.
Roots : The young roots are white, thick, short and relatively unbranched. Later
they branch freely and become flaccid and brown. The roots can grow
under low oxygen concentrations. Initially roots are positively geotropic
but at panicle initiation, they grow horizontally and upwards to produce a
dense surface mat giving more stability to the plant.
Stem : The jointed stem of rice called culm is made up of a series of nodes and
internodes. Erect, cylindrical, hollow at the internodes and shorter at the
base and becoming progressively longer at top.
Leaves : Leaves alternate on the stem in two ranks one at each node. The leaf sheath
is continuous with the blade. There may be swelling at the base called
pulvinous. The uppermost leaf below the panicle is called the flag leaf.
The ligule is a small, white, triangular scale that looks like a continuation of
the sheath. At the base of the blade, i.e. around the junction between the
blade and sheath, there is white band called the collar. A pair of hairy,
sickle shaped auricles are located at the junction between the collar and the
sheath. Leaf sheath encircles the whole or part of the internode. Leaf blade
is long, narrow and pubescent, having spiny hairs on the margins.
Inflorescence : Loose terminal panicle. Usually 10-30 cm long. It may be erect or
drooping, with the base of the peduncle enclosed in the flag leaf sheath.
Spikelets : Spikelets occur in single, attached to secondary rachis. Spikelets are
laterally compressed, borne on a short pedicel, subtended by two miniature
sterile glumes. Lemma is rough, large, boat shaped, strongly five nerved,
apex is solid or it may be awned. Palea is narrower than lemma and
strongly three nerved. The extended tips of the lemma & palea are the
“apiculus”. Perianth is modified and restricted into small fleshy transparent
portions called lodicules. At the time of anthesis, the lodicules become
turgid and thrust the lemma and palea apart exposing the fertile stamens.
Lodicules help in the opening of the floret.
Androecium : Stamens six in two alternating whorls, filaments slender; anthers versatile.
Gynoecium : Ovary broad, smooth with single anatropous ovule; style bifid with plumose
stigmas, which may be white or purplish.
Pollination : Mainly self pollinated, but small and varying amounts (0.04 to 4.5%) of
cross pollination by wind do occur.
Fruit : Dry one seeded indehiscent fruit is the Grain called “Caryopsis”.
Economic part : Caryopsis, the grain.
45
Parts of Wheat plant Wheat inflorescence

Wheat – Spikelet Dissection of spikelet

46
 2. WHEAT – Triticum spp.

Triticum monococcum 2n = 14
T. dicoccum 2n = 28
T. aestivum 2n = 42

Habitat : Subtropical, temperate

Habit : Erect, annual which grows from 30 to 120 cm.
Roots : Adventitious roots
Stem : Cylindrical with distinct nodes and internodes. Nodes are swollen and
internodes are hollow. Usually there are six internodes and the sixth is the
spike bearing one.
Leaves : Simple, alternate in distichous alternate leaves arranged to right and left side
of the stem on one plane arrangement, long, linear lamina with leaf sheath
covering the internodes, ligule membranous, auricles prominent, claw
shaped and clasp the stem. The two halves of the lamina are unequal and
show a tendency to twist.
Inflorescence : Terminal distichous spike, with tough rachis, awned or awnless, glabrous or
hairy.
Spikelets : Sessile and borne singly at the nodes on alternate sides of the rachis. Each
spikelet consists of two to five florets attached alternately on opposite sides
of a short central axis called rachilla and is covered by two sterile or empty
glumes. Lemma broad with an acute tip or awn, palea thin. The lower
lemmas are fertile while the top one or two are sterile. Lodicules two,
stamens three with thin filaments and large anthers superior ovary, styles
two, single ovule, bifid feathery stigma.
Androecium :
Stamens three; filaments slender; anthers bilobed versatile.
Gynoecium :
Ovary obovate, superior, syncarpous with two hairy styles.
Fruit :
Caryopsis; naked, possessing prominent crease on the ventral side and hairy
at the apex; varying in colour from straw colour to reddish brown;
endosperm starchy glutinous, embryo basal and dorsal.
Pollination : Self-pollination is the rule.
Economic part : Caryopsis which contain 70% carbohydrate and 11% protein.

EXERCISE
1. Draw the dissected florets of rice and wheat.
2. Compare and contrast the inflorescence of rice and wheat.
3. What is the function of lodicules?
4. Draw the floral diagram of rice and wheat with its floral formula.

47
 Habit of Maize Tassel - Male spikelets

Cob - Female inflorescence

48
 Ex. No. 4 Date:
FAMILY : POACEAE - Maize, Sorghum, Pearl millet And Finger millet
1. MAIZE – Zea mays (2n: 20)
Origin : Southern Mexico
Habitat : Tropical and subtropical
Habit : Tall herbaceous annual, single stalked, rarely tillering.
Root : Adventitious, generally thick and fibrous stilt roots from the bottom nodes
and often pigmented.
Stem : Robust erect solid and cylindrical. Succulent, nodes short at base and
progressively become longer and thicker. The base of the stem is pigmented.
Leaves : Distichous, each with leaf sheath, ligule, auricle and lamina. Sheath entire
progressively become longer and thicker.
Inflorescence : Unisexual and monoecious. Staminate (male) inflorescence is terminal and
known as tassel and pistillate (female) is axillary and called as Cob.
Tassel: It is a terminal lax panicle with spikelets arranged in rows in central
axis and lateral branches. Spikelets occur in pairs. One is pedicelled and the
other sessile but identical; the glumes G1 and G2 are long and membraneous
within the glumes, there are two florets, both staminate. Both the florets
possess lemma (L1,L2), palea (P1,P2) and two fleshy lodicules, stamens are
three in number, versatile, pistil is rudimentary.
Cob: The ear bearing branch (cob) is much like main shoot. It is produced in
lateral branch in the axil of one of the longest foliage leaves. The cob is
covered by the leaf like structures called husk (bracts). These husks are
enlarged leaf sheaths arising from each node, forming a protective covering
around the inflorescence. The ear is a spike with thickened axis (shank) on
which paired spikelets are borne in longitudinal rows. Each paired spikelet is
associated with a socket. Both the spikelets are sessile and identical. Each
spikelet is two flowered, having a pair of small membranous glumes. The
lower flower is nonfunctional, represented by a lemma and palea. The upper
one is fertile and consists of a membraneous lemma and palea and knob
shaped ovary having long thread like style called silk. They emerge from the
top of the husk. The style is receptive throughout the length and at the tip
which is usually cleft into two branches. Lodicules are generally absent.
Pollination : Maize is monoceious, dicliny and protandrous. Hence, cross pollination is
the rule. But as there is some overlapping in the flowering phases, upto 5 per
cent self pollination is noted.
Fruit : Caryopsis. Maize grains are fully exposed naked and oblong in shape.
Economic : Caryopsis.
part
Economic As human food: Corn flake, Corn meal, Corn puff, Pop corn, Corn syrup,
Importance : Corn oil, Corn flakes
As cattle feed: Grain as feed for poultry, piggery and cattle. Green fodder for
silage and dry fodder ; Industrial uses: Corn starch, syrup, oil

49
Parts of sorghum plant with dissected florets

50
2. SORGHUM – Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (2n: 20)
Origin : Africa
Habitat : Tropical and subtropical
Habit : Annual herbaceous, erect, single stalked or with tillers.
Root : Fibrous root system. At lower nodes of stem stilt roots appear as a circle.
Stem : Erect, solid, 50 to 180 cm in height, slightly furrowed on alternate sides,
pithy dry or juicy with light green thickened nodes. Internodes are short at
the base and longer above.
Leaves : Simple, alternate, glabrous, long, lancelolate, leaf blade is ribbon like with
an acute apex, midrib prominent, ligule is short, membranous and fringed
present at the junction of leaf sheath and leaf blade. Below the leaf surface
waxy coating will be there which prevents evaporation of water.
Inflorescence Usually compact panicle or semi compact or loose (lax) panicle. Terminal
peduncle erect or recurved. The joints of the rachis bears paired spikelets.
One is sessile while the other spikelet is pedicellate.
Fertile (perfect) (or) sessile spikelet:Sessile spikelet is bisexual or
hermaphrodite. It has two glumes of approximately equal length (G1 and G2)
having two flowers inside; lower one is sterile with empty lemma (L1) and
no palea (P1 absent); upper floret is perfect, bisexual consists of
membraneous lemma (L2) two cleft at apex and with long or short arm, a
small thin delicate palea (P2). Two lodicules present adjacent to fertile
lemma, lodicules are fleshy and truncate. Stamens three and versatile, pistil
with roundish single celled ovary and two long styles ending in a feathery
stigma. Sessile fertile spikelet is comparatively larger than staminate
spikelet.
Staminate (or) pedicelled spikelet: It is the sterile spikelet. Spikelets are
with long or short pedicel, two leathery boat shaped glumes enclose two
florets. The lower floret is represented by the lemma (L1) only and the upper
floret is staminate with short awned lemma (L2); palea (P2) absent; two
lodicules; three stamens; pistil absent.
Pollination : Sorghum is an often cross pollinated crop. The degree of cross pollination
is influenced by wind and panicle type. Open head being more liable to
crossing than compact ones.
Fruit : Caryopsis
Economic : Grain is the economic part called Caryopsis.
part
Economic Importance : Flour of sorghum is used for making porridge, biscuits or
unleavenedbread. Pop sorghums with horny endosperm used for popcorn making. Sorghum is
also widely used for brewing beer which is a valuable dietary supplement because of its high
vitamin B content. Sorghum with sweet stems containing upto 10 per cent sucrose, are used for
brewing and manufacture of syrup. Sugar varieties containing 18 per cent Total Soluble
Sugar(TSS), the juice is extracted, sterilized, fermented with yeast for 48 hrs. Distillation is done
and 45% ethanol extracted. The grain is also used as valuable stock feed. Fodder sorghum
principally used as fodder, hay and silage making.

51
 Habit of Pearlmillet

Floral parts of Pearlmillet

52
 3. PEARL MILLET (CUMBU) – Pennisetum glaucum L. (2n: 14)
Origin : Africa
Habitat : Tropical and subtropical
Habit : Erect, annual, tillering habit and growing up to three meters.
Root : Fibrous root system.
Stem : Solid, slender or stout, round. Nodes slightly swollen with ring of silky
while internodes are cylindrical and glabrous. The internodal length
increases from the base of the culms upwards.
Leaves : Linear with sparse hairs or very hairy or glabrous. The base of the blade is
slightly auricled. The ligule is narrow, membranous with fringe of hairs. It
closely surrounds the stem. The leaf sheath completely encircles the stem.
Inflorescence Terminal panicle, spiciform (or) cylindrical, peduncle thin, cylindrical,
clothed with soft, more or less wooly hairs below the base of the spikelets.
Central rachis cylindrical bearing densely packed clusters of spikelets
arranged spirally on the rachis. Rachilla is small bearing involucre of
bristles (feather like bristles) and a cluster of one or two spikelets. Each
spikelet has two florets enclosed in two glumes. The lower glume (G1) is
short, broad and membranous. The upper glume (G2) is larger.
The upper Perfect floret: The upper floret is hermaphrodite. L2is long
and oblong and P2 is tougher than P1; stamens-three anthers; ovary superior
with single style, bifid at the tip into two plumose stigma. Flowering is
protogynous.
The lower floret: The lower floret is staminate or sterile. Lower floret
contains L1 (broadly oblong to ovate and cuspidate) and P1 may be present
or absent. Lodicules absent. Stamens three with characteristic pennicillate
anthers (hairs at the tip of the anthers), no ovary.
Pollination : Cross pollination takes place because of the protogynous nature of the
flower. But self pollination also takes place to certain extent due to
overlapping of female and male phases in the same inflorescence.
Fruit : Caryopsis. The grain is almost oval with one of its end tapering
(attachment point to the spike). The colour of the grain varies from whitish
yellow to grey. Embryo is elliptic present on tapering end. Hilum is
masked by black dot.
Economic : Grain called as Caryopsis
part
Economic : Flour : Preparation of cakes or unleavened bread
Importance Grain : Malted seed is an important source of beer, feed for poultry and
other livestock
Green plant : Fodder
Straw : Feed for livestock, bedding, thatching, fencing and fuel

53
Parts of fingermillet plant with dissected floret

54
4. RAGI (Finger millet) – Eleusine coracana Gaertn (2n: 36)
Origin : India
Habitat : Tropical and subtropical
Habit : Annual, herbaceous, tillers well and branches freely.
Root : Fibrous root system
Stem : Compressed, elliptic, bearing many distichous leaves.
Leaves : Linear with distinct midrib and ligule with fringe of hairs.
Inflorescence : Terminal digitate spikes. Spikes borne on a long peduncle from the end
of which four to five spikelets radiate in a whorl called fingers with an odd
one a little lower down the whorl called as the thumb. Rachis of the spikes
is flat; spikelets are sessile, arranged in two rows alternately attached to one
side of the rachis. Each spikelet is having 3-7 flowers enclosed by common
glumes (G1 and G2). Florets are hermaphrodite with boat shaped lemma and
a small palea with two lodicules; three stamens with long filaments and
short oblong anthers; ovary with two styles with plumose stigma. The
terminal floret sterile.
Pollination : Self pollinated crop. One per cent of cross pollination takes place
Fruit : The fruit of Ragi is the grain called Utricle.
Economic : The grain is the economic part rich in Calcium, Phosphorus and Iron.
part
Economic : Grain. Food in the form of cake, porridge, sweet meat. Used for malting
importance and brewing flour for making different edible things. Grains can be stored
for long periods upto ten years or more without deterioration or weevil
damage. It is an important famine food.
Ragi malt : Food for the aged and children.
Straw : Cattle feed.

List of Other Minor Millets

Sl. Minor Common name Botanical name Chromosome

No. millet number
1. Tenai Fox tail millet/Italian millet Setaria italica Beauv 2n = 18
2. Samai Little millet Panicum sumatrense Linn 2n = 36
3. Kudiraivali Barnyard millet Echinochloa frumentacea 2n = 36
4. Panivaragu Proso millet Panicum miliaceum Linn 2n = 36
5. Varagu Kodo millet Paspalum scorbiculatum L. 2n = 40

EXERCISE
1. Dissect and draw the structure of spikelets of maize, sorghum and pearl millet.
2. Distinguish tassel and cob in maize.
3. Observe the presence of lodicules in the above crops and which crop is elodiculate
4. Observe and differentiate pedicillate and sessile spikelet.
5. How maize is protandrous and pearlmillet is protogynous. Substantiate.
6. What are different types of earhead in ragi?
7. Draw the floral diagram and floral formula of maize, sorghum and pearl millet.
55
Habit of Guinea grass

Habit of Napier grass

56
 Ex. No. 5 Date:

FAMILY : POACEAE - Guinea Grass, Napier Grass, Cenchrus and Sugarcane

1. GUINEA GRASS – Panicum maximum Jacq. (2n:18, 36, 48)

Origin : Tropical Africa

Habitat : Tropical
Habit : A dense, erect, perennial, rhizomatous grass, culms with big internodes,
slender and glabrous nodes and leaf sheath pubescent.
Root : Adventitious root system
Leaves : Leaf blade is long, upto 60 cm, and 2-2.5 cm broad, little rough and
succulent, linear, non droopy.
Inflorescence : Open terminal panicle with stiff branches in whorls. Spikelets are small,
glumes two, stamens three, ovary with two stylar and plumose stigmas.
Pollination : Often cross pollinated crop
Fruit : Caryopsis. Grains are very small enclosed by the rigose lemma and palea
and deciduous.
Economic part : Entire plant is used as fodder.
Economic : Very good grass for grazing, green fodder and silage making, grown in
Importance many sewage farms. It is free from all known toxic principles. It contains
5-8% protein with well balanced calcium and phosphorus. It is useful as a
soil binder to protect against soil erosion.

2. NAPIER GRASS – Pennisetum purpureum Schumach. (2n:28)

Origin : South Africa
Habitat : Tropical
Habit : Perennial, tall, profuse, tillering with creeping rhizomes.
Root : Adventitious root system
Stem : High tillering with thick clumps. Each tiller is very thick with pubescent
leaf sheath.
Leaves : Linear, 90 cm long, dull green with hairy ligules.
Inflorescence : Terminal, dense, spiciform panicle.
Yellow or tinged with brown or purple spikelets, lanceolate, one or two
flowered, G1 and G2 minute. Lemma one, paleate, staminate lemma two
paleate, bisexual, stamens three, penicillate anthers, style long, connate
bifid stigma.
Fruit : Caryopsis. Grains are very small, oblong in shape
Economic part : Entire plant is used as fodder.
Economic : Leaf contains 5-7% protein with balanced proportion of calcium and
Importance phosphorus. It is coarse for hay making.

57
Habit of Kozhukattai grass with flower

Parts of Sugarcane plant with Arrow

58
 CUMBU NAPIER HYBRID (2n: 21)
It is the hybrid between pearl millet and napier grass. Sterile plants produced.
Pennisetum glaucum (2n:14) x P. purpureum (2n:28)

Hybrid 2n: 21 (triploid, sterile)

Economic Importance: It appears like P. purpureum with greenish bristles.
Hybrid is high yielding
Suitable for green fodder as well as for silage.

3. KOLUKATTAI GRASS – Cenchrus spp. (2n:32, 36, 40,54)

Three types:
1. White kolukattai: Cenchrus ciliaris;
2. Neela Kolukattai: Cenchrus glaucus;
3. Black klolukattai: Cenchrus setigerus
Habitat Tropical
:
Habit :
Perennial grass with underground rhizomes.
Root Adventitious root system
:
Stem :
Aerial branches, tufted, erect or decumbent, tillering.
Leaves Leaf sheath slightly compressed, shorter than the internodes with scattered hairs,
:
ligule short, thin, membrane fringed with hairs, the leaf blade is linear with hairs
scattered above and sparse at the lower surface.
Inflorescence : A raceme of spikes.
The floral axis flattened and grooved, with one to three spikelets subtended
by involucre of bristles, connate at the base, spikelets sessile, oblong
lanceolate. First glume is small, hyaline, ovate-lanceolate. Second glume
ovate, acute hyaline and one third to half the length of the lemma. First
lemma paleate, staminate or sessile, Second lemma paleate with
hermaphrodite flower, Stamens three, ovary with two plumose stigmas,
lodicules absent, grain small, oblong.
Fruit : Grain small oblong, hard with short bristles
Economic part : Entire plant is used as fodder.
Economic : Suited for grazing as well as a cut fodder. It makes a good hay as it retains
Importance its nutritive value even when ripe. It is suited to grow under Leucaena as
silvipasture.
4. SUGARCANE – Saccharum officinarum L. (2n: 80; 40-194)

Origin : South East Asia

Habitat : Subtropical, tropical
Habit : Perennial grass growing erect tall, upto 6-8 metres, called as 'giant grass’
Root : Adventitious root system
Stem : More or less cylindrical, solid, jointed with distinct nodes and internodes, the
nodes provided with root primordial and intercalary meristamatic tissue.
Leaves : Alternate, distichous, enclosing a bud in the axil, lamina linear with a
distinct midrib, margins and surface quite rough. Ligules simple.
59
 Dissected spikelet of sugarcane

A) Sessile spikelet B) Glume I. C) Glume II. D) Palea.

E) Flower with two lodicules, three stamens, gynoecium with ovary and two feathered stigmas

60
Inflorescence : Silky panicle called ‘Arrow’.
The main axis carries a number of lateral branches that repeatedly branches
and ultimately ending in rachii which bear the pair of spikelets.
Of the paired spikelets, one is sessile and the other pedicellate. Both are
identical in size, shape and structure. Each spikelets are deciduous.
Glumes 1 and 2 are epaleate, sterile and as long as the spikelets and these
glumes enclose the floral parts.
Lemma 1 epaleate and sterile, lemma 2 is absent but its palea alone is
present and faces glume 2 and encloses the bisexual flower.
Lodicules two, truncate at top, stamens three, ovary superior with two styles
and plumose stigmas
Pollination : Natural pollination is by wind. Male sterility occurs in some cultivars
Fruit : Caryopsis, being used only in breeding programmes.
Economic part : Stem – used for extraction of sugar.
Economic : The stem yields the sucrose on crushing, the left out after crushing is the
Importance „bagasse‟ used in paper making and the „molasses used for making the
alcoholic drinks and „pressmud‟ as a basic organic manure.

EXERCISE
1. Differentiate Cumbu Napier hybrid from Cumbu?
2. What is arrowing?
3. Draw the floral diagram and floral formula of sugarcane

61
 Part of the Redgram plant

Dissected parts of the Redgram plant

1) branch 2) flower 3) flag 4) wing 5) keel 6) stamens 7) pistil

8) detail upper leaflet surface 9) detail lower leaflet surface 10) largest leaf 11) smallest leaf

62
 Ex. No. 6 Date:

FAMILY : PAPILIONACEAE - Redgram, Bengalgram and Soybean

1. REDGRAM (Pigeonpea, Arhar) – Cajanus cajan Millsp.(2n: 22)
Origin : India
Habitat : Tropical
Habit : Annual, biennial or perennial shrub erect and branching.
Botanical : Cajanus cajan var bicolor
varieties Perennial, late maturing, large bushy, bearing purple streaked yellow
flowers. Pods dark red or purple, hairy containing upto 5 seeds.
Cajanus cajan var flavus
Short duration, early maturing, plants small, standard or vexillum petal
colored plain yellow, pods green, glabrous and usually with three seeds.
Two types of plant habit
(a) determinate with terminal cluster of flowers.
(b) indeterminate with axillary clusters.
Root : Tall, upright dense tap root system. Large clusters of nodules are produced
under favourable condition.
Stem : Woody and striated.
Leaves : Trifoliately compound, central leaflet longer than lateral ones, stipules small,
lamina hairy with the under surface greyish due to dense hairs, along with
the hairs there are yellow glands which are prominent.
Inflorescence : Axial or terminal racemes on long peduncle. Flowers are papilionaceous,
bracteate, bracteolate, calyx- sepals five, gamosepalous, corolla - petals five,
Polypetalous - one standard, two wing and two keel petals
Androecium : Stamens ten (9+1), diadelphous
Gynoecium : Ovary superior,bicarpellary, unilocular with few ovules and capitate stigma.
Pollination : Often cross pollinated crop. The filaments of the stamens elongate in the bud
and pollen is shed over the stigma on the day before the flower opens. Hence, self
pollination is the rule, however bees visit the flowers by which 20 per cent cross
pollination occurs.
Fruit : Pod. It is variable in shape, size, constriction, texture and pubescence, pods
with deep constrictions are known as beaded while others are flattened. The
seeds are brown or white, purplish black or dark mottled brown.
Economic part : Seeds within the pod is rich in protein, extensively used as Dhal
Economic Importance
1) The green pods and green seeds are eaten as vegetable. The riped dry seeds are boiled and
eaten as pulse.
2) Two different ways of making split pulse (Dhal)
i. Wet method: By soaking seeds in water for 6-10 hours, smearing them with red
earth,drying them in sun and splitting them in the mill. The dhal recovery is 80 per cent.
ii. Dry method: Seeds are well dried in sun and directly splitting in themill. In this
method the recovery percentage is 66 per cent.

63
 Morphology of chickpea plant

3) Dried husk and broken pieces of seed are used as cattle feed
64
 4) Green leaf and tops of the plant is used as fodder and for making silage.
5) Dried stake is used as fuel and as thatching material.

2. BENGALGRAM (Chickpea, Channa) Cicer arietinum (2n: 16)

Origin : South West Asia
Habitat : Subtropical and temperate.
Habit : Herbaceous annual, branching from the base, mostly erect and with a few
spreading branches, 25-50 cm tall, all parts of the plant are covered with
glandular hairs. Rich in oxalic acid (6%) and malic acid (94%). The two
cultivated types are Desi and Kabuli.
Desi type : Plants are having smaller dark green leaves dwarf with purple flowers.
Seeds are brown coloured wrinkled, smaller in size.
Kabuli type : Tall with pale green leaves. Flowers are white and seeds comparatively
larger, smooth and white in colour.
Root : Tap root system. Large clusters of nodules are produced under favourable
condition.
Stem : Greyish in appearance. Main stem is rounded, branches are usually
quadrangular ribbed and green.
Leaves : Imparipinnate with15 small leaflets hairy serrated ovate.
Flowers : Solitary, axillary, pedicels jointed. The colour varies from white to bluish
papilionaceous, zygomorphic, persistent and forming an oblique tube with
dense glandular hairs. Petals five, standard broad and clawed, wings free,
keel incurved,
Androecium : Stamens (9+1) diadelphous, didynamous,
Gynoecium : Ovary superior, style filiform, beardless with terminal stigma.
Pollination : Usually self pollinated crop. Anthers grouped above stigma before the flower
opens. Occassional natural cross pollination occurs due to the visit of bees.
Fruit : Pod. Inflated, one or two seeded. Seeds angular with prominent beak and
small hilum. Colour ranging from white, red to black. Cotyledons are
thick and yellowish.
Economic part : Seed
Economic Importance
1) Dried seeds soaked in water, cooked and eaten.
2) Dhal used in various food preparations.
3) Popped grain - ‘Pottu kadalai’
4) Broken seed as dhall - „Kadalai paruppu’
5) Flour used in various food preparations.
6) Roasted seeds are taken as food and also used in preparation of various dishes. Green pods
and tender shoots used as vegetable. Dried plant as cattle feed. An acid liquid from
glandular hairs is collected by spreading a thin cloth over night. The liquid collected
contains 94 per cent malic acid and 6 per cent oxalic acid. It is used as vinegar and also as
medicine.

65
Morphology of soybean plant

Soybean flower

66
 3. SOYABEAN OR SOYBEAN – (Glycine max L. ) Merrill (2n: 40)
Origin : China
Habitat : Subtropical and tropical
Habit : Herbaceous annual densely clothed with fine ferruginous hairs. Height
varies from 0.5 to 2 metres.
Root : Tap root system, with clusters of nodules
Stem : Suberect or climbing.
Leaves : Trifoliate, long petioled, leaflets ovate acute, five to ten cm long,
subtended short stipulate small pointed stipules.
Inflorescence : Flower small, numerous upto twelve on short racemes arising in the axils
of the leaves, white or purple. Calyx hairy, standard broad, notched,
auricled at the base, pale coloured whitish or light purple, with deep purple
veins at its base.
Androecium : Stamens ten (10) Monodelphous
Gynoecium : Ovary short, hairy with short curved style and apical stigma present above
the stamens.
Pollination : Self pollination is the rule. Flowers open in the early morning and pollen is
shed just before or at the time of opening and is shed directly on to the stigma.
Bees and other insects visit the flowers, thereby promoting cross pollination to
about one per cent.
Fruit : Pod. Pods linear to oblong profusely hairy. The seed of soybean is
oval with the colour varying from light yellow to black. The hilum
is prominent.
Economic part : Seed.
Economic Importance
1) Most important source of oil and protein.
2) Unripe seeds are used as vegetable.
3) Dried seed are eaten whole, split or sprouted and used.
4) Substitute for black gram in preparation of flour for idli.
5) Soya milk, Soya sauce, Soya oil are used for edible purpose.
6) The whole plant as fodder and seed as cattle feed.
7) Soya meal or protein used to manufacture synthetic fibre, adhesive, fire
fighting foam. Soya flour used in bakery.

EXERCISE
1. Draw the floral diagram and floral formula for Redgram, Bengal gram and Soybean
2. Enumerate the different types of Bengal gram.
3. Distinguish Arhar and Tur types of Redgram.
4. Compare the inflorescence of Redgram, Soybean and Bengal gram.
5. How Bengal gram differs morphologically from other pulses
6. Distinguish the androecium of soybean with redgram

67
Parts of Blackgram plant

68
 Ex. No. 7 Date:

FAMILY : PAPILIONACEAE Blackgram, Greengram, Cowpea, Lab Lab,

Horse Gram and Groundnut

1. BLACKGRAM (Vigna mungo L.) – Hepper(2n: 22)

Origin : India
Habitat : Tropical
Habit : Annual, herbaceous, 30-100 cm in height, erect, semi erect to trailing or
spreading types, plant densely hairy.
Root : Tap root system, with clusters of nodules
Stem : Slightly ridged, covered with brown hairs, hairs pointed downwards. Stem
colour dust brown much branched from the base.
Leaves : Trifoliate, alternate, stipulate, stipules narrow and falcate, petiolate,
pulvinate, stipellate, stipel small and flat, leaflets ovate, entire, acute,
sparsely hairy on both surfaces, palmately reticulate.
Inflorescence : Axillary raceme with the flowers congested at the top of the peduncle,
flowers five to six, bracteate, bracteolate, bracteoles -2, pedicillate,
bisexual, hypogynous, zygomorphic, complete, pentamerous.
Calyx : Sepals 5, gamosepalous, imbricate
Corolly : Papilionaceous, petals 5, polypetalous, keel in the form of a spiral beak,
descendingly imbricate
Androceium : Stamens 10 (9+1), diadelphous, filaments alternatively long and short,
anthers uniform, dithecous, introse, dorsifixed.
Gynoceium : Superior ovary, hairy, monocarpellary, unilocular with few ovules on
marginal placentation. Style terminal, filiform, densely bearded beneath
the stigma, stigma oblique.
Pollination : Self pollination is the rule. Shedding of pollen on the previous day
evening and the flower opens on the next day morning
Fruit : Pod. Mature pods are brown to black colour, 6-8 mm long (shorter than
mung bean) round, erect with long and dense hairs and short hooked beak.
Seeds are oblong with square ends, black. Hilum white and concave, seed
coat surface is smooth. Cotyledons white in colour.
Economic part : Seed
Economic Importance :
1. Dried grain used in preparation of idli, dosai, vadai etc,.
2. Flour used in bakery for preparation of bread and biscuit.
3. Green seeds and pods are eaten as vegetable.
4. Dried or green plants are used as fodder.
5. Broken grain, seed coat and bhusa (pottu) are excellent fodder

69
Parts of Green gram plant

Parts of Cowpea plant

70
2. GREENGRAM (Vigna radiata L.) – Wilezek (Mungbean) (2n: 22)
Origin : India
Habitat : Tropical
Habit : Herbaceous annual with slight tendency for twining in the upper branches,
plant sparsely hairy.
Root : Tap root system.
Stem : Erect or semierect and green in colour.
Leaves : Trifoliate with long petioles, stipules with basal appendages, stipels minute,
leaflets entire, ovate, lobed leaves are also present.
Flowers : Papilionaceous, ten to twenty crowded in axillary racemes on long peduncle,
stamens diadelphous (9+1), ovary with long bearded style. Flowers light
yellowish or olive yellow.
Pollination : Self pollination is the rule. Shedding of pollen on the previous day evening
and the flower opens on the next day morning
Fruit : Pod. Immature pods are green, mature pods are olive grey or brown colour.
Upon maturity it dehisces by both sutures into two halves. Seeds are
globular, green and the surface has fine wavy ridges. Hilum is white and flat
cotyledon is yellowish in colour.
Economic : Seed
part
Economic Importance : Seed as food for human beings, green and dry plant as fodder.

3. COWPEA – Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp(2n: 22)

Origin : Africa
Habitat : Subtropical and tropical
Habit : Annual, twining, rarely suberect and erect herb.
Root : Tap root system, with clusters of nodules
Stem : Slightly ridged, almost glabrous and hairy at the nodes.
Leaves : Alternate, stipulate, stipules large foliaceous, petiolate, pulvinate, pinnately
trifoliate, leaflets stipelate, ovate, entire acute, both surface with scattered
short hairs, palmately reticulate and lateral leaflets oblique.
Inflorescence : Axillary raceme with flowers congested at the top of the nodes, peduncle
often in alternate pairs flowers showy, white or yellow or pink, bracteate,
bracteolate, bracteoles-two, shortly pedicellate, bisexual, hypogynous,
zygomorphic, complete, pentamerous, cyclic. Stamens 10, diadelphous
(9+1), filaments alternately long and short anthers uniform, dithecous,
introse. Ovary superior with capitate stigma.
Calyx : Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate
Corolla : Papilionaceous, petals five, polypetalous, descendingly imbricate.
Androecium : Stamens 10, diadelphous (9+1), filaments alternately long and short,
anthers uniform, dithecous, introrse, dorsifixed.
Gynoecium : Ovary superior, monocarpellary, unilocular with many ovules on marginal
placentation. Style terminal, stigma capitate, oblique.

71
Morphology of Lab lab plant

72
Pollination : Usually self pollinated crop. Pollen shed before the flower opening
(Cleistogamy). Nectar present at the base of the flower attracts the ants, flies and
bees; but a heavy insect is required to depress the wing petals and expose the
stamens and stigma. Very small extent of cross pollination occurs.
Fruit : Pod. The pods are inflated with seed shape sub reniform to subglobose
Economic : Seed
part
Economic Importance
1. Tender pods are used as vegetable cowpea, tender leaves used as greens.
2. Sprouted seed as vegetable, grain as pulse.
3. Whole plant as green fodder.
4. Cowpea and maize green fodder mixture is excellent for cattle.

4. LAB LAB – Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet (2n: 22, 24)

Two plant types :
Garden bean – Lablab purpureus var. typicus – Avarai (2n = 22)
Field Bean – Lablab purpureus var. lignosus – Mochai (2n = 24)

Origin : India
Habitat : Subtropical and tropical
Habit : Trailing herb.
Root : Tap root system, with clusters of nodules
Stem : Slightly ridged, almost glabrous and presence of hairs at the nodes.
Leaves : Alternate, petiolate, pulvinate, stupilate, pinnately trifoliate leaflets, entire,
acute, sparsely hairy, lateral leaflets oblique.
Inflorescence : Axillary raceme, flowers congested at nodes in a long peduncle. Bracteate,
Bracteolate, pedicillate (short pedicel) calyx campanulate sepals five
gamosepalous.
Corolla papilionaceous. Polypetalous descendingly imbricate 10 stamens,
filaments alternately long and short, anthers dithecous, introse,
monocarpellary, unilocular with few ovules.
Fruit : Legume or pod. Mature pods are brown to black colour, 6-8 mm long
(shorter than mung bean) round, erect with long and dense hairs and short
hooked beak.
Seeds are oblong with square ends, black. Hilum white and concave, seed
coat surface is smooth. Cotyledons white in colour.
Economic : Seeds. Immature pods are used as Vegetable.
part

73
 Parts of Horsegram plant

Morphology of Groundnut plant

74
 Difference between Garden Bean and Field Bean
Character Garden bean Field bean
Types Lablab purpureus var. typicus -Avarai Lablab purpureus var. lignosus -Mochai
Habit Perennial, cultivated as an annual Annual, bushy straggler
Plant parts No pungent smell Characteristic smell due to oily
secretion.
Flower White or purple Usually white
Pericarp Slender or soft Tough, firm and parchment like.
Seeds Parallel to the length of the fruit Vertical to the length of fruit.
Edible part Whole fruit Generally seed alone

Economic Importance : Seed as source of protein and pod as vegetable.

5. HORSE GRAM –Macrotyloma uniflorum (2n: 24)

Origin : India
Habitat : Subtropical and Tropical
Habit : Slender, suberect, profusely branched at base intertwining themselves.
Root : Tap root system, with clusters of nodules.
Stem : Erect or semierect and green in colour, slender with presence of hairs.
Leaves : Alternate, trifoliately compound, stipulate, stipules foliaceous. Petiolate,
pulvinate, leaflets stipulate, ovate, entire, acute, herbaceous, lateral leaflets
oblique.
Inflorescence : White or violet flowers borne in axillary racemes. Fascicle of one to three
flowers in the leaf axils, flowers bracteate, bracteolate, bracteoles two,
pedicillate, bisexual, hypogynous, zygomorphic,complete, pentamerous.
Calyx : Campanulate, sepals 5, gamosepalous, imbricate.
Corolla : Papilionaceous, petals 5, polypetalous, descendingly imbricate.
Androecium : Stamens ten, diadelphous (9+1), filaments alternately short and long, anthers
dithecous, introrse, uniform, dorsifixed.
Gynoecium : Superior ovary, monocarpellary, unilocular with 4-6 ovules in marginal
placentation, style terminal, curved, stigma capitate and hairy around.
Pollination : Usually self pollinated crop.
Fruit : Pods are short(3-5cm), sickle shaped, hairy with 5-7 small compressed seeds
Seed : Seeds may be light red, brown, grey, black, mottled. Seed coat hard and
shining. Highly compressed seed.
Economic : Seed.
Part
Economic Importance
1. It is the poor man‟s pulse.
2. It can be eaten as boiled and fried.
3. It is most largely used as a feed for cattle and horses.
4. Horse gram dhal is said to be good for patients suffering from kidney trouble.

75
Parts of Groundnut plant

76
6. GROUNDNUT (Peanut) – Arachis hypogaea (2n: 40)
Origin : Brazil
Habitat : Tropical and subtropical
Habit : Low growing annual herb.
Root : Tap root system, with clusters of nodules
Stem : Three cultivated forms (1) bunch, (2) semi spreading and (3) Spreading.
In spreading types, the central axis of the stem is erect, often hairy with
short internodes, angular slightly pithy.
In bunchy types, the lateral branches also grow almost erect whereas, in
the spreading (prostrate) types the laterals are procumbent or prostrate.
Varietal : A. hypogaea subsp hypogaea var hypogaea – Virgenia runner
A. hypogaea subsp hypogaea var hirsuta – Peruvian
forms A. hypogaea subsp fastigiata var vulgaris – Spanish bunch
A. hypogaea subsp fastigiata var fastigiata – Valencia

Subspecies Variety Type Description

Hypogaea Hypogaea Virginia No floral axis on main stem, alternating pairs of floral
and vegetative axes on branches, branches short less
hairy.
Hirsuta Peruvian No floral axes in main stem, alternating pairs of floral
and vegetative axes on branches long more hairy.
Fastigiata Vulgaris Spanish Floral axes on main stem, sequencial floral axes on
branches, more branches, upright branches.
Fastigiata Valencia Floral axes on main stem, sequential floral axes on
branches, little branched, curved branches.

Leaves : Alternate, paripinnately compound leaves, stipules adnate, the petioles

fairly long with two pairs of ovate leaflets, has a central groove running
throughout the length, the leaflets are arranged opposite to each other in
pairs, pulvinous petiole is distinct above the joint of the adnate stipules.
Flowers : Single or three to four per leaf axils in condensed raceme. The flower is
sessile, yellow in colour with fairly long calyx tube which gives the false
appearance of a pedicel. A single bract and two bracteoles are present in
each flower.
Calyx : Tubular, slender, ending in five lobes, of which three are united into one
big structure and the two linear lanceolate. The long slender calyx tube is
also called as Hypanthium.
Corolla : Papilionaceous, five, keels are united.
Androecium : Stamens monoadelphous, eight fertile and two staminodes. The eight
anthers are dimorphic with four having long anther lobes and four with
rounded anther lobes.
Gynoecium : Monocarpellary, superior ovary arises at the base of the flowers, style
slender passes through the length of the calyx tubes, stigma terminal, hairy,
ovary unilocular with one to three ovules on marginal placentation.
77
Pollination : Self pollination is the rule
Fruit : An indehiscent pod carried on a long stalk called gynophore or carpophore.
One to three seeds per pod. The testa is commonly rose or varying from
dark purple to red colour or variegated.
Development : On fertiliztion, the thalamus position below the ovary begin to grow
of pod towards the soil into a peg or gynophores i.e., positively geotrophic. To
begin with, a lignified tissue forms a protective cap at the tip for the
fertilized ovary. The peg carrying the ovary pushes itself into the soil.
After entering the soil to a specific depth which is characteristic for a
variety, it takes a horizontal position and the ovary begins to develop into a
pod.
Economic : Seed.
Part

Economic Importance :
1. The nuts are eaten raw or after roasting. For this purpose bunch types with extra large
kernels are preferred since they contain relatively low oil content than Virginia type.
2. Kernel is rich source of Phosphorus, vitamin, protein (26 %) and oil (45 to 50 %).
3. Oil usedas a cooking media.
4. Hydrogenated oil - for preparation of vanaspathi / vegetable ghee.
5. Manufacture of margarine - butter like substance.
6. Peanut butter.
7. Oil cake as cattle feed.
8. Moist oil cake for production of aflatoxin from Aspergilus flavus.
9. Oil -Non drying.
10. Pharmaceutical industry. Soap industry. Lubrication.
11. New textile fibre Ardil - manufactured from peanut protein.

EXERCISE
1. Distinguish Blackgram and Green gram based on morphology.
2. Compare the morphological features of field bean and garden bean.
3. Draw the dissected floral parts of cowpea, lablab and horsegram.
4. Which crop is called as unpredictable legume? Why.
5. Draw the floral features and pod development of groundnut

78
Morphology of Alfalfa (Lucerne) plant

Parts of Alfalfa (Lucerne) plant

79
 Ex. No. 8 Date:

FAMILY :PAPILIONACEAE- Lucerne, Stylosanthes, Clitoria, Agathi, Sunnhemp and

Daincha

1. LUCERNE (ALFALFA) – Medicago sativa Linn. (2n:16, 32, 64)

Origin : South West Asia
Habitat : Subtropical, tropical
Habit : Deep rooted perennial, herb.
Root : Tap root system with root nodules
Stem : Erect, 50-60 cm height, arising from the crown which is a woody base.
Leaves : Alternate, narrow and sharply toothed.
Inflorescence : Axillary raceme, flowers small, yellow, white, purple, violet or blue,
bracteolate, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, bracteate.
Pollination : Tripping mechanism
In alfalfa, pollen is dispersed by an explosive action, commonly
known as tripping. The keel petals, which are held down under tension,
conceal the staminal column. When the keel is pressed down by the
weight of the insect (honey – bee, the alkali bee, or the alfalfa leaf cutter
bee), the stamens and stigma are snapped upward and free of the keel, with
a force similar to that produced by the release of a spring under tension.
The insect is struck by the staminal column, which often unseats it and its
underside is covered with a mass of sticky pollen, which is carried to the
next flower it visits. There, some of the pollen is rubbed on the stigma,
and more pollen is added to the load. Alfalfa flowers are usually tripped by
bees, although automatic tripping by wind, rain or heat may occur
occasionally. A flower may be tripped by hand by using a small object
such as toothpick or pencil to apply pressure on the keel.
Calyx : Five, gamosepalous.
Corolla : Five, gamopetalous, papilionaceous.
Androecium : Stamens ten, diadelphous (9+1), didynamous.
Gynoecium : Ovary superior, monocarpellary with many ovules, style simple, stigma
capitate.
Fruit : Spirally coiled legume.
Economic part : Entire plant is used as green fodder. Rich in protein (22-25 %) with
balanced Calcium and Phosphorus.
Economic Importance :
1. Queen of fodders.
2. Very good fodder crop with 22-25% protein with well-balanced calcium and
phosphorus.
3. Dried leaves are powdered and used in the preparation of concentrates.
4. It is also used in poultry feed

80
Morphology of Stylosanthes scabra plant and fruit

Parts of Clitoria ternatea

81
2. STYLOSANTHES (MUYAL MASAL) (2n: 40)
Two species: Stylosanthes scabra and Stylosanthes hamata.
Origin : West Asia
Habitat : Tropical forests.
Habit : Shrub, with many branches.
Root : Tap root system with root nodules.
Stem : Woody twig. Cylindrical, thin node with short white hairs.
Leaves : Pinnately trifoliate, leaflets lanceolate, stipules large, adnate at the base.
Inflorescence : Terminal raceme. Small, yellow flowers in dense terminal heads. Calyx
five, tubular, Corolla five, standard orbicular, wings oblong, free keel
incurved, Stamens ten, monoadelphous, dimorphic anthers, superior ovary,
monocarpellary. Ovules two to three, style filiform, stigma minute,
Fruit : Pods compressed, hooked at apex, seeds compressed. medium to dark
brown in colour, rich in protein.
Economic : Whole plant is used as green fodder.
Part
Economic Importance :Leaves are rich in protein. Whole plant used as green fodder

3. CLITORIA – Clitorira ternatea (2n: 22)

Origin : Asia
Habitat : Tropical
Habit : A twining herb.
Root : Tap root system with root nodules
Stem : Slender, twining.
Leaves : Pinnately trifoliate with persistent stipules.
Inflorescence : Solitary, axillary. Calyx five, tubular, corolla showy, standard large, erect
wings falcate (sickle shaped), stamens 10 (9+1), ovary monocarpellary,
superior, many ovuled, style incurved
Flowers : Colour ranges from white, mauve, light blue to dark blue; pedicellate,
twisted to 180 degree so that standard inverted, bracteoles persistent,
broadly ovate or rounded.
Calyx : Gamosepalous; 5 lobed with few fine hairs, campanulate, 0.8 to 1.2 cm
long, lobes triangular or oblong.
Corolla : Standard obovate, funnel shaped, notched or rounded at apex with a pale
yellow base or entirely white, a few fine hairs at apex.
Androecium : Diadelphous (9+1)
Gynoecium : Ovary superior, ovules few in marginal placentation.
Fruit : Pods linear, seeds oblong.
Economic : Whole plant is used as green fodder.
Part
Economic Importance :Whole plant used as green fodder

82
 Morphology of Agathi plant and fruit

Morphology of Sunnhemp plant, flower, fruit and seed

83
4. AGATHI – Sesbania grandiflora L. (2n: 14)
Habitat : Tropical
Habit : This is a medium tall tree, quickly growing to about 10 m height with
attractive white flowers. Withstands severe pruning.
Root : Tap root system with root nodules
Stem : Pithy, later becomes woody
Leaves : Pinnately compound with numerous leaflets. The leaflets near the pulvinous are
larger than at the tip. Stipules prominent with acute tips.
Inflorescence : Long lax drooping raceme.
Flowers large, white, yellowish, rose pink or red in colour
Pollination : Predominantly self-pollinated
Calyx : Gamosepalous; 5 lobed, closed in young bud, splitting or breaking at
anthesis. Basal persistent in the fruit.
Corolla : Standard without appendages at the claw; wings without basal tooth.
Androecium : Diadelphous (9+1),curved for most of its length.
Gynoecium : Ovary superior, ovules few in marginal placentation.
Fruit : Pods, very long drooping with 40-45 seeds.
Economic part : Entire plant is used
Economic Importance : Entire plants are used for shade, green leaf manure, fodder and as greens.
Grown in piper betel and betel vine garden for providing shade. Increases milk yield in animals.

5. SUNNHEMP – Crotalaria juncea (2n: 26)

Origin : India
Habitat : Tropical
Habit : Erect annual with a few lateral branches.
Root : Tap root system with root nodules
Leaves : Alternate, short petiolate, lanceolate, obtuse with a small bristle like apex,
lamina covered with soft silver coloured hairs on both sides, stipules small.
Inflorescence : Terminal raceme. Flowers are bracteate, papilionaceous, bright yellow
Calyx : Gamosepalous of five lobes, deeply cleft into two lips, the upper two lobed
and lower lip of three lobes.
Corolla : Polypetalous, standard broad, wing oblong, keel much pointed, slightly
twisted at the apex.
Androecium : 10 stamens, monodelphous, dimorphic with five short versatile anthers on
slender filaments alternating with long basified anthers with flattened
filaments.
Gynoecium : Ovary superior, monocarpellary, marginal placentation, ovules few, style
long bearded at the top, stigma small, oblique.
Pollination : Extensive cross pollination occurs and self pollination takes place only after the
stigmatic surface has been stimulated by the insects or done mechanically.
Bagged flowers do not set seeds. Cross pollination is promoted by bees.
Fruit : Pod or capsule. Seeds reniform or kidney shaped.
Economic part : Entire plant is used
Economic Importance : Plants are used as green manure; stem used for extraction of fibre.

84
Morphology of Daincha plant with flowers

85
 6. DAINCHA – Sesbania aculeata (2n: 24)
Origin : Pakistan
Habitat : Tropical
Habit : Quick growing succulent crop adapted to varying soil and climatic
conditions.
Root : Tap root system with root nodules
Stem : A soft stemmed shrub with or without prickles, growing to 1.5 -2.0 metres
Leaves : Leaves long, pinnately compound, with small oblong leaflets, stipules
small and deciduous.
Inflorescence : Terminal / Axillary raceme
Flowers : Flowers yellowish in lax axillary racemes, partly drooping, papilionaceous
Pollination : Predominantly self-pollinated
Calyx : Gamosepalous; 5 lobed
Corolla : Standard without appendages
Androecium : Diadelphous
Gynoecium : Ovary superior, ovules few in marginal placentation
Fruit : Fruiting profuse, fruit long, cylindrical with 25-30 seeds per pod, seeds
oblong, greyish brown in colour.
Economicpart : Whole plant as green manure.

EXERCISE
1. List out the legume crops that are having fodder value?
2. Which crop is called as the queen of fodders? Explain the pollination mechanism
3. Draw the floral diagram and write the floral formula of the given specimen

86
Parts of Gingelly plant

87
 Ex. No. 9 Date:

FAMILY: PEDALIACEAE - Gingelly

FAMILY : ASTERACEAE – Sunflower, Safflower, Chrysanthemum
FAMILY : OLEACEAE - Jasmine

A. FAMILY: PEDALIACEAE - Gingelly

1. GINGELLY (SESAME) – Sesamum indicum Linn (2n: 26)

Origin : Africa (Primary centre), India (Secondary Centre)
Habitat : Tropical and subtropical
Habit : Herbaceous, annual growing to a metre or more
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Erect, quadrangular, longitudinally furrowed with dense hairs.
Leaves : Variously arranged, opposite below, alternate above, the leaves are entire,
lanceolate whereas the leaves below are broad lobed with serrated margins.
Inflorescence : Axillary, solitary or in groups of two to three flowers, shortly pedicellate
with two aborted glands on either sidea of the pedicel.
Calyx : Five lobes, gamosepalous
Corolla : Tubular, ventricose, slightly gibbous at base, two lipped, the upper lip of
two lobes usually smaller, the lower bigger and of three lobes, a ring of
hairs is often present inside the corolla towards the base below the stamens.
Flowers variously coloured from pure white to purple or to deep violet.
Androecium : Stamens 4, epipetalous, didynamous, anther cells oblong parallel, a fifth
staminode may be present.
Gynoecium : Superior ovary, bicarpellary, looks like four by the formation of many
ovuled on axile placentation. The style is forked at the tip and carries the
two stigmatic hairy lobes.
Pollination : Often cross pollinated crop. Pollen is shed before flowers open. The flowers open
early in the morning and at the same time, the bifid stigma separates and
becomes receptive and copiously covered by pollen grains. Insects visit the
flowers so that a negligible amount of cross pollination can occur.
Fruit : Oblong or ovoid capsule with bony walls, loculicidal in dehiscence, two
types of fruits are recognized. One is four loculed and the other eight
loculed.
Seeds : Seeds compressed, ranging from white to brown or black testa with a
smooth or rough surface enclosing an embryo with prominent cotyledon.
Endosperm found as a thin layer around embryo. Endosperm contains oil
and protein.
Economic : Seed
part
Economic Importance :Seeds contain semidrying oil (50%) and 20 – 25% protein

88
Morphology of sunflower plant and cross section of flower

Morphology of a flower & comparison of ray and disc floret

89
B. FAMILY ASTERACEAE : Sunflower, Safflower and Chrysanthemum
1. SUNFLOWER – Helianthus annuus Linn (2n: 34)
Origin : North America
Habitat : Tropical and subtropical
Habit : Tall annual herb. Two varieties:
1. Tall unbranched, single headed type
2. Short branched, multiheaded type.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Rough, hairy and pithy.
Leaves : Simple, alternate, large, rough, hairy, cordate, irregularly toothed on the
margins, pointed at the apex.
Inflorescence : Heterogamous Capitulum or Head. Receptacle is flat, slightly convex with
two to three rows of large pointed involucre of bracts; head has outer row of ray
florets and inner rows of disc florets. Florets are subtended by broad scales
(Bracteoles).
Ray floret: Ligulate corolla, yellow in colour, zygomorphic and calyx is
reduced to pappus hairs. Normally florets are sterile or sometimes pistillate.
Disc floret: Actinomorphic, bisexual, calyx is reduced to pappus hairs,
gamosepalous, corolla united to form a tube. Stamens five, syngenesious
anthers, epipetalous stamens, ovary inferior, monocarpellary with single ovule
and the style passes through syngenesious anthers with bifid stigma.
Pollination : Cross pollination is the rule. Disc florets are protandrous. Bees and flies visit the
flowers for pollen and nectar thereby promoting cross pollination by crawling
over the surface of the capitulam.
Fruit : Achene, broad, angular, large
Economic : Seed
part
Economic Importance :Seed is a source of semidrying oil (35-40%)

2. SAFFLOWER – Carthamus tinctorius Linn. (2n: 24)

Origin : Asia
Habitat : Tropical and subtropical
Habit : Annual herb presenting a thistle like apperance, plants may be glabrous or
pubescent.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Erect, woody, glabrous and grooved.
Leaves : Alternate, rigid, entire and unarmed or spinulose – serrate.
Inflorescence : Head or Capitilum homogamous, outer involucral bracts ovate – oblong,
constricted above the base, green spinous or not, inner involucral bracts
oblong-acute.
Florets are tubular, light yellow to orange red in colour, hermaphrodite,
bracts and bracteoles of each floret modified into thin soft hairs.
Calyx absent, corolla long, tubular, stamens five, epipetalous, syngenesious.
Ovary inferior, bicarpellary, single celled, single ovuled, basal or ascending
in placentation, sometimes a few of the marginal florets are sterile.
90
Morphology of safflower plant Morphology of chrysanthemum

Parts of the flower

Safflower Chrysanthemum

91
Pollination : Often cross pollinated crop. Natural cross pollination occurs due to the visit of
bees.
Fruit : An achene which is obovate, truncate at top.
Economic : Seed
part
Economic Importance :
Seeds are used in oil extraction. Flowers for coloring and flavoring foods, in medicines,
and making red (carthamin) and yellow dyes, especially before cheaper aniline dyes became
available.

3. CHRYSANTHEMUM - Chrysanthemum indicum(2n: 36)

Habitat : Tropical and subtropical
Habit : Herbaceous perennial plants, growing to 50–150 cm tall.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Erect, woody, glabrous.
Leaves : Alternate, deeply lobed leaves, with serrate margins.
Inflorescence : Head or capitilum homogamous, outer involucral bracts ovate – oblong,
constricted above the base, green spinous or not, inner involucral bracts
oblong-acute. Florets are tubular, generally white, pink light yellow to
orange red in colour, Chrysanthemum blooms are composed of many
individual flowers (florets), each one capable of producing a seed.
The disk florets are in the center of the bloom head, and the ray florets
are on the perimeter. The ray florets are considered imperfect flowers, as
they only possess the female productive organs, while the disc florets are
considered perfect flowers as they possess both male and female
reproductive organs.
Pollination : Often cross pollinated crop. Natural cross pollination occurs due to the visit of
bees.
Fruit : An achene which is obovate, truncate at top.
Economic : Flower for ornamental purpose
part

C. FAMILY OLEACEAE (Olive Family): Jasmine (2n: 26)

Cultivated species:
1. Jasminum grandiflorum(Royal Jasmine - Pavalamalli)
2. J. angustifolium (Wild Jasmine –Kattumalligai);
3. J. multiflorum (Star Jasmine- Kasthuri malligai);
4. J.sambac (Arabian Jasmine – Kundumalli)
5. J. auriculatum (Mullai)
Habitat : Tropical, sub-tropical.
Habit : Hardy, deciduous and evergreen shrubs or trees, climbing or erect.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Shrubs reach to a height of 10-15 feet, growing approximately 12-24 inches
per year. Stems are slender, trailing, green, glabrous, angled, almost 4-sided.
92
Morphology of J.grandiflorum Parts of Jasmine flower

Morphology of J.sambac

93
Leaves : Opposite in most species or alternate, leaf shape is simple, trifoliate or
pinnate or imparipinnate
Inflorescence : Axillary or terminal, compound racemes.
Flowers polygamous or dioecious, regular, dimerous. Most of the Jasmine
species bear white flowers, bisexual, which are about 1 inch in size.
Sepals 4-5, small, gamosepalous; Petals 4-6, free or connate. Stamens 2,
epipetalous; anthers with cells back to back.
Gynoecium- carpels 2, united; Ovary superior, 2 loculed with 2 ovules-
anatropous ascending or pendulous; Style- simple, Stigma- bilobed.
In Jasminum sp. the flowers are arranged in a cyme. The corolla usually
tubular or rotate. The petals are 6 in number in J. multiflorum. The
aestivation is imbricate.
Fruit : Berry, capsule or drupe
Economic part : Flower. Used for extraction of essential oils

EXERCISE
1. Draw the dissected floral parts of sesame and sunflower.
2. List out the crops that are rich in edible oil content with its botanical names and
chromosome number.
3. Mention the type of inflorescence in Jasmine and Chrysanthemum.
4. Write the special features of sesame flower
5. Draw the floral diagram with its floral formula for the given specimen.

94
Morphology and parts of mustard plant

95
 Ex. No. 10 Date:

FAMILY – BRASSICACEAE : Rapeseed, Mustard, Cabbage and Cauliflower

1. RAPESEED AND MUSTARD – Brassica spp. (2n: 16, 18, 20, 22, 36)
The group rapeseed and mustard includes oil yielding species of Brassica.
Rape seed
1. Indian Rapeseed : Brassica campestris (2n: 20) var. brown, yellow and toria
Mustard
1. Indian mustard : B.juncea (Brown mustard, Rai) (2n: 36)
2. Black mustard : B. nigra (Banarasi rai) (2n: 16)
3. White Mustard : B. alba (Ujili sarson) (2n: 24)
Habitat : Temperate and subtropical
Habit : Herbaceous annual
Root : Tap root system
Leaves : Alternate, exstipulate, simple leaves, often pinnately lobed. The lower leaves
are known as the stem leaves and the upper leaves arising on the axis of the
inflorescence known as floral leaves.
Inflorescence : It is a long racemose with a few bracts. Flowers conspicuous,
actinomorphic. Sepals four, erect or spreading; petals four with narrow
basal claw, spreading or erect limb. Stamens six, the outer two shorter
than the four inner. Gynoecium superior, two joined carpels with single
short style and capitate stigma, ovules many in parietal placentation.
Fruit : Siliqua type, dehiscing by the carpel walls splitting longitudinally along the
line of the placenta from base to top. The seeds are black or white depending
on the varieties. The cotyledon contain oil.
Economic : Seeds.
part
Economic Importance
1. Seeds used for extraction of edible oil and as condiment.
2. Oil – cooking, llluminant, lubricant, soap industry, fertilizer industry, plastic industry
3. Green plant as fodder
4. The essential oil in mustard has medicinal properties. Used as counter irritant.
2. CABBAGE - Brassisca oleracea var. capitata (2n: 18)
Habitat : Temperate and subtropical
Habit : Herbaceous biennial.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Short thick erect stems surrounded by leaves.
Leaves : Cabbages have thick, alternating leaves, with margins that range from wavy or
lobed to highly dissected. The initial leaves form a rosette shape; later, leaves
with shorter petioles develop and heads form when the leaves cupping inward.
Leaf types are divided as crinkled-leaf with loose head and smooth leaf with
firm head cabbages, while the color spectrum includes white and a range of
greens and purples.
96
97
Inflorescence : The inflorescence is an unbranched and terminal raceme, with flowers that
are yellow or white. Each flower has four petals set in a perpendicular
pattern, as well as four sepals, six stamens, and a superior ovary that is two-
celled and contains a globose stigma. Two of the six stamens have shorter
filaments.
Pollination : Cross pollination by insects.
Fruit : Siliqua that opens at maturity through dehiscence to reveal brown or black
seeds that are small and round in shape.
Economic part : Modified leaves as swollen head.

3. CAULIFLOWER - Brassisca oleracea var. botrytis (2n: 18)

Habitat : Temperate regions
Habit : Herbaceous biennial.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Short thick erect stems surrounded by leaves.
Leaves : Surrounding the curd are ribbed, coarse green leaves that protect it from
sunlight, impeding the development of chlorophyll.
Inflorescence : The stem bears a large inflorescence at the top. The inflorescence consists of
large number of abortive flowers borne on thick hypertrophied branches.The
flowers are attached to a central stalk.
Economic : Inflorescence. The head of a cauliflower, also called a “curd,” is a group of
part tightly packed flower buds that have not fully developed. The buds are
attached to fleshy stalks where most of the nutrients for their growth are
stored.

EXERCISE
1. Dissect the flower and explain the fruit characters of Brassicaceae
2. Draw the floral diagram and floral formula for Rape seed, Mustard and vegetable
brassicas

98
Parts of castor plant

99
 Ex. No. 11 Date:

FAMILY : EUPHORBIACEAE - Castor, Jatropha and Tapioca

FAMILY : ARECACEAE - Coconut, Arecanut, Oilpalm and Sugarpalm

A. FAMILY : EUPHORBIACEAE
1. CASTOR – Ricinus communis Linn. (2n: 20)
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Habitat : Tropical and subtropical
Habit : Tall annual or perennial growing to a shrub or small tree.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Glabrous, pithy with prominent nodes and leaf scar, colour of stem is rose or
green.
Leaves : Alternate, palmately seven to eleven lobed, glands serrated, petiole four to
twelve inches long, glands distributed on the petiole. Some varieties have
ashy coating (bloom) on the surface of the leaves.
Inflorescence : Monoecious, flowers in a terminal panicle with female flowers in the upper part
and male flowers at the base. In some lines male and female flowers occur
mixed together (interspersed).
Male flower : Perianth five, greyish, splitting to three to five valvate segments, stamens many
in branched filaments (polyadelphous), anthers subglobose round, yellow.
Female flower : Ovary superior, tricarpellary, syncarpous, style short and branched trifid or bifid.
Pollination : Castor is a Protogynous crop. Hence, cross pollination is the rule. Most of the
female flowers develop into fruit before the male flower opens in the same
inflorescence. The anthers burst explosively and pollinated mostly by wind.
Pollination is also done through insects.
Fruit : A schizocarp, may be smooth or spiny, on maturity splits into three one
seeded cocci. The seeds are with Testa smooth, the hilum is almost
concealed under the caruncle which is an integumentary proliferation at the
micropylar end. The raphae are prominent. A tiny embryo with a distinct
plumule and two thin flat distinctly nerved papery cotyledons is embedded in
the endosperm.
Economic : Seeds.
part
Economic Importance
Seed contains non-drying oil (53%). Castor oil do not freeze and so used in aero-engines.
Oil has got medicinal value

2. JATROPHA - Jatropha curcas (2n: 22)

Family : Euphorbiaceae
Habitat : Tropical and subtropical
Habit : Small tree or shrub with smooth grey barks. Normally it grows 3-5 m in
height, but can attain a height of up to 8-10 m under favourable conditions.
Root : Tap root system
100
 Morphology and Parts

Jatropha Tapioca

Floral Parts of tapioca

101
Stem : Soft wooded stem, which exudes a white coloured, watery, latex when cut.
Leaves : Leaves are large, green-pale green leaves, alternate to sub opposite, 3-5
lobed, spiral phyllotaxy. Petiole length ranges between 6-23mm.
Inflorescence : Cyme, formed in leaf axils. The plant is monoecious and flowers are
unisexual occasionally hermaphrodite flowers occur. Flowers are formed
terminally, individually with female flowers usually slightly larger and occur
in hot seasons. In conditions where continous growth occurs, an unbalance of
pistillate or staminate flower production results in a higher number of female
flowers.Ten stamens are arranged in two distinct whorls of five each in a
single column in the androecium, and in close proximity to each other. In the
gynoecium, the three slender styles are connate to about two-thirds of their
length, dilating to massive bifurcate stigmata.
Pollination : Cross pollinated crop.
Fruit : Smooth schizocarpic (Regma) fruits. A bunch of at least 10 ovoid fruits can
be seen in a single inflorescence. Once the seeds are matured they form a
three or bi-valued cocci with fleshy outer layer. The fruits do not have the
capacity to drop on their own and so manual harvest without any wastage.
After 2 to 4 months from the date of fertilization the capsule changes from
green to yellow in color. This indicates that the seeds are matured. The
blackish and thin shelled seeds appear like small castor seeds.
Economic : Seeds. Used for extraction of oil which is used as biofuel
part

3. TAPIOCA – Manihot esculenta (2n: 36)

Origin : South America
Habitat : Tropical
Habit : Slender shrub, 2-7 m high, sparingly branched
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Thick with prominent scars, variously coloured.
Leaves : Simple, Alternate, long stalked palmately lobed, segments obovate,
lanceolate and leaves glabrous.
Inflorescence : Flowers are borne in axillary racemes near the end of the branches.
Inflorescence is monoecious with male flowers at the top and female flowers
at the bottom. The female flowers are larger than the male flowers. Both the
male and female flowers have five united sepals with yellow tinge. There are
no petals. The male flower has ten stamens arranged in two whorls of five
stamens each. The filaments are free, and anthers small. The female flower
has an ovary mounted on a ten lobed glandular disc. The ovary has three
locules and six ridges. Each locule contains a single ovule. The stigma has
three lobes which unite to form a single style. In each inflorescence, the
female flower opens first and male flowers open 7 to 10 days later.
Therefore it promotes cross pollination. The seeds mature 3-5 months after
pollination.
102
Morphology and parts of a coconut tree

103
Pollination : Cross pollination
Fruit : Ovoid, globose with six longitudinal plicate wings
Economic : Tuber. Swollen tap roots. A mature tuber consists of 3 distinct zones, an
part outer periderm which may be thick rough or thin and smooth, varying in
colour from white to pink, red or brown. A thin cortex or rind usually white
but streaked with brown.

B. FAMILY : ARECACEAE
1.COCONUT- Cocos nucifera(2n: 32)
Origin : Malaysia or Indonesia
Distribution : India, Burma, Malaysia, Thailand, South America.
Habitat : Cultivated in warm damp regions of tropics.
Habit : Tall perennial, 12-18 mts in height.
Root : Numerous adventitious uniform roots.
Stem : Trunk is long, stout, and cylindrical, with marked leaf scars. Trunks
with swollen base with a mass of adventitious roots.
Leaf : Paripinnately compound leaves born in round fashion. Leaf lets are
occupied at equidistance leaflets narrow, lanceotate, acute, entire, soft,
petiole is stout.
Inflorescence : Compound spike, young inflorescence enclosed in spathe, hence called
as spadix. Spadix long, stout, but later drooping branched. More
pistillate inflorescemce at the tip. Flowers are monoecious staminate
flowers have bracteole, 6 perianths in two whorls, 3 in each outer
perianth are shorter.
Male flowers : Stamens 6, anthers linear, dorsifixed, erect, filament short, pistil
rudimentary.
Female flowers : Two bracteoles, sepals six in two whorls persistent, ovary large,
tricarpellary, syncarpous unilocular, two of three the carpels aborted.
Three sessile stigmas.
Pollination : Cross pollinated.
Fruit : Fibrous Drupe, consisting of leathery epicarp, fibrous mesocrap and
inner strong, hard endocarp. Seeds are Endospormous.
Economic part : Fibrous Drupe for making coir. All the plant parts are having economic
importance.
2. ARECANUT – Areca catechu (2n: 32)
Origin : Africa
Habitat : Tropical
Habit : Slender, unbranched tree grows upto 30 m height with a crown of leaves at
the top.
Root : Numerous adventitious uniform roots.
Stem : Straight, thin, regularly annual
Leaves : Pinnately compound leaf, spirally arranged crowded at the top, leaf sheath
broad, thickly coriaceous, embrace the trunk like a tube, petioles short.
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Morphology and parts of Arecaunut tree

Morphology and parts of oilpalm tree

105
Inflorescence : Monoecious spadix, axillary, spathes thick coriaceous, after anthesis
longitudinally splits and falls off, flowers monoecious, sessile, perianth six
in two whorls, minute, stamens six connate at the base, anthers linear
lanceolates with a sagitate, auricled base. Female flowers triangular
perianth six, orbidular, ovate, ovary, tricarpellary.
Fruit : Fibrous drupe with ruminate endosperm.
Economic : Fruit. It contains alkaloid acrecoline, arecotine, arecaidine, guvacoline,
part guvacine etc., It is used in veterinary medicine.

3. OIL PALM - Elaeis guinensis (2n: 32)

Distribution : India, Malaysia, Africa
Habitat : Mesophyte
Habit : Mature trees are single-stemmed, and grow upto 20 m height
Root : Numerous adventitious uniform roots.
Stem : Trunk is stout, and cylindrical usually marked with leaf scars.
Leaves : The leaves are pinnate, and reach between 3-5 m long
Flowers : Monoecious, individual trees usually bear male and female flowers
Pollination : Cross pollinated crop
Inflorescence : Compound spadix
Male spadix : Short stout peduncle supported by mass of finger like spikes each one with
a many as 1200 closely packed minute male flowers sunk in tissues of
rachis.
Female : Short stout peduncle, carries upto 150 branches each with 20-30 widely
spadix separated flowers. Each flower has one bract with acuminate tip, two
bracteoles, six perianth, ovary three celled with a short style divided at the
top into three stigmatic lobes.
Fruit : Sessile Fruits- oval drupes from which oil is extracted.
Economic : Fruit
part

4. SUGAR PALM – Borassus flabellifer (2n: 36)

Origin : Africa
Habitat : Tropical
Habit : Tall, stout, greyish black, unbranched.
Root : Numerous adventitious uniform roots.
Stem : Trunk is long, stout, and cylindrical usually marked with leaf scars.
Inflorescence : Dioecious, branched, peduncle sheathed with open spathe, male flower
small, mixed with scaly bracts, sepals three, imbricate, petals three,
shorter, obovate spathulate, imbricate, Stamens six, pistillode of three
bristles, Female flowers large, globose, perianth fleshy sepals reniform,
imbricate, petals three, smaller, staminode, ovary tricarpellary.
Pollination : Cross pollinated crop.
Fruit : A large subglobose drupe.
Economic part : Inflorescence.
106
Morphology and fruit of sugarpalm

107
Economic Importance
Juice from male peduncle used as toddy, fermented into arrack, treated with lime and
boiled down into jaggary. Wood is used as rafters, posts and fence. Leaves are used for
thatch, fans, hats, baskets etc.

EXERCISE
1. Compare the floral morphology of Castor, Tapioca and Jatropha
2. Dissect and draw the floral parts of Coconut
3. Draw the floral diagram with floral formula of the given specimen
4. Explain the sexual dimorphism of the family Euphorbiaceae and Arecaceae

108
Morphology of cotton plant Branching pattern in cotton

Longitudinal section of a flower Immature fruit of Immature fruit of

G. barbadense G. hirsutum

109
 Ex. No. 12 Date:
FAMILY MALVACEAE: Cotton, Mesta and Bhendi
1. COTTON – Gossypium spp. (2n: 26, 52)
Habitat : Tropical and subtropical
Habit : Herbaceous annual growing to a height of 1-1.5m.
Root : Tap root system.
Stem : Primary axis is erect and branched. Branches are dimorphic in nature.
1. Vegetative axillary bud (monopodial), 2. Fruiting extra axillary bud
(sympodial) in upper nodes.

Vegetative Vegetative branches are monopodial and they are morphologically similar
branch to main stem. Do not bear flowers directly bud gives out secondary
: branches.
Fruiting : Fruiting branches are sympodial. They arise from the axes of subtending
branch leaf, another branch develop terminating in a fruiting point.
Leaves Alternate, cordate, petiolate, 3-9 lobed and palmately veined. The size,
: texture, shape and hairiness are widely varying
Flowers : Simple, solitary, terminal extra axillary, showy, yellow to cream in colour
and hermaphrodite. Bracteoles called epicalyx, three in number few and
deeply serrated and usually foliar persistent at the base of the flower.
Nectary gland is present on each bracteole. The buds of flowers appear at
first as small pyramidal shaped green structures and are known as „squares‟.

Calyx : Five, united, cup shaped.

Corolla : Five, polypetalous, a purple spot is found on the inner side of the claw of
the petal (petal spot) in some species.
Androecium Stamens many and form staminal column bearing many filaments,
: reniform anthers.
Gynoecium : Superior ovary, pentacarpellary, style slender, passes through staminal
column with three to five lobed stigma. Ovules many in axile
placentation.
Pollination Often Cross pollinated crop. Some degree of cross pollination 6 to 25 per
: centoccurs due to the visit of bees. Majority of the flowers are self-pollinated.
Fruit : Loculicidal dehiscent capsule called boll. Seeds 1-9 in each locule,
subglobose seeds are covered with one to two layers of hairs. Lint arises
from the epidermal layer and fuzz arises from the sub epidermal layer.
Fuzz cannot be separated from the seed. Lint is separable.
Economic
part : Lint from the boll is used in textile industries.
Economic Importance
Lint is the surface fibre obtained form seed coat. Cotton seed oil (semidrying oil) is
extracted from the cotyledons (20%). Gossypol content in the seed is associated with resistance to
pests.

110
 DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF GOSSYPIUM SPECIES

Character G. arboream G.herbaceum G. hirsutum G. barbadense

Chromosome 2n=26 2n=26 2n=52 2n=52
number
Origin Indochina Tropical Africa Central South America
America
Habit Annual or Annual, shrub Annual, small Perennial, annual tall
perennial shrub shrub shrub
Branches Sub-erect Branched Branched Branched
Leaves 5-7 deeply 3-5 lobed, 3-5 lobed, 3-5 lobed, large, very
lobed, light green large, cordate dark green
green lobes
triangular, dark
green
Bracteoles or 3, closely 3, flaring 3, long, 2 3, almost as broad as
epicalyx enclosing the widely from the bracteoles, 8-12 long, cordate with 10-
bud and flowers flowers with 6- teeth, nectar 15 acuminate teeth,
entire, 3-4 8 broadly present nectar present.
teeth, nectar traingular teeth,
absent nectar absent
Flower Yellow, petal Yellow, petal Pale yellow, Bright yellow, petal
spot present spot absent petal spot spot present
absent
Capsule Tapering and Rounded, Medium Long capsules with 3-
pitted with beaked with rounded with 4 locules, broad at the
Prominant oil few oil glands, few oil glands, base taperiing to acute
glands, 3-4 3-4 locules, 11 3-4 locules, tip, rough surface oil
locules, 6-17 seeds/ locule, 11seeds / glands at the botton,
seeds/locule, pale green locule, 5-8 seeds /locule,
pale green non pitted, profusely pitted, dark
green green

Seeds With short fuzz With fuzz and Bearing lint Bearing copious and
hairs lint hairs and thick even coat of fuzz
coat of fuzzy beneath the lint, there
hairs. may be a full coat of
fuzz at one or both
ends or fuzz may be
altogether absent.
Lint Short staple Short staple Medium staple Long staple

2. MESTA (Kenaf) – Hibiscus cannabinus (2n: 36)

Origin : Africa
Habit : Herbaceous annual growing to a height of even 5 metres.
Root : Well developed tap root system.
Stem : Straight with small prickles.
111
Morphology, flower and fruit of Mesta

Morphology, flower and fruit of Bhendi

112
Leaves : Alternate, stipulate, variously lobed with serrated margins, stipules long and
pointed.
Flowers : Solitary with short pedicels and axillary, epicalyx stiff, consisting of seven
to eight bracteoles, which are connate below and free above and inserted on
the base of calyx. Calyx bristled, lanceolate, united upto the middle.
Corolla longer, spreading, pale yellow to sulphur colour with crimson or
purpled center.
Androecium : Stamens numerous on a staminal column.
Gynoecium : Ovary superior, five carpelled, style passes through staminal column and
terminates in five stigmatic branches.
Pollination : Self pollinated crop. The stigma does not emerge from the staminal coloumn
until anthers begins to burst. Upto 4 per cent cross pollination has been observed.
Fruit : Capsule, five loculed, each locule containing four to five seeds. Capsule
pointed and bristled, seed glabrous.
Economic : Stem. Bast fibre is extracted from the stem. Leaf is used as vegetable.
part
Economic Importance
Fibre is obtained from cortical cells, which are tightly packed, glassier and more flexible.
The bulk of fibers are found in the lower portion of the stem. The fibre is comparable to that of
jute in lusture, coarser but tougher and stronger.

3. BHENDI - Abelmoschus esculentus (2n: 56)

Habit : The species is an annual or perennial, growing to 2 m tall. It is related to
such species as cotton, cocoa, and hibiscus.
Root : Well developed tap root system.
Stem : Straight with sparse branching.
Leaves : The leaves are long and broad, palmately lobed with 5–7 lobes.Lobes
narrow or broad, margins coarsely toothed.
Flowers : Solitary and axillary flowers. The flowers are 4–8 cm diameter, with five
white to yellow petals, often with a red or purple spot at the base of each
petal.
A flower bud appears in the axil of each leaf above 6th to 8th leaf
depending upon the cultivar.
The crown of the stem at this time bears 3-4 underdeveloped flowers but
later on during the period of profuse flowering of the plant there may be as
many as 10 undeveloped flowers on a single crown.
As the stem elongates, the lower most flower buds open into flowers. There
may be a period of 2, 3 or more days between the time of development of
each flower but never does more than one flower appear on a single stem.
The buds measuring 2.82 x 1.55 cm open into flowers. A flower bud takes
about 22-26 days from initiation to full bloom.
The style is surrounded by a staminal column which may bear more than
100 anthers. The pollen may come in contact with the stigmas through a
113
 lengthening of the staminal column or through insect foraging. Thus the
flowers of okra are self fertile. The pollen grain is large with many pores,
and every pore is a potential tube source; therefore, many tubes can develop
from one pollen grain.
Fruit : Capsule. A long ribbed beaked light hairy or nearly glabrous capsule.
Economic : Fruit as vegetable
part

EXERCISE
1. List out the different ploidy levels of cultivated cotton and its special features.
2. Distinguish the morphological features of different Gossypium sp.
3. Dissect and compare the floral parts of Cotton, Mesta and Bhendi. Draw the floral diagram
with its floral formula
4. What is the source of fibre in cotton, mesta and explain?

114
Morphology, flower and fruit of Jute

115
 Ex. No. 13 Date:

FAMILY : TILIACEAE - Jute

FAMILY : PIPERACEAE - Betelvine
FAMILY : CHENOPODIACEAE - Sugarbeet

1. Family : Tiliaceae - Jute - Corchorus spp. (2n: 14)

Origin : Primary centre : Africa; Secondary centre : India
Habitat : Tropical and subtropical
Habit : Herbaceous annual. There are two species C.olitorius and C.capsularis.
Root : Well developed tap root system.
Stem : Slender and cylindrical, that produces the fibre cells. The plant has several
axillary branch buds which are not allowed to develop when the crop is
grown for fiber.The main stem needs to grow straight and tall because it is
not feasible to extract fiber from plants with branches. The plants are spaced
closely so that the branch buds do not develop.
Leaves : Simple, alternate, stipulate, ovate to oblong, acuminate, coarsely toothed
margin. C.olitorius leaves are comparatively larger than C. capsularis.
C.olitorius : Tall growing herbaceous annual growing up to five meters. It is an upland
species. Stem is green or reddish. Branches develop more than capsularis.
Leaves glabrous, flowers axillary, stamens 3-60, ovary elongated 5-6
carpelled. Fruit is an elongated capsule, 5-6 loculed with lengthwise ridge on
the pericarp. Seeds smaller than capsularis, blackish to bluish green color.
C. capsularis : Herbaceous annual growing from 1.5 to 4 m, stem slender, cylindrical
greyish. Branches sparsely produced, leaves simple, alternate, stipulate,
ovate to oblong, acuminate, coarsely toothed, flowers small, yellow, axillary
cymes of two to five, stamens 2-30, ovary superior, 5 carpelled, syncarpous
with axile placentation.
Inflorescence : Inflorescence is a condensed cyme.
Flowers : Flowers of both the cultivated species are yellow and occur in condensed
cyme. Flowers are axillary, calyx polysepalous, 5 sepals, Corolla
polypetalous, stamens 5 to many, ovary 2-6 locular. Flowers of C. olitorius
are of deeper yellow color.
Pollination : Self pollinated crop. Cross pollination also occurs due to the visit of bees,
attracted by the nectar and strong scent from the flowers.
Fruit : Capsule. Capsules are wrinkled, hairy, dehiscing into five valves. Seeds
smaller and brownish in colour.
Fibre : The jute fibre is bast fibre extracted from stem. Fibres occur in long wedge
shapedbundles outside the xylem. They are grouped in concentric rings alternating with the thin
walled tissue of the phloem which disintegrate during retting. Each of the fibre bundles
represents one strand of filament composed of four to fifty cells. The cells which make up a fibre
strand are elongated and the longest fibre cells occur in the longest internodes. In general, the
fibre cells of jute are much shorter than other fibres and so the jute fibre is used in coarse fabrics
only. Economic part: Stem, from which fibre is extracted.
116
 Morphology of pepper and betelvine plants

Piper nigrum Piper betle

Morphology of the plant, Tuber, floral diagram and seed of sugarbeet

117
 2. Family Piperaceae - Betel vine - Piper betle L (2n: 32)
Habitat : Tropical
Habit : A perennial creeper, shrub, branches with swollen nodes
Root : Adventitious roots at the nodes.
Stem : Slender, twining
Leaves : Simple, entire, stipules adnate to petioles; vary in size, ovate- oblong, large
and cordate, often fleshy and palmately nerved.
Inflorescence : Spike, Dioecious; flowers very minute; bracteate; unisexual; perianth
absent stamens 1-10, filaments short, ovary superior; one celled, ovule
solitary and basal, style short, stigma 2-5.
Fruit : A small ovoid or globose one seeded berry. Seeds small with endosperm
and minute embryo.
Economic : Leaf used as a masticatory
part

3. Family Chenopodiaceae: SUGAR BEET– Beta vulgaris (L) (2n:18)

Origin : Northern Europe
Habitat : Subtropical
Habit : Herb, annual
Root : Tap root modified to napiform root
Stem : Very much reduced.
Leaves : Arise in basal rosettes on the much condensed stem. Succulent, spiral,
ovate to oblong-ovate, entire or wavy, surface smooth or crinkly, base
cordate, the colour ranges from dark red to light green.
Inflorescence : Terminal open panicle. Flowers are small, sessile and occur singly or in
groups to two or seven, bracts are linear, bisexual, nearly epigynous,
actinomorphic, pentamerous, perianth five lobed, lobes concave and
incurved. Stamens five, anthers dithecous, ovary embedded in the fleshy
receptacles and three celled, syncarpous, unilocular with a single ovule,
style short, stigma short.
Pollination : Cross pollinated crop. Occurs due to the visit of bees and wind.
Fruit : Nut like enclosed in hard woody perianth.
Economic : Tuber used for the extraction of Sugar
part
Economic Importance
Source of sugar (12-18%) from swollen hypocotyl and base of the stem. Also used as a
vegetable.
EXERCISE
1. How will you differentiate C.capsularis from C.olitorius
2. What is retting? In which crop this technique is followed.
3. What is bolting? In which crop this mechanism takes place.
4. Discuss about the economic parts of jute, betel vine and sugarbeet.
5. Enumerate the role of betel vine in our auspicious functions and its medicinal properties

118
Morphology and floral parts of tobacco

Morphology of Potato plant

119
 Ex. No. 14 Date:

FAMILY SOLANACEAE - Tobacco, Potato, Chillies, Tomato, Brinjal

FAMILY : MIMOSAE - Velimasal, Subabul
FAMILY : MORACEAE - Mulberry
A. FAMILY SOLANACEAE
1. TOBACCO – Nicotiana tabacum (2n: 48)
Origin : South America
Habitat : Tropical.
Habit : Stout, annual herb about three metres high.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Erect, thick stem producing few branches.
Leaves : Decurrent ovate, elliptic or lanceolate, apex acuminate. Petiole is winged
and associated at the node with a frilled auricle clasping the stem.
Glandular hairs on leaves surface excrete gum, which makes surface sticky.
Inflorescence : Raceme. Calyx cylindrical, campanulate. Sepals five, forming a calyx tube.
Corolla tube 10-15 mm long and 2-3 mm wide, lower half cylindric, pale
green or creamy, upper half similar in colour or pink to red, stamens
inserted on base of corolla throat, erect with four stamens of same length,
the fifth being shorter. Superior ovary, bicarpellary, axile placentation,
ovules numerous, style slender, stigma capitate,
Fruit : Capsule narrow, elliptic, acute or blunt.
Seeds numerous and minute, spherical / elliptic, light brown in colour
Economic part : Leaf used as a fumitory as well as masticatory
Economic Importance: Leaf for cigarette, beedi, cigar and cheroot, hookah, chewing and
snuff.The alkaloid nicotine obtained from the stems, midribs and other waste products is used as
a contact insecticide. Refined tobacco seed oil can be used for culinary purposes

2. POTATO – Solanum tuberosum L. (2n:48)

Origin : South America
Habitat : Subtropical
Habit : Erect juicy herb with numerous branches and subterraneous tubiferous
stolons. Tubers develop at the tip of the stolon, a modification of the stem.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Flaccid, robust, hollow, angular stem above and subterraneous tuberiferous
stolons below.
Leaves : Alternate, shortly stalked, imparipinnately compound, leaflets are very
small, opposite or alternate unequal in size.
Inflorescence : Many flowered cyme in a compressed, thin, hairy peduncle.
Flowers : Calyx five, partite, campanulate, corolla five, gamopetalous, stamens five,
opens at the top pores.
Stem tuber : The tuber is short, greatly enlarged, apical portion of the stolon with full of
stored food. Morphologically, it is a shortened thickened stem bearing many
buds called „eyes‟ in the axils of the scale leaves which are soon shed, leaving
a scar called „eye brow‟
120
 Morphology of chilli plant

Morphology of tomato plant, flower and fruit

121
Fruit : A two celled berry with many seeds.
Economic part : Tuber. It is a source of carbohydrate.

3. CHILLI - Capsicum annuum / Capsicum frutescens (2n: 26 )

Cultivated species:C.annum, C. baccatum, C.frutescens, C.chinense and C.pubescense.
Habitat : Tropical.
Habit : Stout, annual herb about three metres high.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Erect, highly branched herbaceous plant having height ranging from 50-100
cm. High branching is preferred in chilli for easy picking of fruits and for
effective inter cultivation and to prevent rotting of fruits.
Leaves : Leaves are simple, alternate, exstipulate, elliptic, lanceolate, glabrous with
unequal margin.
Inflorescence : Capsicum annumvar.annumis distinguished with the presence of calyx
teeth and the single white large flower at each node. Flower is solitary,
extra axillary, some times occurs in pairs, actinomorphic, pedicellate,
bisexual and hypogynous.
Calyx is campanulate, sepals five, gamosepalous. Corolla is bell shaped.
Lobes are thin veined and incurved in tips. Androecium introrse, anthers
dehisce longitudinally by lateral sutures. Ovary hypogynous, carpels 2,
syncarpous, axile placentation. Style slender, terminal and linear. Stigma is
subcapitate and faintly bifid.
Fruit : Berry. Unlike the usual berries, the seeds are not embedded in fleshy
pericarp. Fruits vary in shape, colour and pungency.
Pericarp in chilli fruit is leathery or succulent which turns from green to
purple or red, orange or orange red. The placenta carries numerous seeds.
Seeds are compressed, orbicular and minutely pitted.
Economic part : Fruit. Chilly powder used for culinary purpose. Also used as vegetable.

4. TOMATO – Solanum lycopersicum (2n: 26)

Habitat : Tropical.
Habit : It is herbaceous annual plant with bisexual flowers. Depending upon the
growth habit, the tomato plants have been categorized into two as
indeterminate and determinate types. The plant of former type terminates
in a vegetative bud, whereas that of the determinate type terminates in a
flower-bud and is appropriately called 'self topping' or 'self pruning' type.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Flaccid, robust, hollow, angular stem
Leaves : Alternate, short stalked, hairy, variable in shape
Inflorescence : Many flowered cyme in a compressed, thin, hairy peduncle, calyx five,
partite, campanulate, corolla five, gamopetalous, stamens five, opens at
the top pores.

122
Morphology of the plant, flower and fruit of brinjal

Morphology, floral parts and fruit of Velimasal

123
Fruit : The fruit is a true berry. Seeds numerous and small, spherical / elliptic,
light brown in colour
Economic part : Fruit.
Economic Importance: Fruits are rich in lycopene, to protect against oxidative damage in many
epidemiological studies. Tomato consumption is associated with decreased risk of breast cancer,
head and neck cancers and protective against neurodegenerative diseases.

5. BRINJAL- Solanum melongena L. (2n: 24)

Habitat : Tropical.
Habit : Herbaceous annual with erect or semi spreading habits. It is a perennial
crop but cultivated as an annual. It develops bushy plants that grow erect to
about 2-4 feet tall. Growth is indeterminate.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Erect, thick stem producing few branches.
Leaves : Simple, Alternate leaves
Inflorescence : Four types of flowers are there in Brinjal. They are long-styled and
medium-styled flowers which produce fruits whereas pseudoshort styled
and true short-styled flowers do not set any fruit. Fruit setting in the Brinjal
varieties with long-styled flowers varied from 70 to 86% while short-styled
flowers do not set fruit.
Fruit : The fruit is a berry, borne singly or in clusters. The fruit is a pendent,
fleshy berry that can be oval, round, or oblong, 2-8 inches in diameter. The
epidermis or skin of the fruit is thin and smooth. The fruit has fleshy
placenta, in which the seeds are embedded in a mass of spongy tissue.
Most cultivars have purple fruits, although colors may range from
yellowish white to red, and to blackish-purple
Economic part : Fruit, used as vegetable

B. FAMILY : MIMOSAE - Desmanthes and Subabul

1. VELIMASAL / HEDGE LUCERNE – Desmanthus virgatus (2n: 28)

Habitat : Subtropical and tropical
Habit : Perennial shrub can be maintained as a hedge plant, tolerant to heavy
grazing with quick regrowth.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Slender, become hardly twig by repeated cutting.
Leaves : Bipinnate, leaflets small in pairs.
Inflorescence : Small peduncled heads, flowers small, whitish, Calyx -5, gamosepalous and
Corolla five, gamopetalous, numerous stamens, ovary superior,
monocarpellary with many ovules.
Fruit : Pod
Economic part : Leaves and pods.
Economic Importance Leaves are good fodder for cattle. Quick regrowth is advantageous
forintroduction of this crop in varying cropping systems.
124
 SUBABUL (Savundal) – Leucaena leucocephala

Morphology and floral parts of Mulberry

Morus alba L. (White mulberry) Morus nigra L.(Black mulberry)

125
2. SUBABUL (Savundal) – Leucaena leucocephala (or) L. glauca. (2n:104)
Family : Mimosaceae
Habitat : Subtropical, tropical
Habit : A tall single trunked tree occurs and many branched shrubs also.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Aerial, erect and woody
Leaves : Bipinnate, leaflets small in many pairs, stipulate calyx five, tubular, corolla
five, tubular, stamens 10, exerted, ovary monocarpellary, many ovuled,
Inflorescence : Small peduncled heads, flowers small, calyx and corolla five gamo,
numerous stamens, ovary superior, monocarpellary with many ovules.
Fruit : Legume or Lomentum. Pod stalked and flattened. Seeds are elliptic and
compressed.
Economic : Leaves. It is a very good tree fodder.
part

C. FAMILY MORACEAE
1. MULBERRY- Morus spp.(2n=28)
Cultivated species:
1. Morus alba L. (White mulberry)
2. Morus nigra L.(Black mulberry)
3. Morus rubra L. (Red Mulberry)

Habitat : Warm temperate and subtropical regions.

Habit : Shrubs or trees with milky sap.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : The mulberry plants grow tall with a crown height of 5–6 feet from ground
level and a stem girth of 4–5 inches or more.
Leaves : Leaves are alternate or opposite, simple, entire, stipulate and serrated on the
margin. Stipules, often caducous, are small and lateral.
Inflorescence : Inflorescence shows a large variation. These may be heads, racemes,
spikes, catkin etc. In Morus, male flowers are set in catkins and the female
into pseudospikes.
Flowers : Flowers are unisexual and plants may be monoecious or dioecious. These
are actinomorphic, tetramerous and hypogynous to epigynous. Bracts are
often present.
Perianth : Perianth consists of usually 4 sepaloid tepals, free or united with valvate or
imbricate aestivation. Tepals are rarely 2 or 1 and persistent.
Androecium : Androecium comprises of stamens equal in number and opposite to the
perianth segments. The number is sometimes reduced to 1 or 2 Anthers are
dithecous, versatile and longitudinally dehiscing. Filaments remain inflexed
in bud. A rudimentary ovary is sometimes found in the male flowers of
Morus.
Gynoecium : Gynoecium consists of two united (syncarpous) carpels, often one is abortive.
Ovary is superior, unilocular with a solitary ovule, pendulous
126
 from the apex. Styles two, rarely one, short with bifid stigma.
Fruit : Individual fruit is a drupe.Immature fruits are white, green or pale yellow
and turn red or pink when ripens.
Economic : Leaves. Mulberry leaves, particularly white mulberry, are the important sole
part food source of the silkworm (Bombyx mori, named after the mulberry genus
Morus), the cocoon of which is used to make silk.
Economic Importance :.
  Fruits: Some of trees of this family yield edible fruits as bread fruit.
 Used for shade: Some trees of this family are grown for their excellent shade from sun
 rays. These trees are peepal, banyan.
 Rearing of silk worm: The leaves of mulberry are used for growing silk worms. Silk
 worms produce silk which has great commercial value.
 Paper: The bark of mulberry is used for paper making.

EXERCISE

1. Discuss the economic parts of the crops belonging to the family Solanaceae.
2. Draw the floral diagram of Tobacco with floral formula.
3. Compare the type of Inflorescence in Desmanthes, and Subabul.
4. Describe the inflorescence of mulberry with a neat sketch of the flowers and fruit.

127
Cucumber – Habit and Parts of the plant

128
 Ex. No. 15 Date:

FAMILY : CUCURBITACEAE - Cucumber, Pumpkin and Ashgourd

FAMILY : ALLIACEAE - Onion and Garlic

A. FAMILY : CUCURBITACEAE
1. Cucumber - Cucumis sativus. L.(2n=14)
Habitat : Grown widely in the tropical regions.
Habit : Annual, climbing herb with branching habit.
Root : Extensive but shallow tap root system.
Stem : The stem is 50-250 cm long robust, angular, yellowish brown and hairy.
Since it has trailing habit, stem is slender and hollow. Tendrils inserted
behind the leaves, yellowish green and 10-30 cm long.
Leaves : Leaves are simple, large with petioles. They are alternate in arrangement,
light green to dark green in colour, palmately lobed, warty with hairs.
Petiole is robust, furrowed on the upper side, clothed with numerous stiff
hairs. The leaf base is deeply cordate, apex acuminate distinctly 3 – 7 lobed
with unequal glandular teeth and hispid along the margins.
Inflorescence : Flowers are borne axillary, solitary, shortly stalked and monoecious. They are
yellow to deep yellow in colour. Staminate flowers are numerous borne in
fascicles of 3 to 7 than the pistillate flowers which are borne in singles. The
staminate flowers can be recognized by their pedicels. The time taken for first
flowering of pistillate flower indicates the earliness of a cultivar.
Calyx: Calyx is segmented on the margin of the receptacle with
numerouslongitudinal ribs or nerves which are clothed with long stiff hairs.
white calyx tube is adnate to the ovary.
Corolla : Corolla is campanulate, yellow and five lobed.
Androecium: Male flowers are yellowish white in colour. Stamens
arethree, very short, free with white filaments. Anthers are adhering to the
corolla tube.
Gynoecium: Ovary is inferior, clothed with scattered hairs with
swollenovoid base and tri carpellary with three parietal placenta. Style
simple with 3 – 5 thick stigma.
Fruit : The fruit is a pepo with hard rind, pendulous on robust stalk, highly variable
in shape and size usually oblong-lanceolate or linear cylindrical, small or large,
straight or curved, green or whitish green, with yellowish white streaks at the
apex. In immature fruit, the skin (pericarp) is dark green to light green in
colour. On maturity, the skin colour turns to yellow. The fleshy mesocarp
becomes soft, crisp and shiny in appearance. Seeds are many and usually flat.
They are oval in shape with pointed tip at one end attached to placenta.

Economic part : Tender fruits. It is used as pickle, salad and cooked vegetable.

129
 Pumpkin – Habit

Parts of the plant

Staminate flower Pistillate flower

130
2. Pumpkin – Cucurbita moschata (2n: 40)
Habitat : Grown widely in the tropical regions.
Habit : Annual climbing herb.
Root : Extensive but shallow tap root system.
Stem : Prostrate (climber), hollow, 5 angled, hairy, weak stem with tendrils for
climbing.
Leaves : Alternate leaves, Petiolate, Cordate, and lobed.
Inflorescence : Flowers are borne solitary, large and monoecious. Male and female flowers
are borne separately. Calyx 5, Gamosepalous, 5 lobed, Campanulate. Corolla
5, Gamopetalous, 5 lobed and Campanulate.
Male flower : Long pedicelled; usually appear before the female flowers and
are produced in greater number.
Female flower : Peduncle short, tricarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary,
unilocular with parietal placentation. Style short and thick with 3-5 stigma
Fruit : The fruit is a special form of berry called as Pepo; Large or small. The
epicarp develops into a hard rind, enclosing a fleshy mesocarp. Seeds are
flattened without endosperm.
Economic : Fruit.
part

3. Ashgourd- Benincasa hispida (2n:24)

Habitat : Grown widely in the tropical regions.
Habit : Annual climbing herb.
Root : Branched tap root system.
Stem : Stout, light green with scattered rough hairs, often 5 angled like Pumpkin.
Leaves : Alternate leaves, Large, exstipulate, Petiolate, lamina 5 - 11 lobed, dentate, base
cordate, coiled tendrils at the upper side of the petiole base.
Inflorescence : Cymose, axillary and solitary flowers. Large and monoecious. Male and
female flowers are borne separately. Calyx 5, Gamosepalous, 5 lobed,
Campanulate. Petals 5 free and rotate.
Male flower: Long pedicelled; stamens 5 usually occur in pairs with one
free.
Female flower: Tricarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary, unilocular with
parietal placentation. Single Style ending with 3 stigma, bilobed and curved.
Fruit : The fruit is a special form of berry called as Pepo; Large or small. Initially
hairy later becoming glabrous and covered with white easily removable wax.
Seeds with straight embryo without endosperm.
Economic Fruit.
part

131
 Onion Morphology Onion Inflorescence

Habitat
Habit

Root
Stem

Leaves
Inflorescence

Garlic – Morphology and Part of the plant

Economic
part

132
B. FAMILY ALLIACEAE: Onion and Garlic
1. ONION- Allium cepa (2n: 16)
Three cultivated types:
1. A.cepa var. cepa
2. A. cepa var. aggregatum
3. A. cepa var.proliferum

Habitat : Widely cultivated in the tropical regions.

Habit : Biennial, i.e., the plants blossom only during the second year. But the
cultivated types are annuals since it is harvested in the first year itself. When
it is cut, they give a distinct and pungent odour by the release of the
chemical called Allicin which is produced from S –Allyl Cystein
Sulphoxide by the action of the enzyme Allinase
Root : Adventitious root system with cluster of fibrous roots.
Stem : The true stem of onion is much reduced in size and is hard with condensed
internodes and flat bottom which is held underneath the soil, modified to
form a bulbous structure called Onion Bulb
Leaves : Acicular; Leaf is long, narrow and cylindrical.
Inflorescence : Inflorescence is called “Umbel” with numerous small flowers. A single
spathe which splits into segments as the young flowers emerge. It produces
white to purple colour flowers at the apex of the floral stem, which is
commonly hollow when mature. The umbel before it is fully expanded, is
enclosed in a papery spathe consisting of 2-3 bracts, which are split open by
the pressure of developing flower buds. The flowers may vary from 50-200
depending upon the species cultivars, time of planting, size and storage
conditions
Perianth: Petals like segments are arranged in two whorls which are
spreading, reflexed, free and ovate
Stamens : Stamens are also arranged in two whorls, three stamens in the
inner whorl followed by three outer stamens. Anthers are bilocular.
Gynoecium: Ovary superior, trilocular each with two ovules with nectar at
the base. Three carpels are found united at the centre of the ovary.
Economic : Bulbs; vary in shape and size; occur single or in groups. Propagated by true
Part seeds or through bulbs

2. GARLIC - Allium sativum (2n: 16)

Habitat : Widely cultivated in the hilly regions.
Habit : It is biennial, i. e. the plants blossom only in the second year. But the
cultivated types are annuals since it is harvested in the first year itself.
Root : Adventitious root system.
Stem : True stem of garlic is similar to onion much reduced in size, hard with
condensed internodes and flat bottom which is held underneath the soil.
Leaves : Leaf is long, flattened solid leaves.
Inflorescence : It produces rose-purple flowers on 2½- to 3-foot stems in July.

133
Economic : Composite Bulbs with number of thin sheathing membranous leaf bases
part enclosing numerous small bulbs derived from the axillary buds of the
leaves called as Cloves; vary in shape and size; Propagated through bulbs

EXERCISE
1. Compare the morphology of leaf and bulb in onion and garlic.
2. Write the sexual dimorphism in Cucurbitaceae members.
3. Describe the economic parts of the crops in the family Cucurbitaceae and Alliaceae.
4. Draw the floral diagram and formula of Cucurbitaceous crops.

134
Morphology of banana and Parts of inflorescence

Underground rhizome with suckers

135
 Ex. No. 16 Date:
FAMILY : MUSACEAE - Banana, Manila hemp
FAMILY : RUBIACEAE – Coffee; FAMILY : THEACEAE - Tea
A. FAMILY MUSACEAE
1. BANANA- (2n: 22 to 88)
Two Cultivated Species: 1.Musa sapientumfor dessert bananas
2. Musa paradisiaca for plantains
Habitat : Cultivated throughout the tropics.
Habit : The plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy and are often mistaken for trees.
Root : Bananas have a primary root system and an adventitious one. Primary roots
originate from the surface of the central cylinder in the rhizome. Secondary and
tertiary roots originate from the primary roots.
Stem : The main or upright stem is actually a pseudostem that grows 6 to 7.6 metres
tall, growing from a corm. Each pseudostem can produce a single bunch of
bananas. After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots may develop from the
base of the plant. Many varieties of bananas are perennial.
Leaves : Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres long and 60 cm wide.
They are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look. They are
simple, exstipulate and alternate. The leaves are large and possess a long sheath,
separated by a stalk from the large oblong blade; lanceolate; midbrib strong,
venation parallel.
Inflorescence : Each pseudostem normally produces a single inflorescence, also known as the
banana heart. Usually spike consisting of a thick penducle bearing a large
number of green or red bracts called spathe; arranged in 3-6 spiral rows (Musa).
In the axils of these spathes, a large number of flowers are arranged in a
condensed spike. At maturity, spathes roll back and finally fall off. The
inflorescence contains many bracts (sometimes incorrectly called petals)
between rows of flowers.
Flowers : The female flowers appear in rows further up the stem from the rows of male
flowers. The ovary is inferior, meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts
appear at the tip of the ovary. The ovary develops into a seedless fruit by
parthenocarpy (without being pollinated). As it lifts, the bract (a modified leaf)
exposes a cluster of female flowers.
Pollination Banana are male sterile, and those of the Cavendish group are female sterile as
well; fruit is set parthenocarpically.
Fruit : The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in a large hanging cluster,
made up of tiers (called hands), with up to 20 fruit in a tier. The hanging cluster
is known as a bunch, comprising 3–20 tiers, or commercially as a "banana
stem", and can weigh from 30–50 kilograms (66–110 lb). Individual banana fruits
(commonly known as a banana or 'finger') weights on an average 125 grams (0.28 lb),
of which approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter. There is a protective outer
layer (a peel or skin) with numerous long, thin strings (the phloembundles), which run
lengthwise between the skin and the edible inner portion. The inner part of the
136
Morphology of Manila Hemp and Parts of inflorescence

137
 common yellow dessert variety splits easily lengthwise into three sections that
correspond to the inner portions of the three carpels.
The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry". In cultivated varieties, the
seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black
specks in the interior of the fruit. Bananas grow pointing up, not hanging down.
Economic : Fruit. All the parts of the plant are used.
part
Economic Importance :
 Banana is a very popular fruit due to its high nutritive value.
 Consumed in fresh or cooked form both as ripe and raw fruit.
 Rich source of carbohydrate and is rich in vitamins particularly vitamin B.
 Good source of Potassium, Phosphorus, Calcium and Magnesium.
 The fruit is easy to digest, free from fat and cholesterol.
 Banana powder is used as the first baby food.
 It helps in reducing risk of heart diseases when used regularly and is recommended for
patients suffering from high blood pressure, arthritis, ulcer, gastroenteritis and kidney
 disorders.
 Processed products, such as chips, banana puree, jam, jelly, juice, wine and halwa can be
 made from the fruit.
 The tender stem, which bears the inflorescence is extracted by removing the leaf sheaths
of the harvested pseudostem and used as vegetable.
 Plantains or cooking bananas are rich in starch and have a chemical composition similar to
 that of potato.
 Banana fibre is used to make items like bags, pots and wall hangers.
 Rope and good quality paper can be prepared from banana waste.
 Banana leaves are used as healthy and hygienic eating plates.

2. MANILA HEMP (Abaca) - Musa textilis (2n: 20)
Habitat : Cultivated throughout the all regions of South East Asia.
Habit : A rhizome with pseudostem formed by the leaf sheath. It resembles the
closely related wild seeded bananas, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana.
Root : Adventitious root system.
Stem : False trunk or pseudostem about 30 to 40 cm in diameter.
Leaves : The leaves grow from the trunk of the plant, the bases of the leaves form a
sheath covering around the trunk; there are approximately 25 with
overlapping petioles, covering the stalk to form a shrub. They grow in
succession, with the oldest growing from the bottom of the trunk and
successively younger ones from the top. The sheaths contain the valuable
fibre. The leaf sheath consist of three distinct layers namely, the outer layer
which contains sclerenchyma fibers, which is stripped off to produce
commercial fiber. The middle layer made up of cavities seperated by
longitudinal and transverse fibers, which have no economic value. The inner
layer is of soft tissue, which contains the useful fiber.
Inflorescence : Long dropping spike of closely overlapping decidious bracts formed from
meristem at top of corm, pushes through center of pseudostem and spike
emerges in center of leaf crown.
138
 Coffee tree with flowers and fruits

Tea plant with cross section of flower and seeds

139
 Monoecious, stout, bracteate, male spikes above and female below,
bracts spirally arranged, large ovate. Bisexual flowers occur in the middle,
perianth six in two rows, the inner posterior tepal is large and free, the others
fused, segments unequal in size and shape. Stamen six; five fertile and one
staminode with rudimentary stamen; Ovary inferior, tricarpellary, Syncarpous
with capitate stigma.
Fruit : "Leathery Berry". The fruit of this ornamental tree is inedible.
Economic : Leaf sheath used for extraction of fiber which is used worldwide for making
part ropes on sailing vessels. Abaca fibre is pulped and processed into specialty
paper used in tea bags, vacuum bags, currency, and more. It can be used to
make handcrafts like bags, carpets, clothing and furniture. Abacá rope is very
durable, flexible and resistant to salt water damage, allowing its use in
hawsers, ship‟s lines and fishing nets.

B. FAMILY: RUBIACEAE
1. COFFEE – Coffea arabica (2n: 44)
Habitat : Found in tropical regions, but can grow in temperate climates. It requires
shade when it grows in hot, low-lying districts; but when it grows on
elevated land, it thrives without such protection.
Habit : It is a shrub with evergreen leaves, and reaches a height of fourteen to
twenty feet when fully grown. The shrub produces dimorphic branches, i.e.,
branches of two forms, known as uprights and laterals.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : When young, the plants have a main stem, the upright, which, produce
outside shoots, the laterals. The laterals produce the secondary laterals. The
laterals are produced in pairs and are opposite, the pairs being borne in
whorls around the stem. The laterals are produced only while the joint of the
upright, to which they are attached, is young; and if they are broken off at
that point, the upright has no power to reproduce them. The upright can
produce new uprights also; but if an upright is cut off, the laterals at that
position tend to thicken up. This is very desirable, as the laterals produce the
flowers, which seldom appear on the uprights. This fact is utilized in
pruning the coffee tree, the uprights being cut back, the laterals then
becoming more productive. Planters generally keep their trees pruned down
to about six feet.
Leaves : The leaves are lanceolate, or lance-shaped, being borne in pairs opposite
each other. They are three to six inches in length, with an acuminate apex,
somewhat attenuate at the base, with very short petioles which are united
with the short interpetiolar stipules at the base. The coffee leaves are thin,
but of firm texture, slightly coriaceous. They are very dark green on the
upper surface, but much lighter underneath. The margin of the leaf is entire
and wavy. In some tropical countries the natives brew a coffee tea from the
leaves of the coffee tree.
140
Inflorescence : The coffee flowers are small, white, and very fragrant, having a delicate
characteristic odor. They are borne in the axils of the leaves in clusters, and
several crops are produced in one season, depending on the conditions of
heat and moisture that prevail in the particular season. The different
blossoming are classed as main blossoming and smaller blossomings. The
flowers are also tubular, the tube of the corolla dividing into five white
segments. The corolla segments are about one-half inch in length, while the
tube itself is about three-eighths of an inch long. The anthers of the stamens,
which are five in number, protrude from the top of the corolla tube, together
with the top of the two-cleft pistil. The calyx is small and cup shaped,
which is so small as to escape notice unless one is aware of its existence.
There are five stamens with bifid stigma.
Fruit : Berry. These little fruits are not berries, such as are well represented by the
grape; but are drupes, which are better exemplified by the cherry and the
peach. Within six to seven months, these coffee drupes develop into little
red balls about the size of an ordinary cherry; but, instead of being round,
they are somewhat ellipsoidal, having at the outer end a small umbilicus.
The drupe of the coffee usually has two locules, each containing a little
“stone” (the seed and its parchment covering) from which the coffee bean
(seed) is obtained. Some few drupes contain three, while others, at the outer
ends of the branches, contain only one round bean, known as the peaberry.
Economic : Fruit from which coffee bean (seeds) is obtained.
part

C. FAMILY: THEACEAE
1. TEA - Camellia sinensis(2n: 30)
Habitat : Grown in tropical and subtropical regions in areas with at least 127 cm.
(50 inches) of rainfall a year.
Habit : It is an evergreen shrub or small tree that is usually trimmed to below two
metres (six feet) when cultivated for its leaves. It has a strong taproot.
Root : Tap root system
Stem : When young, the plants have a main stem, the upright, which, produce out
side shoots, the laterals.
Leaves : The leaves are 4–15 cm long and 2–5 cm broad. Fresh leaves contain about
4% caffeine. The young, light green leaves are preferably harvested for tea
production; they have short white hairs on the underside. Older leaves are
deeper green. Different leaf ages produce differing tea qualities, since their
chemical compositions are different. Usually, the tip (bud) and the first two
to three leaves are harvested for processing. This hand picking is repeated
every one to two weeks.
Inflorescence : The flowers are yellow-white, with 7 to 8 petals. The calyx consists of five
or more sepals, which are often persistent in the fruiting stage. The corolla
is pentamerous, rarely numerous. Multistaminate, usually with 20-100
stamens either free or adnate to the base of the corolla, and are also
distinctive because of the presence of pseudopollen. The ovary is often
141
 hairy and narrows gradually into the style, which may be branched of cleft.
Fruit : Loculicidally dehiscent capsule. The seeds of Camellia sinensis and
Camellia oleifera can be pressed to yield tea oil, a sweetish seasoning and
cooking oil that should not be confused with tea tree oil, an essential oil that
is used for medical and cosmetic purposes, and originates from the leaves of
a different plant.
Economic : Leaf for tea production
part

EXERCISE
1. Mention the economic parts of banana, manila hemp, tea, coffee.
2. Dissect and explain the inflorescence of banana with diagram.
3. Why banana is considered as perennial crop?
4. Draw the floral diagram of the crops belonging to the family Rubiaceae and Theaceaeae
with its floral formula.

142
 GLOSSARY

Acropetal : Arrangement of flowers. Younger flowers at the top and the older flowers
at the base
Actinomorphic : A flower with radial symmetry. The flower can be divided into two equal
halves along more than one longitudinal plane Eg : Hibiscus, Solanum
Acuminate : Ending in a narrowed tapering point with concave sides.
Adnate : Attachment of filament is continued from the base to the apex of the anther
Eg : Verbena
Anatropous : a reversed ovule with the micropyle close to the hilum.
Androecium : the male element; the stamens as a unit of the flower.
Anther : the part of the stamen containing the pollen.
Apocarpous : Gynoecium made up of two or more carpels which are free
Eg : Polyalthia
Arborescent : of treelike habit
Asymmetric : A flower which cannot be divided into two equal halves along any vertical
plane Eg : Canna
Basipetal : Arrangement of flowers- Older flowers at the top and Younger flowers at
the base
Basifixed : Attached or fixed by the base.
Bipinnate : when the primary divisions (pinnae) of a pinnate leaf are themselves
pinnate.
Bisexual : having both sexes present and functional in the same flower.
Blade : the expanded part of a leaf or petal.
Bract : a reduced leaf subtending a flower or flower stalk.
Bracteole : a secondary bract on the pedicel or very close under the flower.
Bulbil : an aerial bulb or bud produced in a leaf axil or replacing the flower, which
on separation, is capable of propagating the plant.
Calyx : the outer envelope of the flower, consisting of sepals, free or united.
Carpel : one of the foliar units of a compound pistil or ovary; a simple pistil has
only one carpel.
Caruncle : an outgrowth near the hilum of a seed.
Catkin : a close bracteate, often pendulous spike.
Caudate : ending abruptly in a tail-like tip or appendage.
Centrifugal : Opening of flowers from centre to periphery
Centripetal : Opening of flowers from periphery to centre
Deciduous : falling off or subject to fall, applied to leaves, petals, etc.
Decumbent : reclining or lying on the ground.
Denticulate : finely dentate.
143
Determinate : The terminal or central flower of an inflorescence opens first and the
prolongation of the axis is arrested.
Diadelphous : All the stamens of a flower are united in two bundles by fusion of their
filaments only and the anthers are free Eg : Clitoria
Dichasium : Three flowers in an inflorescence; with the central flower oldest and the
lateral flowers younger. Eg : Jasmine
Didynamous : Out of four stamens in a flower, two are long and two are short.
Dioecious : Development of male and female flowers on two separate individuals.
Eg : Palmyrah, Papaya
Distichous : A type of alternate leaf arrangement having successive leaves on opposite
side of the stem so that two vertical rows of leaves are seen on the stem
which are opposite to each other.
Dithecous : Anthers having two lobes with four pollen sacs or microsporangia
Dorsifixed : Filament is attached to the dorsal side of the anther Eg : Citrus
Endocarp : The inner layer of the pericarp of angiospermic fruit which is internal to
mesocarp and external to seed.
Epicalyx : An extra whorl of sepal like floral appendages in some flowers, that are
lying external to the whorl of sepals. Individual segments are known as
episepals.
Epigyny : The arrangement of floral parts above the ovary
Epipetalous : Stamens adhere to the petals by their filaments
False fruit : A fruit which is formed from other parts of the flower as well as the
gynoecium.
Gamopetalous : Petals are united at the base to form a corolla tube.
Gamosepalous : Sepals are united
Gynandrous : Stamens that are inserted on the gynoecium.
Habitat : The immediate environment that is occupied by an organism.
Hermaphrodite : A plant having both male and female reproductive organs in the same
flower of some individual.
Heterogamous : Two types of florets; ray and disc florets, in an inflorescence.
Homogamous : All the florets are same in an inflorescence.
Hypogyny : Arrangement of flower parts viz., stamens, sepals and petals below the level
of ovary.
Imbricate : One sepal/ petal is internal or being overlapped on both the margins and
one sepal or petal is external with both of its margins overlapping. Of the
remaining sepals one margin is overlapping and the other margin is
overlapped.
Incomplete flower: A flower lacking sepals or petals or both.
Indehiscent : A fruit that doesnot open to disperse its content.

144
Innate : or basifixed; Filaments attached to the base of the anther
Eg : Brassica
Involucre : The whorl or bracts around or beneath a condensed inflorescence, such as
capitulam or umbel which carry out the function of calyx.
Labiate : A corolla in which one or more petals are formed into a lip.
Lemma : The outer bract of a grass floret.
Lodicule : A scale below the ovary of a grass flower which represents the reduced
perianths.
Monoecious : Development of male and female flowers on the same plant. Eg : Coconut,
Maize
Monodelphous : All the stamens of a flower are united in one bundle by fusion of their
filaments only and the anthers are free Eg : Abutilon, Hibiscus
Monothecous : Anthers with one lobe with two pollen sacs or microsporangia
Multiple fruit : A fleshy fruit developing from all the flowers of a whole inflorescence.
Node : The part of stem where the leaf or leaves arise.
Ovule : The nucellus having the embryo sac and is enclosed by 1 or 2 integuments
which after fertilization and subsequent development becomes a seed.
Panicle : A branched raceme in which each branch is bearing a group of flowers.
Pappus : The calyx modified into a bunch of hairs
Papilionaceous : Presence of one large standard petal, two lateral wing petals and two
partially fused keel petals is called Papilionaceous type of Corolla
Pedicellate : A flower or a fruit having a stalk.
Peduncle : Main axis of inflorescence on which flowers are borne.
Perianth : The floral envelop, it includes calyx and corolla or any one of them.
Petiole : The stalk that attaches the lamina of leaf to the stem with its base
strengthened by widening.
Phyllotaxy : The arrangement of leaves on the stem.
Phyllode : The petiole or any part of the rachis that becomes flattened or winged
taking the shape of the leaf. Eg : Acacia
Pinnate : A compound leaf having leaflets arranged in two ranks on opposite sides
of the rachis.
Pistillate : A flower which has carpels but no anthers.
Placenta : The part of an ovary to which the seeds get attached.
Placentation : The arrangement of the placentas in a syncarpous ovary.
Polyadelphous : Having indefinite number of stamens, with filaments united to form more
than two bundles and the anthers remain free Eg : Castor
Polyandrous : Stamens are indefinite and free
Polysepalous : Sepals are free from one another
Polypetalous : Petals are free from one another
145
Polygamous : A plant with three kinds of flowers viz., Staminate, Pistillate and bisexual
flowers Eg : Mango, Cashew
Protogyny : The maturation of female reproductive organs before the maturation
of male organs as in Rosaceae and Cruciferae.
Procumbent : A plant or its part that is trailing loosely along the ground surface.
Pulvinous : Swollen leaf base
Quincuncial : Modification of imbricate aestivation. Two petals are internal; two petals
are external; the fifth one has one margin external and other margin internal
Eg : Guava
Rachilla : The axis in the centre of a grass spikelet.
Rachis : The main axis of a pinnately compound leaf to which the leaflets are
arranged.
Ray floret : One of the small flowers radiating out from the margin of a capitulum.
Receptacle : The terminal part of the axis of a flower which supports all the floral parts
viz., sepals, petals, stamens and pistil. Also called as Thalamus
Scape : The rachis or peduncle that arise directly from the rhizome.
Eg : Lotus, Onion
Sessile : A structure that is unstalked ie., a leaf with no petiole or stigma with no
style or a flower with no pedicel
Stipules : Refers to basal appendages of a leaf or petiole. They may also
photosynthesize or it may protect the axillary buds.
Style : The narrow part of the gynoecium which bears the stigma.
Synandrous : Anthers as well as filaments are fused throughout their length
Eg : Cucurbits
Syncarpous : Gynoecium consists of two or more carpels which are fused.
Eg : Hibiscus
Syngamy : The fusion of gametes.
Syngenesious : Anthers of all the stamens of a flower unite to form a cylinder around the
style but the filaments are free. Eg : Asteraceae
Tetradynamous : Out of six stamens in a flower, two outer are short and four inner are long
Eg : Mustard
Tetramerous : Describing flower in which units of different whorls are in fours or
multiples of four.
Twisted : One margin of each sepal /petal overlaps the next one. The overlapping is
regular in one direction either clockwise or anticlockwise
Valvate : Meeting of sepals or petals by their edges without overlapping. Eg :
Hibiscus
Velamen : Water absorbing tissue which is present on the outside of aerial root in
certain plants.
Versatile : Anther is attached lightly at its back to the slender tip of the filament so
that it can swing freely Eg : Grass
146
Verticillaster : A kind of inflorescence looking like a dense whorl of flowers. It is a
combination of two crowded dichasial cymes, one at each side of the stem.
Zygomorphic : A flower with bilateral symmetry. The flower can be divided into two equal
halves in only one vertical plane Eg : Pisum

147
 brhy; mfuhjp
Accessory bud Jiz bkhl;L
Acropetal succession Edp nehf;fpa thpir (m) Edp nehf;fpa
tsuf;Toa
Achene btoah cyh; rpW fdp
Acuminate ePs; Th; Edp (c;).kmuR
Acute Th; Edp (c.;)k kh
Adnate ntw;WUg;g[ld; ,ize;j
Adventitious bud ntw;wpl bkhl;Lf;fs;
Adventitious roots ntw;wpl nth;fs;
Aerial root Mfha nth;
Aerial stem jiunky; jzL
Aestivation ,jHikg;g[
Aggregate fruit jpus; fdp
Alate ,wF ,jGila
Alternate khw;W ,iy mikt[
Androecium Mzfk;
Anther kfue;j nfruk;
Awn Th; Ko
Axial placentation mr;R R{y; xl;Lkiw
Axillary bud nfhz bkhl;L
Basal placenation jsr; R{y; xl;L
Basifixed fPH; mize;jiy
Basipetal EdpapypUe;J fPH;nehf;fp
Berry KG rijf; fdp
Bicarpellary unilocular ovary ,U R{y; ,iy xw;iwaiwr; R{yfk;
Bifid ghjptiu 2 Mf gpst[gl;l
Bifoliate ,U rpw;wpiya[ila
Bilabiate <hpjH; tot my;yp tl;lKila
Bilobed ,U ,jH;fSila
Bilocular ,uz;L miwfSila
Bisexual flower ,U ghy; g{
Bipinnate ,ul;il rpwFf; Tl;oiy
Bract g{tor; brjpy;
Bracteate g{tor; brjpYilait
Bracteolate g{f;fhk;gor; brjpYila
Calyx g[y;yp tl; ;k
Capsule ,izr; R{yf btofdp
Carpels R{yf ,iyfs;
Caryopsis btoah cyh; fdpjhdpak;
Catkin bjhF fjph; krhp
Cladode ,iyj; bjhHpy; jzL
Cordate ,ja totk;
Corolla my;yp tl;lk;
Cotyledons tp;j;jpiyfs;
Cuneate Mg;g[ totk;
Dehiscent btof;Fk; jd;ika[ila
Diadalphous ,Ufw;iw kfue;jj; hs;
Drydehsicent fruit cyh; btofdpfs;
Drupe cs;bshl;L rijf;fdp
Ebrateate g{tor; brjpy;fsw; it
Ebraceteolate g{f;fhk;gor; brjpy;fsw;wit
Elliptic ePs; tl;l totk;
Endocarp fodkhd cs;nshL
Endosperm Kis R{y; jpR
Epicalyx g[wg[y;yp ,jH;fs;
Epicotyl tpj;jpiy nky; jzL
Epipetalous ,ize;j my;yp ,jH;fSilait
Falcate mhpths; totk;
False septum nghypr; Rth;
Filament kfue;jf; fk;gp
Fleshy fruit rijf; fdp
Floralaxis g{ mr;R
Floral bract kyuor; brjpy;fs;
Free central placentation jdp bry; Nyfk;
Fusiform fjph; nfhy; totk;
Gynoecium btz;zfk;
Gynophore Nyff; fhk;g[
Imparipinnate XU rpw;wiyapy; KotJ
Incomplete flower KGikaw;w g{
Indefinite vz;zKoahj
Indehiscent dry fruit btoah cyh; fdpfs;
Inferior ovary fPH;kl;l Ny;ig
Inflorescence g{ bfhj;J
Internode fq ,ilbtsp
Involucre of bracts Tl;l g{tor; brjpy;fs;
Keel petal glF my;yp ,jH;fs;
Lacinate Fwfpa ePz;l gFjpfshf gpst[gl;l
Lamina or blade ,iyj;jhs;
Lanceolate shape <l;o totk;
Lateral bud ,ilbkhl;L
Lateral branching gf;f thl;oy; fpisj; y;
Leaf base ,iyaog; gFjp
Leaf blade ,iy myF
Leaflet rpw;wpiy
Leaf scales brjpy; ,iyfs;
148
Leaf sheath ,iyao ciw
Leaf spines ,iy Kl;fs;
Leaf tendrils ,iy gw;Wf; fk;gpfs;
Ligulate ehf;Ftot my;yptl;lk;
Marginal placentation tpspk;g[ Ny; xl;L
Mesocarp kj;jpa fdp mLf;F
Micropyle tpijj;Jis
Middle lamella eLbkd; Rth;
Midrib ika euk;g[
Monoadelphous stamens XU fw;iw kfue;jj;jhs;
Monocarpellary pistil Xw;iw Ny; ,iy Nyfk;
Multilocular gy miw Nyfk;
Node fq
Nut bfhl;ilf; fdp
Oblanceolate jiyfPH; <l;o totk;
Oblong ePs; tl;l totk;
Obovate jiyfPH; Kl;il totk;
Obtuse kGfpa Edp
Open carpels jpwe;j Ny; ,iyfs;
Oval Kl;il totk;
Ovary Nyfk; fUg;ig
Ovoid Kl;il totk; nghd;w
Ovules Ny;fs;
Palea ckp
Palpate mf tisthf Ftpe;jit
Palmately compound leaf mf Tl;oiy
Parellel venation ,izg; nghf;F euk;gikg;g[
Parietal placentation Rth; Ny; xl;L
Paripinnate ,U rpw;wpiyfshy; KotJ
Pedicel g{f;fhk;g[
Peduncle k";rhpf; fhk;g[
Pepo XU Nyiwapy; gytpijfSila fdp
Perianth g{ ,jH;fs;
Pericarp fdpj; njhy;
Petal my;yp ,jH;fs;
Petiole ,iy fhk;g[
Phylloclade ,iyj; bjhHpy; jz;L
Phyllolade ,iyj; bjhHpy; fhk;g[
Pinnately compound leaf rpwFf; Tl;oiy
Placentation NH;miw xl;L Kiw
Plumose ,wF nghd;w
Plumule tpij Kisj; jz;L
Pollen kfue;jk;
Pollination kfue;jr; nrh;f;if
Pubescent cnuhk';fSila
Raceme Edptsh; k";rhp
Rachis ikaf; fhk;g[
Reniform rPWePuf totk;
Sepals g[w tpjH;fs;
Septum FWf;Fr; Rth;
Spathe kly;
Staminate Mz; g{ cila
Stigma Ny; Ko
Style Ny; jz;L
Subglabrous Xust[ cnuhks';fsw;w
Superficial nkbyGe;jthhpahd
Superior ovary nky; kl;l Ny;ig Nyfk;
Syncarpous pistil ,izr; Nyfk;
Taproot Mzpnth;
Tetradynamous ,U kl;l cauKila Mz; g{.
ehd;F ePskhft[k; 2 Fl;ilahft[k; ,Uf;Fk;
c/k;) fLF
Tomentose mlh;j;jpahf bkd;Kofshy; NHg;gl;l
Trichomes J}tpfs;
Trichotomous \d;W rkkhd fpisa[ila
Triploid \d;W ,iyfSilaJ
Twisted jpUF ,jH; mikt[
Unisexual flower XU ghy; g{
Variegated gy epwKila
Venation euk;gikg;g[
Vestigial KGikahd tsh;r;rpailah ghfKila
Zygomorphic ,U gf;f rkr;rPUila

149