2024-2025

CHEMISTRY PROJECT

NAME : Digvijay Singh

Rathore

SCHOOL : Euro
International
 TOPIC:- FATTY MATERIALS AND
DIFFERENT SOAP SAMPLES

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Digvijay Singh Rathore, a

student of class XII has successfully
completed the the below mentioned project
during the year 2024-25.

This project was undertaken as part of the

requirements for the Chemistry practical
examination

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE OF
EXTERNAL EXAMINER CHEMISTRY TEACHER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the accomplishment of this project

successfully, many people have best owned
upon me their blessings and the heart
pledged support, this time I am utilizing to
thank all the people who have been concerned
with project.
Primarily I would thank god for being able to
complete this project with success. Then I
would like to thank my principal and chemistry
teacher
whose valuable guidance has been the ones
that helped me patch this project and make it
full proof success.His suggestions and his
instructions have served as the major
contributor towards the completion of the
project.
Then I would like to thank my parents and
friends who have helped me with their
valuable suggestions and guidance has been
helpful in various phases of the completion
of the project.
Last but not the least I would like to thank my
classmates who have helped me a lot and
also P a n k a j M e h r a S i r .
 -: CONTENTS :-
1. INTRODUCTION
2. EXPERIMENT
3. THEORY
4. CONCLUSION
5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 PREPARATION OF SOAP
GENERAL INFORMATION
What Are Oils & Fats?
Alcohol or alkanols may be considered as hydroxyl derivatives
of saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes and represented by general
formula R-OH group.
All alcohols contain the hydroxyl group (-OH) as the functional
group, which determine the general properties of the family. The
remaining part, i.e., other than the (–OH) group is called the
hydrocarbon structure.
Alcohols are classified as mono, di- and trihydric alcohols
according to the number of hydroxyl groups contained in their
molecules. Thus:
C2H5OH CH2OH C2H4(OH)2
Ethyl Alcohol │ OR

(Monohydric) CH2OH
Glycol (Dihydric)

CH2OH
│
CH2OH OR C3H5(OH)3
│
CH2O
H
Glycerol (Trihydric)
Glycerol is a trihydric alcohol with three hydroxyl groups.
 Carboxylic (or alkanoic) acids are the organic compounds
containing carboxyl (–COOH) group. They are represented by the
general formula R–COOH.
Aliphatic monocarboxylic acids (containing one carboxyl group)
are known as fatty acids because some of their higher members
with long hydrocarbon chains are obtained from oils and fats.
Members of family of carboxylic acids in which R contains 15 or
more carbon atoms are known as higher fatty acids. Some common
higher fatty acids are:
C15H31COOH C17H35COOH C17H35COOH
(Palmitic acid) (Oleic acid) (Stearic acid)

Oils and fats are the triesters of glycerol with various long
chain organic acids, both saturated and unsaturated.
These triesters are usually known as glycerides.
Oils are liquids at ordinary temperatures while fats are solids.
The glycerides constituting oils contain a larger proportion of
unsaturated acids, such as oleic acid (C 17H33COOH), linoleic acid
(C17H31COOH), etc., while the glycerides forming the fats contain a
larger proportion of saturated acids, such as lauric acid
(C11H23COOH), myristic acid (C13H27COOH), palmitic acid
(C15H31COOH) and stearic acid (C17H35COOH).
The glycerides are named according to the acid radical present
in them. For instance, the glyceride containing stearic acid radical is
called stearin or tristearin and the one containing the palmitic acid
radical is named as palmitin or tripalmitin.

CH2OOCC17H35 CH2OOCC15H31
│ │
CHOOCC17H35 CHOOCC15H31
│ │
CH2OOCC17H35 CH2OOCC15H31
(Stearin or triesterin) (Palmitin or tripalmitin)
Usually more than one acid radical is present in the same glyceride.
These are called mixed glycerides. The naturally occurring oils and
fats are generally mixtures of such ‘mixed glycerides’.
For instance:

CH2OOCC17H35 CH2OOCC15H31
│ │
CHOOCC15H31 CHOOCC17H35
│ │
CH2OOCC17H35 CH2OOCC17H35
(Oleo-palmito-stearin) (Palmito-distearin)

CH2OOCC17H35
│
CHOOCC15H3
1

│
CH2OOCC15H
31

(Stearo-dipalmitin)

WHAT ARE SOAPS?

Soaps are mixtures of sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty
acids such as stearic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid. They are usually
obtained by the hydrolysis of oils and fats with sodium or potassium
hydroxide (alkali hydrolysis).
For example,
CH2OOCC15H31 CH2OH 2C15H31COO
Na
│ │ (Sodium
palmitate)
CHOOCC15H3 + NaOH → CHOH
1
(Soap)
│
│
CH2OH
CH2OOCC17H35 C17H35COON
a
(Dipalmito- (Sodium
stearin) Sterate)
(Oil or fat) (Soap)

The alkali hydrolysis of oil and fat is known as Saponification.

The sodium soaps are generally hard in consistency and are
known as Hard Soaps. The potassium soaps, on the other hand,
are comparatively soft and more soluble and are referred to as Soft
Soaps. Shaving creams, vanishing creams, shampoos, etc., are all
potassium soaps

CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAPS:

Soaps act as cleansing agent by decreasing the surface tension
of water. Any surface or interface has a surface tension, or surface
energy caused by the unequal attraction, between molecules in
opposite sides. A detergent (cleansing agent) ties together the two
surfaces and consequently diminishes the fraction of dissimilar
cohesive forces at the surface and hence decreases the surface
energy. The adsorption of the detergent at the solid surface permits
wetting of the surface by water and rolling up of oil films into small
droplets.

Cleansing (or washing) properties of soaps and detergents depend

on the lowering they cause in the surface tension of water. Greater
the lowering in the value of surface tension, greater will be the
cleansing capacity of the detergent.
 Surface tension of two soap solutions ( 1and 2) can be easily
compared by counting the number of drops ( 1and 2) formed from
equal volumes containing equal weights of the detergents.
 1 / 2 = 1 / 2

STALAGMOMETER OR DROP PIPETTE:

It is an apparatus used for comparing relative surface tension
of liquids. It consists of a capillary tube the end of which is flattened
out (in order to give a large dropping surface) and the surface is
ground flat and polished. The capillary is sealed on to a tube of
wider bore on which a bulb is blown and on the stem of the tube,
two marks are etched, one above and another below the bulb.

EXPERIMENT:-
OBJECTIVE:
a) To prepare soap from oils (say Mahuwa oil, ground nut oil and
coconut oil).
b) To compare the soap prepared with the market soap by
determining their foaming capacity and cleaning effect.
APPARATUS:
Beakers, Stalagmometer (drop pipette), test tubes, petri dishes,
stop watch.
CHEMICALS REQUIRED:
The washing soap is prepared from the following chemicals:
1. Mahuwa Oil = 100g
2. Caustic = 25g
Soda
3. Starch = 25g
4. Water = 150
ml
PROCEDURES:
1. Dissolve caustic soda in 150ml of water. This solution is called
lye. Let this soda lye cool.
2. Warm the oil on flame and mix 50g of starch with it. Remove
the flame and allow the oil to cool.
3. When the oil and soda lye are at about the same temperature
(which can be tested by putting a finger in each of them at
the same time). Add soda lye to the oil in a thin stream.
4. Stir the mass constantly well with a wooden rod till the
whole lye has been added. A creamy pasty mass is obtained.
5. Stir the mass more till a semi-solid mass is obtained.
Transfer it into an iron mould or a wooden frame.
6. Cover the mould or frame with wooden board or a gunny bag
and leave it for few hours.
7. Remove the flame and take out the soda slab. Cut it with the
help of a wire into cakes of desired size.
NOTE: - Soaps from ground nut oil as well as coconut oil are prepared by
same procedure.

PRECAUTION:
Caustic soda is very corrosive and should not,
therefore, be touched with bare hands.
COMPARISON OF THE FOAMING CAPACITIES OF THE TWO
SOAP SAMPLES:
1. Take 0.1g of each soap sample in two test tubes numbered as 1 and
2.
2. Add 5ml of distilled water in each test tube and shake them
vigorously for 2-
3 minutes preferably in a shaker.
3. Place the test tubes in a test tube stand and start the stop watch.
4. Note the time when the foam in each of the tubes disappears.
Foaming capacity of that soap sample will be greater in which case
it takes longer time to disappear.

FOAMING CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT SOAPS

INTRODUCTION:
Soaps and detergents are used for removing grease and dirt from
our clothes.
But all soaps are not equally effective in their cleansing action.
Soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty
acids such as palmitic acid (C15H31COOH), stearic acid
(C17H35COOH), oleic acid (C17H35COOH) etc.,their general
formula being RCOONa or RCOOK where R is the longer chain
alkyl group i.e. C15H31, C17H33 etc., thus, each soap molecule
consists of two parts – a lipophilic (oil soluble) part R and a
hydrophilic (water soluble) part COONa or
COOK. The cleansing action of the soap depends upon the
solubility of the long alkyl are in grease or oil droplets and that of
–COONa or –COOK part in water.
The dirt is held on the surface of the cloth by grease or oil
droplets. Whenever soap is applied on a dirty wet cloth, the non-
polar alkyl group dissolves in grease (non-polar) while the polar
–COONa group dissolves in water (polar). In this way an emulsion
is formed between grease and water which appears as foam. The
dirt along with the emulsion is washed away when the cloth is
treated with excess of water.
Thus, the washing capacity of soap depends upon its foaming
capacity, i.e. the extent to which it produces foam with water.
The foaming capacity also depends upon the quality of water
used. If soft water is used, soaps easily produce lot of lather. On
the other hand, if hard water is used, even good quality soaps
will not produce lather. The reason being that hard water contains
magnesium and calcium ions which form insoluble magnesium
and calcium salts of carboxylic acids which in turn, precipitate out
in the form of a scum.
2C17H35COONa + Ca2+ → (C17H35COO)2 Ca ↓ + 2Na+
(Water Soluble) (ppt.)

2C17H35COONa + Mg2+ → (C17H35COO)2 Mg ↓ + 2Na+

(Water Soluble) (ppt.)
However, if hard water is first treated with Na2CO3,
magnesium and calcium ions present in it and precipitate as their
insoluble carbonates. The filtrate can be used for washing
purposes since it is now rendered soft.
In contrast, detergents can be used for washing purposes even in
hard water. The reasons being that detergents are sodium or
potassium salts of aliphatic or aromatic sulphonic acids and even
their calcium and magnesium salts are soluble in water and thus
do not form scum but form foam when treated with hard water.
 EXPERIMENT:-
OBJECTIVE:
To compare the foaming capacity of different soaps.
APPARATUS:
Five 100ml conical flasks, five 20ml test tubes, 100ml
measuring cylinder, test tube stand, weight box and stop watch.
CHEMICALS REQUIRED:
Five different samples of soap, distilled water.
THEORY:
The foaming capacity of soap depends upon the nature of the
soap and its concentration. This may be compared by shaking equal
volumes of the solutions of the different samples of soaps having
the same concentration with the same force and for same period of
time. The solutions are then allowed to stand when the foam
produced during shaking disappears gradually. The time taken for
the foam to disappear in each sample is determined. The longer
the time taken for the disappearance of foam in the given
sample of soap, greater is its foaming capacity or cleansing
capacity.

PREOCEDURE:
1. Take five 100ml conical flasks and number them as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
Put 50ml of distilled water in each of conical flasks and add 5gm of
soap shavings or granules of different soap samples to each flask.
2. Warm the contents of each flask to get a clear solution.
3. Take five 20ml test tubes and add 10ml of distilled water to each
one of them and label them as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Now add 1ml of soap
solution from each conical flask to the corresponding test tube.
4. Close the mouth of the test tube number 1 with your thumb and
shake its contents vigorously for one minute. Place test tube in the
test tube stand and start the stop watch immediately. Note the time
 taken for disappearance of the foam produced.
5. Repeat the same procedure for test tubes 2, 3, 4 and 5 shaking
each time with the same force and for the same time (one minute).
Note the time taken for disappearance of foam in each case and
record the observations in a tabular form.

OBSERVATIONS:

Amount of each soap sample taken = 5.0gm

Volume of distilled water added to each soap sample = 50.0ml
Test Name of the Soap Volume of Volume of Time of
Tube Sample Soap Water disappearance
Numbe Solution Added of foam(aprox)
r Added
1. Dove 1.0ml 10.0ml 120 seconds
2. Lifebuoy 1.0ml 10.0ml 180 seconds
3. Dettol 1.0ml 10.0ml 150 seconds
4. Lux 1.0ml 10.0ml 140 seconds
5. Liril 1.0ml 10.0ml 10 seconds
6. Medimix 1.0ml 10.0ml 130 seconds
RESULT:
The foaming capacity and hence the cleansing capacity of
different samples of soaps is in the order:
Lifebuoy > Dettol > Liril > Lux > Medimix > Dove
PRECAUTION:
Each test tube containing the soap solution must be
shaken with the same force and for the same period of time.
Bibliography
 TEXT BOOK OF CLASS 12th CHEMISTRY
 http://www.google.co.in
 http://www.wikipedia.org
 http://www.youtube.com
 Chatgpt.com
 Help from Subject Teacher and Lab Attender.