CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Nigeria, a country located in West Africa, is known for its diversity in terms of ethnicity,

religion, and culture. With over 250 ethnic groups and a significant presence of both Christianity

and Islam, Nigeria has witnessed various ethno-religious conflicts throughout its history

(Akinola, 2016; Osaghae, 2017). These conflicts, often characterized by violence and tension

between different ethnic and religious groups, have had far-reaching implications for national

security, social cohesion, and development in the country. Ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria

have deep historical roots, stemming from factors such as colonial legacies, political

competition, economic disparities, and social inequalities (Olusakin, 2014; Onuoha, 2018). The

pre-colonial era saw the coexistence of diverse ethnic and religious groups, but the imposition of

colonial rule and subsequent policies created divisions and inequalities that have fueled conflicts

in the post-independence period (Anifowose, 2013).

One of the major causes of ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria is competition for political power

and resources. The struggle for political dominance at various levels, including national, state,

and local government, has often been along ethnic and religious lines (Mustapha, 2016). This has

created a sense of exclusion and marginalization among certain groups, leading to tensions and

conflicts (Ikelegbe, 2015; Mustapha, 2016). Religion, specifically Christianity and Islam, has

played a significant role in shaping the identity and beliefs of Nigerians. However, religious

differences have also become sources of conflicts, as extremist ideologies and religious

intolerance have led to violence and attacks on places of worship. Issues such as the

1
implementation of Sharia law in some northern states and tensions between Christian and

Muslim communities have contributed to the escalation of ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria

(Uzodike, 2016; Okafor, 2018).

The implications of these ethno-religious conflicts for national security are profound. The

recurring nature of conflicts has led to loss of lives, displacement of communities, destruction of

property, and a general sense of insecurity across the country. The breakdown of law and order

in affected areas has created breeding grounds for criminal activities, such as banditry,

kidnapping, and terrorism, further exacerbating the security challenges faced by Nigeria (Bakare,

2017; Momodu, 2020). Moreover, ethno-religious conflicts have had adverse effects on social

cohesion and national unity. Inter-group distrust and animosity hinder social interactions, impede

economic activities, and undermine the sense of belonging and shared identity among Nigerians.

This, in turn, hampers efforts towards nation-building, development, and the attainment of

sustainable peace (Agbiboa, 2015; Adebayo, 2019).

Understanding the root causes, dynamics, and implications of ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria

is crucial for effective conflict resolution, peacebuilding, and the promotion of national security.

By conducting a comprehensive study on this topic, it becomes possible to gain insights into the

underlying factors contributing to these conflicts and identify strategies and policies that can help

mitigate their impacts. This study therefore seeks to explore the historical, socio-political, and

economic factors that have fueled ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of Problem

There has been an increasing in conflicts in Nigeria since the advent of Fourth Republic in 1999,

the violence ranges from political, ethnic and religious violence, militancy and more recently

2
banditry, kidnapping and Herders/Farmers clashes, with significant implications for national

security, social cohesion, and development. These conflicts, characterized by violence, tension,

and mistrust among different ethnic and religious groups, pose a serious threat to the stability and

unity of the nation (Agbiboa, 2015; Bakare, 2017). These incessant conflicts needless to say have

taken its toll on the socio-economic conditions of Nigerians (Nzor, 2019). It has drawn Nigeria

to a verge of collapse. It has also occasioned human carnage, internal displacements, refugee

crises, loss of investments, fatal inter-communal conflicts and threatened internal security and

distrust (Uhunwangho and Eppelle, 2011).

The crises which from all indications are traceable to Nigeria diverse ethno-religious background

has escalated over the years and has now assumed on alarming dimension. Instances of the crises

are, the Boko Haram insurgency, MASSOB/IPOB agitation for actualization of Biafra and

numerous interethnic crises in the Middle belt, Niger Delta, Jos, Ebonyi, Cross River and Benue

States, which all speak volumes of the huge crises Nigeria is currently contending with (Bakare,

2017). The crises of course invariably have a diversionary effect on the Nigerian government,

which has sunk millions of Naira in fighting these crises without even making any headway.

These conflicts have also negatively impacted on our economy and retarded our economic

growth. Besides, most foreign investors have since fled Nigeria because of the pervading

insecurity in the country; they now prefer more stable African economies like, Ghana, Kenya and

Uganda etc. (Ifemeje & Obi, 2020).

The bad economy and insecurity occasioned by violence has equally forced Nigerian

intellectuals and professionals to migrate to UK, USA, and Canada etc. for greener pastures and

maximum security, thereby leaving Nigeria under-developed and impoverished, little wonder

Nigeria is now ranked one of the poorest nations in the world. This situation is least to say very

3
worrisome and calls for drastic measures in order to salvage our dear country from total

economic collapse. The problem at stake is also a major concern to the international community,

in fact, the United States National Council Intelligence Report of 2005 predicted that Nigeria

many explode within 15 years (Agbaje, 2015). Therefore, it is crucial to examine the underlying

factors contributing to these conflicts and their implications for national security in order to

develop effective strategies for conflict resolution and peacebuilding.

To address these complex problems, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive study that

explores the causes and implications of ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria. By examining the

underlying factors contributing to these conflicts and their impacts on national security and

development, this study aims to provide valuable insights for policymakers, security agencies,

and other stakeholders involved in conflict resolution and peacebuilding efforts.

1.3 Research Questions

i. How prevalent are ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria?

ii. What are the root causes of ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria?

iii. How do political, socioeconomic, and religious factors contribute to the occurrence of

ethno-religious conflicts?

iv. What are the specific implications of ethnoreligious conflicts for national security in

Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria?

1.4 Research Objectives

The main objective of this research is to examine the prevalence, root causes, contributing

factors, and implications of ethnoreligious conflicts in Ogun State, Nigeria. The specific

objectives are:

4
 i. To assess the prevalence and extent of ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta, Ogun State,

Nigeria.

ii. To identify and analyze the root causes of ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta, Ogun

State, Nigeria.

iii. To examine how political, socio-economic, and religious factors interact and contribute

to the occurrence of ethno-religious conflicts in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.

iv. To investigate the specific implications of ethnoreligious conflicts for national security in

Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.

1.5 Research Hypothesis

H0: There is no significant relationship between socio-economic disparities and the occurrence of

ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.

H0: There is no significant difference in the perceptions of national security implications between

individuals directly affected by ethnoreligious conflicts and those who are not directly affected in

Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The significance of this study lies in its potential to contribute to a deeper understanding of

ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria, and its implications for various

stakeholders.

Firstly, policymakers and government agencies will benefit from the findings of this study. The

insights gained can inform the development of evidence-based policies and strategies to

effectively address and mitigate ethno-religious conflicts. Also, security practitioners, including

law enforcement agencies and security personnel, will find value in this study. It provides a

5
deeper understanding of the underlying factors and patterns of ethno-religious conflicts,

equipping security practitioners with knowledge that can enhance their response strategies. In

addition, researchers and scholars in the field of Criminology and Security Studies will benefit

from the study's contribution to academic knowledge. The study adds to the existing body of

literature on ethno-religious conflicts, providing valuable insights and perspectives that can

inform further research and scholarly discourse. It expands the theoretical understanding of

conflict dynamics, peacebuilding, and the interplay between ethno-religious tensions and

national security, thereby enriching the academic field and fostering a deeper understanding of

these complex issues.

Furthermore, the broader society stands to benefit from this study. By shedding light on the

implications of ethno-religious conflicts for national security, the study contributes to promoting

social cohesion, harmony, and peaceful coexistence within communities. It fosters a better

understanding of the consequences of such conflicts and highlights the importance of proactive

measures to prevent and resolve conflicts, ultimately leading to a safer and more secure society

for all.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The scope of this study is focused on ethnoreligious conflicts in Ogun State, Nigeria, and their

implications for national security. The research aims to investigate the prevalence, root causes,

contributing factors, and consequences of these conflicts within the specific geographic context

of Ogun State.

The study will encompass a historical analysis of ethnoreligious conflicts in the state, examining

past incidents, patterns, and trends. It will also involve an exploration of the socio-political,

6
economic, and religious dynamics that contribute to the occurrence of these conflicts.

Furthermore, the research will investigate the specific implications of ethnoreligious conflicts for

national security, including their impact on peace, stability, intergroup relations, and governance

within Ogun State.

While the study focuses on Ogun State, it acknowledges the interconnectedness of local,

regional, and national dynamics. It recognizes that ethnoreligious conflicts often have broader

implications and can impact national security and development efforts. Therefore, the research

will consider the wider context and draw relevant insights from national-level policies,

initiatives, and experiences.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

Ethnicity: In the context of this study, this refers to the social construct that categorizes

individuals into distinct groups based on shared cultural, historical, linguistic, or genetic

characteristics. It encompasses a sense of belonging, identity, and cultural practices associated

with a particular group.

Religion: In this study, religion is defined as a system of beliefs, values, rituals, and practices

that guide individuals or communities in their understanding of the divine, spiritual, or

supernatural aspects of life. It encompasses organized systems of faith and worship, including

specific doctrines, traditions, and rituals followed by individuals or groups.

Conflict: This refers to a state of discord, disagreement, or opposition between individuals,

groups, or communities. It involves a clash of interests, values, or objectives, often leading to

disputes, tension, and hostility.

7
National Security: This refers to the measures and actions taken by a nation-state to protect its

sovereignty, territorial integrity, and the safety of its citizens from internal and external threats. It

encompasses efforts to maintain stability, peace, and social cohesion within the country.

Violence: In the context of this study, this refers to the intentional use of physical force or

power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another individual, a group, or a community. It

includes acts that result in harm, injury, or destruction.

Peace: This is a state characterized by the absence of conflict, violence, or hostility. It involves

harmony, cooperation, and the resolution of disputes through peaceful means. Peace may also

refer to the presence of conditions that foster justice, equality, and overall well-being within a

society.

Ethnoreligious Conflict: This refers to conflicts, tensions, or disputes that arise primarily due to

differences in ethnic and religious identities, beliefs, practices, or interests. These conflicts

involve individuals, groups, or communities from different ethnic or religious backgrounds and

may manifest in various forms, such as intergroup violence, discrimination, communal clashes,

or religiously motivated attacks.

8
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.0 Introduction

In this literature review, this study explores the concepts of religion, ethnicity, and conflict,

providing an overview of ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria. It examines the causes of these

conflicts, including political, socio-economic, and religious factors. The review further

investigates the effects and implications of ethno-religious conflicts on national security,

analyzing the threats they pose to peace, stability, and social cohesion. Additionally, the chapter

establishes the theoretical framework that guides the study, incorporating relevant theories and

conceptual frameworks used in previous research on ethno-religious conflicts. The

comprehensive literature review sets the foundation for the subsequent chapters, providing a

contextual understanding of the phenomena and highlighting the significance of studying their

implications for national security in Nigeria.

2.1 Concept of Religion

Religion is a multifaceted and deeply ingrained aspect of human society that encompasses a wide

range of beliefs, practices, rituals, and moral values. It plays a significant role in shaping

individual and collective identities, influencing worldviews, and providing a framework for

moral and ethical decision-making. Numerous studies have examined the concept of religion

from various disciplines, shedding light on its complexities and implications.

One influential perspective on religion is Durkheim's sociological approach, as outlined in his

seminal work "The Elementary Forms of Religious Life" (1912). Durkheim conceptualized

9
religion as a system of symbols and rituals that represent collective beliefs and values, serving to

create social cohesion and solidarity within a community. According to Durkheim, religious

practices reinforce the social bonds among individuals and promote a sense of belonging and

shared identity.

Psychological perspectives on religion have also been explored by scholars. Sigmund Freud, in

his work "The Future of an Illusion" (1927), proposed that religion arises from human desires

and the need for comfort and security in the face of existential uncertainties. From this

viewpoint, religion serves as a psychological defense mechanism to cope with the anxiety and

fear of the unknown. Freud's analysis provides insights into the psychological motivations

underlying religious beliefs and practices.

Religion is deeply intertwined with cultural practices, customs, and traditions, reflecting the

historical and geographical contexts in which it emerges. Cross-cultural studies have highlighted

the diversity of religious beliefs and expressions worldwide. For instance, research by Pew

Research Center (2018) explores the global religious landscape, examining the distribution of

major religions and their adherents across different regions. This research underscores the

importance of considering the cultural nuances and specificities of religious beliefs when

studying ethno-religious conflicts.

Religious institutions, such as churches, mosques, temples, and synagogues, play a central role in

religious practices and community engagement. They provide spaces for worship, religious

education, and social gatherings, contributing to the preservation and transmission of religious

teachings. Studies examining the role of religious institutions in conflict settings have shed light

on their potential to either exacerbate or mitigate conflicts. For instance, a study by Haynes

10
(2016) explores the role of religious institutions in promoting peacebuilding and reconciliation in

post-conflict societies, emphasizing the importance of interfaith dialogue and cooperation.

Religion influences various aspects of human life, including social interactions, cultural norms,

political dynamics, and ethical frameworks. It can serve as a source of inspiration, guidance, and

comfort for individuals, providing answers to existential questions and a sense of purpose and

meaning. However, religion can also be a source of tension and conflict, particularly when

divergent beliefs and practices clash or when religious ideologies are exploited for political or

social agendas. Studies examining the role of religion in conflict settings, such as the work of

Appleby (2000), highlight the intricate interplay between religious beliefs, identity, and violence.

Understanding the concept of religion is crucial for studying ethno-religious conflicts and their

implications for national security. It provides insights into the role of religious beliefs, values,

and practices in shaping intergroup dynamics, social cohesion, and potential sources of conflict.

By examining the multifaceted dimensions of religion, scholars and policymakers can gain a

deeper understanding of the complexities surrounding ethno-religious conflicts and develop

effective strategies for conflict resolution, peacebuilding, and fostering religious tolerance.

2.1.1 Concept of Ethnicity

The concept of ethnicity is multifaceted and encompasses the social and cultural characteristics

that distinguish one group of people from another. It revolves around shared traditions, customs,

language, history, and a sense of belonging to a particular community. Ethnicity plays a

significant role in shaping individual and group identities, influencing social interactions,

political dynamics, and societal structures. Scholars from various disciplines have explored the

concept of ethnicity, offering valuable insights into its complexities and implications.

11
Anthropological perspectives on ethnicity emphasize its cultural dimensions and the ways in

which it shapes social relations and group identities. Barth (1969) proposed the concept of

"ethnic boundary" to highlight the dynamic and constructed nature of ethnicity. According to

Barth, ethnic boundaries are not fixed or inherent but rather result from social processes of

inclusion and exclusion. This perspective underscores the fluidity of ethnic identities and the role

of social interactions in defining and redefining ethnic boundaries.

Sociological approaches to ethnicity focus on the social structures and power dynamics that

influence ethnic identities and relations within a society. Weber (1922) emphasized the role of

social stratification and unequal distribution of resources in shaping ethnic hierarchies and

tensions. Sociological perspectives highlight the social construction of ethnicity and its

interaction with other dimensions of identity, such as class and gender, in shaping individuals'

experiences and opportunities. The concept of ethnicity is closely linked to the notion of race,

although they are distinct concepts. While race is primarily based on perceived biological

differences, ethnicity is rooted in cultural, historical, and social factors. However, it is important

to recognize that ethnicity and race are often interrelated and mutually constructed in social

contexts.

The concept of ethnicity holds great significance within the Nigerian context due to the country's

diverse population and the intricate interplay of ethnic identities in its social, political, and

economic spheres. With over 250 ethnic groups, Nigeria boasts a rich tapestry of cultures,

languages, and historical backgrounds (Onuoha, 2020). Ethnicity plays a pivotal role in shaping

social structures, political dynamics, and intergroup relationships in the country (Akinyele,

2017). Therefore, comprehending the concept of ethnicity within Nigeria necessitates an

12
exploration of its historical underpinnings, cultural dimensions, and its implications for social

cohesion and governance.

Historically, ethnic identities in Nigeria have been molded by a confluence of factors, including

pre-colonial tribal affiliations, colonial rule, and post-colonial nation-building endeavors (Falola,

2019). The amalgamation of diverse ethnic groups by the British colonial administration in 1914

created a multi-ethnic state, wherein ethnic identities and their associated political, economic,

and social interests assumed central roles in power struggles and resource allocation (Suberu,

2017). This historical backdrop laid the foundation for the development of distinct ethnic groups

and their identities in Nigeria.

Ethnicity in Nigeria is characterized by a sense of belonging, shared cultural practices, and the

preservation and promotion of group interests (Onuoha, 2020). Each ethnic group possesses its

own language, traditions, and customs, which contribute to the country's vibrant cultural

diversity (Anugwom, 2018). However, this diversity also poses challenges, as ethnic differences

can become sources of tension and conflict. Nigeria has witnessed several instances of ethno-

religious conflicts, such as the Boko Haram insurgency and the farmer-herder clashes, which

have resulted in violence, displacement, and loss of lives (Olaniyan, 2019).

The politicization of ethnicity has further exacerbated tensions in Nigeria. Political actors have

instrumentalized ethnic identities to mobilize support, consolidate power, and gain access to

resources (Suberu, 2017). This has entrenched identity-based politics, where ethnic affiliations

play a significant role in determining political alliances and the distribution of political offices.

The competition for scarce resources and political power along ethnic lines has sometimes led to

13
political instability, social unrest, and a sense of marginalization among certain ethnic groups

(Akinyele, 2017).

Scholars and researchers have extensively explored the implications of ethnicity for social

cohesion, political stability, and national development in Nigeria. For instance, the works of

Suberu (2017) and Onuoha (2020) provide critical insights into the challenges posed by ethnic

diversity and its impact on governance and state-building efforts. They emphasize the need for

inclusive governance structures, equitable resource distribution, and policies that promote social

integration and national unity.

Efforts have been made to address ethnic tensions and promote national unity in Nigeria. For

example, initiatives such as the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC), which encourages young

Nigerians from diverse ethnic backgrounds to serve together in different parts of the country, aim

to foster a sense of national identity and understanding among the youth (Olaniyan, 2019).

Additionally, the establishment of federalism and power-sharing arrangements in Nigeria seeks

to accommodate the diverse interests of various ethnic groups and promote equitable

development (Anugwom, 2018).

Hence, the concept of ethnicity in the Nigerian context is marked by the diversity of ethnic

groups, historical legacies, and intricate intergroup dynamics. Ethnic identities significantly

influence Nigeria's social, political, and economic landscapes. While ethnicity contributes to the

country's cultural richness, it also presents challenges to social cohesion, political stability, and

national integration. Understanding and effectively managing ethnic diversity are crucial for

promoting peace, inclusive governance, and sustainable development in Nigeria.

2.1.2 Concept of Conflict

14
The concept of conflict is an essential aspect of understanding the dynamics of social, political,

and cultural interactions. Conflict refers to a state of discord, disagreement, or opposition that

arises when individuals, groups, or entities have incompatible interests, goals, values, or

perspectives (Deutsch, 1973). It is a natural and pervasive feature of human societies and can

manifest at various levels, ranging from interpersonal conflicts to large-scale societal and

international conflicts.

In the context of this study, it is important to delve into the concept of conflict to grasp the

underlying dynamics and implications of such conflicts on national security. Ethno-religious

conflicts are characterized by tensions, hostilities, and violent confrontations between different

ethnic or religious groups, often fueled by perceived or real differences in identity, resources,

power, or ideology.

Ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria have been a recurrent and significant challenge, resulting in

numerous casualties, displacement of communities, and disruptions to social and economic

activities. Understanding the causes, dynamics, and consequences of these conflicts requires an

examination of various factors, including historical grievances, socio-economic disparities,

political marginalization, and competition for scarce resources (Uzodike, 2017).

Scholars and researchers have explored the concept of conflict extensively, providing valuable

insights into its causes, processes, and potential resolution strategies. Conflict theories, such as

social identity theory, resource-based theories, and power-conflict theories, offer frameworks to

analyze the underlying drivers and dynamics of conflicts (Deutsch, 1973; Coser, 1956; Galtung,

1969). These theories highlight the role of identity, power imbalances, and competition for

resources as contributing factors to conflicts.

15
Moreover, conflict resolution approaches and frameworks have been developed to manage and

address conflicts effectively. These include negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and reconciliation

processes that aim to facilitate dialogue, promote understanding, and seek mutually acceptable

solutions (Lederach, 1997). In the Nigerian context, efforts have been made to employ

alternative dispute resolution mechanisms and promote intergroup dialogue as means to mitigate

ethno-religious conflicts and restore peace (Nzor, 2019).

2.2 Overview of Ethnoreligious Conflict in Nigeria

Ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria have been a recurring and deeply-rooted challenge that has

significantly impacted the country's social fabric, political stability, and national security.

Nigeria, being a diverse nation with a multitude of ethnic and religious groups, has experienced a

complex web of conflicts along ethnic and religious fault lines.

The overview of ethnoreligious conflict in Nigeria reveals a multifaceted landscape characterized

by a combination of historical grievances, political factors, socio-economic disparities, religious

extremism, and identity politics (Ukiwo, 2014). These conflicts often arise from a combination

of long-standing tensions, competition for resources, perceived marginalization, and the

manipulation of ethnic and religious differences for political gain (Anifowose, 2014).

One of the prominent examples of ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria is the recurring clashes

between the predominantly Muslim Hausa-Fulani ethnic group and the predominantly Christian

Yoruba ethnic group in the northern and southwestern regions of the country, respectively. These

conflicts have been marked by episodes of violence, religious riots, and political disputes,

resulting in significant loss of lives and destruction of property (Ogundiya, 2017). Additionally,

conflicts have also emerged between various indigenous ethnic groups, such as the Tiv, Berom,

16
and Jukun, and have involved both Christians and Muslims in different regions of the country

(Mustapha, 2019).

The consequences of ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria are far-reaching and multifaceted. They

not only result in the loss of lives and destruction of infrastructure but also have profound socio-

economic impacts. These conflicts disrupt economic activities, displace communities, exacerbate

social divisions, erode trust among different ethnic and religious groups, and hinder the nation's

progress toward peace, development, and national integration (Suberu, 2017). Moreover, they

also contribute to a climate of fear, prejudice, and intolerance, impeding social cohesion and

hindering Nigeria's path towards sustainable development and inclusive governance (Ogundiya,

2017).

Efforts to address ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria have involved various approaches,

including interfaith dialogue, peacebuilding initiatives, community reconciliation, and legal

frameworks to address grievances. These interventions aim to promote understanding, foster

trust, and create platforms for dialogue and cooperation among different ethnic and religious

groups (Anifowose, 2014). However, the complexity of these conflicts requires comprehensive

and sustained efforts that address not only the immediate triggers but also the underlying

structural factors that fuel them. This includes addressing issues of socio-economic inequality,

political marginalization, and fostering inclusive governance that respects the rights and interests

of all Nigerians (Ukiwo, 2014).

In conclusion, the overview of ethnoreligious conflict in Nigeria underscores the need for a

deeper understanding of the complex dynamics, root causes, and consequences of these conflicts.

By examining the historical context, key factors, and manifestations of ethnoreligious conflicts,

17
this study aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge and provide insights that can

inform policies and interventions aimed at mitigating these conflicts and fostering national

integration. Through comprehensive and inclusive approaches, Nigeria can aspire to build a

society that embraces diversity, promotes peaceful coexistence, and ensures the security and

well-being of all its citizens.

2.2.1 Causes of Ethnoreligious Conflict in Nigeria

The causes of ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria are complex and multifaceted, often stemming

from a combination of political, socio-economic, and religious factors. Understanding these

causes is crucial for developing effective strategies to address and prevent such conflicts.

One significant cause of ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria is political manipulation and

competition for power. Political elites often exploit ethnic and religious differences to mobilize

support, gain political advantage, and consolidate their power bases (Onuoha, 2015). They

employ divisive rhetoric, stoke ethnic and religious tensions, and use identity politics to rally

support along ethnic and religious lines. This manipulation of ethnicity and religion creates an

environment conducive to conflicts and perpetuates a cycle of violence (Akintola, 2017).

Socio-economic factors also play a significant role in fueling ethnoreligious conflicts. Socio-

economic inequalities, poverty, and unequal access to resources create a breeding ground for

grievances and tensions among different ethnic and religious groups (Omotola, 2016). Economic

disparities, such as uneven distribution of wealth and opportunities, can create feelings of

marginalization and foster a sense of injustice, leading to resentment and conflicts between

groups (Suberu, 2016).

18
Religious factors also contribute to the causes of ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria. The country

is divided along religious lines, with a significant population of Christians and Muslims.

Religious differences, combined with intolerance, extremist ideologies, and sectarian violence,

can spark conflicts between adherents of different faiths (Nwankwo, 2015). Additionally, the

politicization of religion, where political actors exploit religious sentiments for their gain, further

exacerbates tensions and triggers conflicts (Akintola, 2017).

Ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria are not isolated events but are often interconnected with

broader historical and structural factors. These include colonial legacies, land disputes, resource

control, cultural differences, and the contestation of power and identity (Onuoha, 2015). The

historical grievances and unresolved issues stemming from these factors contribute to the

recurrence of conflicts and make them deeply entrenched in the social fabric of the country.

It is essential to recognize that the causes of ethnoreligious conflicts are interconnected and

mutually reinforcing. Political, socio-economic, and religious factors intertwine and create a

complex web of tensions that can escalate into violent conflicts. Addressing these causes requires

comprehensive approaches that address the root issues, promote inclusivity, and foster dialogue

among different ethnic and religious groups (Ukiwo, 2014).

2.2.2 Effects of Ethnoreligious Conflict in Nigeria

Ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria have far-reaching effects on various aspects of the society,

including individuals, communities, and the nation as a whole. These conflicts create a

destructive cycle of violence, leading to loss of lives, displacement of people, destruction of

properties, and a breakdown of social cohesion (Ukiwo, 2014). The effects of ethnoreligious

19
conflicts are multidimensional and have implications for political stability, economic

development, social harmony, and human rights.

One of the significant effects of ethnoreligious conflicts is the loss of lives and injuries. These

conflicts often result in casualties, including both combatants and innocent civilians caught in the

crossfire. The loss of lives perpetuates a cycle of violence and leads to a sense of fear, insecurity,

and trauma within affected communities (Bukar, 2016). The physical and psychological impact

of these conflicts on individuals and families cannot be underestimated.

Ethnoreligious conflicts also have profound social and economic consequences. They disrupt

community relationships, break down social trust, and create divisions among ethnic and

religious groups (Akintola, 2017). Communities become polarized along ethnic and religious

lines, leading to social segregation and isolation. Moreover, these conflicts disrupt economic

activities, hinder investments, and undermine development efforts, resulting in economic losses

and poverty (Omotola, 2016). The destruction of infrastructure and productive assets further

exacerbates the economic impact and hampers the recovery and development process.

The consequences of ethnoreligious conflicts extend beyond the immediate conflict zones. They

can spill over into neighboring communities and even spread to other parts of the country,

leading to regional tensions and instability (Onuoha, 2015). The ripple effects of these conflicts

can disrupt national unity, strain interethnic relations, and pose challenges to the overall process

of nation-building and national integration (Mustapha, 2019). They also provide fertile grounds

for the emergence of extremist ideologies, radicalization, and the proliferation of armed groups,

which further threaten national security (Nwankwo, 2015).

20
Furthermore, ethnoreligious conflicts have implications for human rights and the protection of

minority groups. These conflicts often result in the violation of fundamental rights, including the

right to life, freedom of religion, and the right to property (Ukiwo, 2014). Minority communities,

in particular, bear the brunt of these conflicts, facing discrimination, marginalization, and

displacement. The humanitarian crisis that arises from ethnoreligious conflicts necessitates the

provision of humanitarian assistance and the protection of vulnerable populations.

Addressing the effects of ethnoreligious conflicts requires concerted efforts and interventions at

multiple levels. It involves promoting peacebuilding initiatives, fostering interethnic and

interreligious dialogue, promoting social inclusivity and justice, and implementing effective

conflict resolution mechanisms (Bukar, 2016). It is crucial to prioritize reconciliation, healing,

and the restoration of trust among communities affected by these conflicts. Additionally,

addressing the underlying root causes, such as political manipulation, socio-economic

inequalities, and religious intolerance, is vital for sustainable peace and development.

2.2.3 Effects of Ethnoreligious Conflict in National Security

Ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria have significant implications for national security, posing

challenges and threats to the stability and integrity of the nation. These conflicts create a volatile

environment that undermines peace, fosters division, and compromises the overall security

architecture of the country (Ibrahim, 2017). The effects of ethnoreligious conflicts on national

security are multifaceted, ranging from the exacerbation of existing security challenges to the

emergence of new ones.

One of the key effects of ethnoreligious conflicts on national security is the escalation of

violence and the proliferation of armed groups. These conflicts provide fertile grounds for the

21
recruitment and radicalization of individuals, leading to the emergence of ethnonationalist or

religious extremist groups (Obadan, 2016). These groups often engage in acts of terrorism,

insurgency, and communal violence, posing a direct threat to the security of the nation and its

citizens (Ukiwo, 2017). The activities of these groups not only perpetuate the cycle of violence

but also strain the resources and capacity of security forces.

Ethnoreligious conflicts also have a spillover effect, affecting neighboring regions and

potentially destabilizing the entire nation. The interconnectivity of communities and the porous

nature of borders make it easy for conflicts in one area to spread to adjacent regions (Mustapha,

2016). This can lead to the displacement of populations, increased refugee flows, and the influx

of arms and combatants across borders, further complicating security challenges (Oluwatoyin,

2018). The transnational nature of these conflicts requires coordinated security efforts and

regional cooperation to effectively address the threats they pose.

Furthermore, ethnoreligious conflicts have implications for the overall governance and

functioning of the state. These conflicts erode trust in public institutions, weaken social cohesion,

and create an environment of suspicion and animosity (Onuoha, 2019). The breakdown of law

and order in conflict-affected areas undermines the ability of the government to provide essential

services, enforce the rule of law, and maintain effective governance (Obasanjo, 2015). This can

lead to a sense of disillusionment, political instability, and further exacerbate the security

situation.

The economic implications of ethnoreligious conflicts also impact national security. These

conflicts disrupt economic activities, hinder investments, and lead to the destruction of

infrastructure and productive assets (Mustapha, 2016). The resulting economic losses and

22
increased poverty can create conditions conducive to social unrest, crime, and the proliferation of

illegal activities (Akinola, 2017). Inadequate economic opportunities and disparities contribute to

grievances that fuel conflicts, perpetuating a cycle of insecurity and instability.

Addressing the effects of ethnoreligious conflicts on national security requires comprehensive

strategies that address the root causes, promote dialogue, and foster social cohesion. It requires

the strengthening of security institutions, enhancing intelligence gathering, and improving the

capacity to respond effectively to threats (Ukiwo, 2017). Additionally, efforts should be made to

address the socio-economic inequalities, promote inclusive governance, and ensure equal access

to resources and opportunities for all citizens (Ibrahim, 2017). Effective conflict resolution

mechanisms, community engagement, and the promotion of interethnic and interreligious

dialogue are also crucial for long-term peace and security.

2.2.4 Effects of Ethnoreligious Conflict in National Security

Existing policies, interventions, and peacebuilding efforts play a crucial role in addressing and

mitigating the challenges posed by ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria. The Nigerian government,

in collaboration with various international and local organizations, has implemented a range of

policies and initiatives aimed at promoting peace, fostering reconciliation, and addressing the

root causes of these conflicts.

One key policy framework is the National Action Plan on Peace and Security, which provides a

comprehensive approach to addressing conflicts and promoting peace at the national, regional,

and local levels (Akinola, 2017). This plan focuses on conflict prevention, management, and

resolution, emphasizing the importance of dialogue, mediation, and community engagement. It

23
also emphasizes the need for inclusive governance, socio-economic development, and the

protection of human rights as essential components of sustainable peace.

In addition to policy frameworks, various interventions and peacebuilding initiatives have been

implemented in conflict-affected regions. These interventions aim to promote interethnic and

interreligious dialogue, foster social cohesion, and enhance conflict resolution mechanisms

(Mustapha, 2016). For instance, peace committees and community-based organizations have

been established to facilitate dialogue and reconciliation among different ethnic and religious

groups (Obadan, 2016). These grassroots initiatives focus on building trust, promoting

understanding, and fostering peaceful coexistence.

Furthermore, efforts have been made to address the socio-economic factors that contribute to

ethnoreligious conflicts. Development interventions targeting conflict-affected areas aim to

reduce poverty, provide economic opportunities, and bridge socio-economic disparities (Onuoha,

2019). Such initiatives include skills training programs, job creation schemes, and infrastructure

development projects that seek to address the grievances arising from economic inequalities and

resource competition.

The role of civil society organizations in peacebuilding efforts should not be underestimated.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community-based groups, and religious leaders play a

critical role in promoting peace, facilitating dialogue, and providing support to affected

communities (Ukiwo, 2017). These organizations often operate at the grassroots level, where

they have direct access to communities, and they engage in activities such as conflict mediation,

peace education, and the provision of humanitarian assistance.

24
While existing policies, interventions, and peacebuilding efforts have made significant

contributions, challenges persist in effectively implementing and sustaining these initiatives.

Inadequate funding, weak institutional capacity, and political instability pose challenges to the

successful implementation of peacebuilding programs (Obasanjo, 2015). Additionally, the deep-

rooted nature of ethnoreligious conflicts requires a long-term commitment and multi-faceted

approach to achieve lasting peace and stability.

2.3 Theoretical Review

Ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria can be understood and analyzed through various theoretical

perspectives. In this study, the Social Identity Theory is chosen as a framework to provide

insights into the dynamics of these conflicts and their implications for national security. The

Social Identity Theory, proposed by Tajfel and Turner (1979), offers a valuable lens through

which to examine the intergroup dynamics, group identities, and perceptions that underlie

ethnoreligious conflicts.

2.3.1 The Social Identity Theory

The Social Identity Theory posits that individuals derive a significant part of their self-identity

from their membership in social groups, such as ethnic or religious communities. According to

this theory, people have a natural tendency to categorize themselves and others into groups based

on shared characteristics, values, and beliefs. This categorization process creates in-group and

out-group distinctions, leading individuals to develop a sense of belonging and loyalty to their

own group while perceiving members of other groups as different or even as threats.

The Social Identity Theory suggests that individuals strive for a positive social identity by

favoring their own group and engaging in behaviors that promote the distinctiveness and

25
superiority of their group (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). This striving for a positive social identity can

lead to intergroup biases, stereotypes, and prejudices, which can further escalate conflicts

between different ethnic and religious groups.

The theory also highlights the role of intergroup comparisons in shaping individuals' attitudes

and behaviors. Individuals tend to engage in social comparison processes, where they evaluate

their own group positively in comparison to other groups. This process reinforces the positive

distinctiveness of one's own group and can intensify intergroup conflicts.

The Social Identity Theory provides a framework for understanding the psychological processes

underlying ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria. By examining how group identities are formed,

maintained, and mobilized, this theory helps shed light on the root causes of conflicts and the

mechanisms that drive intergroup tensions and violence.

2.3.2 Relevance of the Social Identity Theory to the Study

The Social Identity Theory holds significant relevance to the study of ethnoreligious conflicts in

Nigeria and their implications for national security. By understanding how group identities shape

individuals' perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors, this theory provides valuable insights into the

underlying dynamics of intergroup conflicts. The theory helps explain why individuals may

strongly identify with their ethnic or religious group and engage in behaviors that promote in-

group favoritism and out-group discrimination.

In the context of this study, the Social Identity Theory offers a framework to explore how group

identities contribute to the escalation of ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria. It allows for an

examination of the intergroup biases, stereotypes, and prejudices that fuel tensions and hostilities

between different ethnic and religious groups. Additionally, the theory helps elucidate how the

26
pursuit of positive social identity and intergroup comparisons can further exacerbate conflicts,

leading to potential threats to national security.

While the Social Identity Theory provides valuable insights into the dynamics of ethnoreligious

conflicts, it has some limitations that should be acknowledged. One of the primary criticisms is

its focus on intergroup dynamics and the neglect of individual psychological processes. The

theory primarily emphasizes the role of group membership in shaping attitudes and behaviors,

overlooking other factors such as personal experiences, motivations, and individual differences.

To address this shortfall, an alternative perspective that complements the Social Identity Theory

is the Contact Hypothesis. The Contact Hypothesis, proposed by Allport (1954), suggests that

intergroup contact under certain conditions can reduce prejudice and promote positive attitudes

between groups. It emphasizes the importance of direct and positive interactions between

individuals from different groups in reducing intergroup conflicts.

By incorporating the Contact Hypothesis into the study, a more comprehensive understanding of

the factors influencing ethnoreligious conflicts can be achieved. The Contact Hypothesis offers

insights into how improved intergroup interactions, dialogue, and cooperation can contribute to

conflict resolution, peacebuilding, and fostering national integration.

27
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter provides the description of the methods in collecting and analyzing the data for this

research. It makes clear certain part of the work such as research design, population of study,

sampling procedure, sample size, sampling technique, method of analysis and presentation.

3.1. Research Design

The research design employed in this study is a quantitative research approach. This method was

chosen to systematically gather numerical data, which can be statistically analyzed to provide

insights into the prevalence, causes, contributing factors, and implications of ethno-religious

conflicts in Nigeria for national security. This approach enables the study to quantitatively

measure and analyze various aspects of the research questions, allowing for a structured and

numerical assessment of the phenomena under investigation.

3.2. Area of Study

The area of study for this research is Abeokuta, which is located in Ogun State, Nigeria.

Abeokuta serves as the capital city of Ogun State and is a significant urban center in the

southwestern part of the country. It is chosen as the focal point for this study due to its rich

cultural diversity and historical significance, making it a suitable representative of the broader

context of ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria.

Abeokuta is known for its diverse population comprising various ethnic and religious groups,

including the Yoruba, Hausa, Igbo, and others. This multicultural environment provides an ideal

28
setting to investigate the dynamics of ethno-religious conflicts and their implications for national

security. The city has experienced instances of intergroup tensions, clashes, and violence in the

past, making it a relevant case study for understanding the causes, effects, and potential solutions

to these conflicts.

By focusing on Abeokuta, the research will benefit from firsthand observations, interviews, and

interactions with community members who have experienced or witnessed ethno-religious

conflicts in the area. This local context will contribute to the richness and contextualization of

the study's findings, enabling a deeper understanding of the complexities involved.

It is important to note that while the research concentrates on Abeokuta, the findings and insights

derived from the study will provide valuable insights that can be generalized and applied to other

regions in Nigeria facing similar challenges of ethno-religious conflicts. The choice of Abeokuta

as the area of study enhances the study's specificity and relevance to the broader Nigerian

context.

3.3. Population of the Study

The population of the study consisted of individuals residing in Abeokuta, the capital city of

Ogun State, Nigeria. According to the latest estimate from the World Population Review (2023),

the population of Abeokuta in 2023 was approximately 571,499. Abeokuta was a vibrant urban

center known for its cultural diversity and historical significance, attracting individuals from

various ethnic and religious backgrounds.

For the purpose of this study, the population was further refined to focus on individuals who had

been directly affected by or had knowledge of ethno-religious conflicts in Abeokuta. This

included individuals from different ethnic groups such as the Yoruba, Hausa, Igbo, and others, as

29
well as individuals practicing different religions including Christianity, Islam, and traditional

African religions.

3.4. Sampling Technique and Sampling Size

The study used the Andrew Slovin’s Formula to generate the sample size for the study.

Calculated as follows:

Sample Size = N / (1 + N*e²)

N = population size, e = margin of error

n= 571,499/(1+571,499*0.04²)

n = 571,499/(1+571,499*0.0016)

n = 571,499/(915.398)

n= 624.317

n= 624.317/3 = 208.105

The sample size was approximately 210. The sampling technique employed in this study was a

combination of stratified sampling for the quantitative data.

For the quantitative data, a stratified sampling technique was used. The population of Abeokuta

was divided into relevant strata based on factors such as geographical location, ethnicity, and

religion. Within each stratum, a random sampling technique was applied to select participants

who met the inclusion criteria. The sample size for the quantitative data was determined to be

210 respondents. This sample size provided an adequate representation of the population while

allowing for statistical analysis and generalization of findings.

30
3.5 Instruments of Data Collection

To gather data for this study, a quantitative method was employed. For the quantitative data, a

structured questionnaire was used as the primary instrument. The questionnaire consisted of

closed-ended questions that allowed for numerical responses. It was designed based on the

research objectives and research questions of the study, covering topics related to the prevalence

of ethnoreligious conflicts, root causes, implications for national security, and other relevant

aspects.

The questionnaire was administered to the selected sample of 210 respondents in Abeokuta. The

data collection process was carried out through face-to-face administration, where trained

researchers personally administered the questionnaire to the respondents. This method ensured

consistency in data collection and allowed for any clarifications or additional explanations to be

provided if needed.

3.6 Method of Data Analysis

The data collected for this study were analyzed using the quantitative data analysis technique.

The specific methods of data analysis were as follows:

For the quantitative data collected through the structured questionnaires, statistical analysis was

employed. The data were entered into a statistical software program such as SPSS (Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences) for data cleaning and organization. Descriptive statistics, such

as frequencies and percentages, were used to summarize the data and provide an overview of the

key findings.

31
3.7 Ethical Consideration

This study was conducted in line with social sciences research ethics, which included principles

of originality, justice, honesty, respect for persons, privacy, and confidentiality. The respondents

were fully aware of their voluntary participation and the freedom to withdraw at any time

without facing unfavorable consequences. It was emphasized that they would not be harmed as a

result of their participation or non-participation. The respondents were also assured of the

confidentiality of their responses. Lastly, the study disclosed openness and honesty regarding

how data would be analyzed.

32
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter is aimed at the statistical analysis of variables. The data gathered from the field was
analyzed in two forms, this will enable us to explore the prevalence, root causes, contributing
factors, and implications of ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. First
method involves the presentation of data in frequency and percentage, while the second phase
compared the findings with existing empirical findings to understand their interrelation.

Table 1: Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Respondents (n=207)

Variables Frequency Percentage
Male 104 50.2
Gender
Female 103 49.8
18-25 years 51 24.6
26-35 years 61 29.5
Age group 36-45 years 52 25.1
46-55 years 32 15.5
56 years and above 11 5.3
No formal education 10 4.8
Primary education 11 5.3
Educational Level
Secondary education 31 15
Tertiary education 155 74.9
Yoruba 114 55.1
Hausa 20 9.7
Ethnic group
Igbo 53 25.6
Others 20 9.7
Unemployed 11 5.3
Skilled worker 51 24.6
Occupation
Business owner/entrepreneur 135 65.2
Others 10 4.8
30,000 - 50,000 41 19.8
Monthly Income (in 50,001 - 100,000 63 30.4
Naira) Above 100,000 40 19.3
Prefer not to say 63 30.4
Christianity 105 50.7
Religion
Islam 102 49.3
Urban 103 49.8
Place of Residence
Rural 104 50.2
Source: Field Work, 2023.

33
Table 1 offers valuable insights into the sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents. For

the gender distribution of the respondents, it becomes evident that the data shows a nearly equal

split, with 50.2% of the respondents identifying as male and 49.8% as female. This balanced

gender representation ensures a diverse perspective in the study, considering that gender can play

a significant role in the experience and perception of conflicts.

Moreover, in terms of age groups, the respondents span a broad range, with the majority falling

between the ages of 26 and 45 years (54.6%). More so, this suggests that the research captures

the perspectives of both the younger and middle-aged population, who are likely to have distinct

experiences and viewpoints on ethnoreligious conflicts. In addition to age, educational

background is a crucial demographic factor. The majority of respondents (74.9%) have tertiary

education, reflecting a relatively high level of educational attainment within the sample. This

educational diversity is essential for exploring the relationship between education and

perceptions of ethnoreligious conflicts.

Ethnic diversity among the respondents is evident, with the largest group being Yoruba (55.1%),

followed by Igbo (25.6%), Hausa (9.7%), and others (9.7%). This diversity mirrors the

multicultural nature of Abeokuta and the potential for variations in ethnoreligious conflict

experiences among different ethnic groups. Occupation data indicate that a significant proportion

of respondents are business owners or entrepreneurs (65.2%), while 24.6% are skilled workers,

and 5.3% are unemployed. Moreover, this distribution offers insights into the economic context

of the respondents, which can be linked to their perspectives on conflict.

Moreover, monthly income levels vary, with 30.4% of respondents preferring not to disclose

their income. Among those who did provide information, 30.4% reported monthly incomes

34
ranging from 50,001 to 100,000 Naira, and 19.8% reported incomes between 30,000 and 50,000

Naira, while 19.3% indicated incomes above 100,000 Naira. These income categories shed light

on the economic diversity within the sample.

Furthermore, religious affiliation is almost evenly split, with 50.7% identifying as Christians and

49.3% as Muslims. This balance ensures a representation of the two major religious groups in

Nigeria, offering insights into how religious backgrounds may influence perceptions of

ethnoreligious conflicts. Lastly, the respondents are equally divided in terms of their place of

residence, with 49.8% residing in urban areas and 50.2% in rural areas. This urban-rural

distribution allows for a comprehensive examination of how geographic location might affect

perceptions of ethnoreligious conflicts.

Table 2: Prevalence and Causes of Ethnoreligious Conflict in Abeokuta (n=207)

Variables Frequency Percentage
Have you personally experienced or Yes 82 39.6
witnessed any ethnoreligious conflicts
in Abeokuta, within the past year? No 125 60.4
Very Rarely 33 15.9
How often do you hear about or observe
Rarely 134 64.7
ethnoreligious conflicts in different
neighborhoods or communities within Occasionally 20 9.7
Abeokuta, Ogun State? Frequently 10 4.8
Very Frequently 10 4.8
In your opinion, do ethnoreligious
Decreasing 93 44.9
conflicts in Abeokuta seem to be
increasing, decreasing, or remaining
Stable 114 55.1
stable over the past five years?
Political rivalry 42 20.3
What are some common triggers or Religious differences 51 24.6
causes that you believe contribute to Land and resource disputes 83 40.1
ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta? Cultural
31 15
misunderstandings
Very Low Impact 11 5.3
How would you rate the impact of
Low Impact 75 36.2
ethnoreligious conflicts on the overall
Moderate Impact 91 44
sense of security and peace within
High Impact 20 9.7
Abeokuta?
Very High Impact 10 4.8
Source: Field Work, 2023.

35
Table 2 provides crucial insights into the prevalence and causes of ethnoreligious conflicts in

Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. This data sheds light on the extent to which individuals have

personally experienced or witnessed such conflicts, the frequency of conflicts in different

neighborhoods, perceptions of trends over the past five years, common triggers or causes, and

the overall impact of these conflicts on the sense of security and peace within the city.

To begin, it's noteworthy that 39.6% of respondents acknowledged having personally

experienced or witnessed ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta within the past year. This

indicates that a significant proportion of the population has direct exposure to these conflicts,

suggesting that the issue is not isolated but rather prevalent within the community.

When examining the frequency of hearing about or observing ethnoreligious conflicts in

different neighborhoods or communities within Abeokuta, the data reveals that 64.7% of

respondents reported hearing about conflicts rarely, while 15.9% stated that they occur very

rarely. This could be indicative of the sensitivity and localized nature of these conflicts, with

sporadic occurrences rather than constant turmoil. Regarding the perceived trend in

ethnoreligious conflicts over the past five years, 44.9% of respondents believed that they were

decreasing, while 55.1% perceived the situation as stable. This division in perceptions suggests

that there may be differing viewpoints within the community regarding the trajectory of

ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta.

Respondents were also asked about the common triggers or causes contributing to these

conflicts. The data indicates that land and resource disputes were identified as a significant factor

by 40.1% of respondents, followed by religious differences (24.6%), and political rivalry

(20.3%). Cultural misunderstandings were cited by 15.0% of respondents. These findings

36
underline the multifaceted nature of ethnoreligious conflicts, which often result from a

combination of factors.

In terms of the impact of ethnoreligious conflicts on the overall sense of security and peace

within Abeokuta, the responses vary. While 36.2% of respondents considered the impact to be

low, 44% rated it as moderate. However, 9.7% perceived a high impact, and 4.8% believed it to

be very high. This divergence in opinions suggests that the consequences of ethnoreligious

conflicts are felt differently among residents, with a substantial portion expressing concerns

about their impact on security and peace.

In summary, the data from Table 2 underscores the complexity and prevalence of ethnoreligious

conflicts in Abeokuta, offering valuable insights into how residents perceive and experience

these conflicts. It highlights the need for further analysis to understand the nuances of these

conflicts and their implications for the community's well-being and security.

Table 3: Influence of political, socio-economic, and religious factors to the occurrence of

ethno-religious conflicts (n=207)
Variables Frequency Percentage
Based on your observations, do political
Yes 113 54.6
interests or affiliations play a significant
role in exacerbating ethnoreligious
No 94 45.4
tensions in Abeokuta?
Significant Role 63 30.4
How do you perceive the role of historical
Moderate Role 61 29.5
events or grievances in fueling
ethnoreligious conflicts within the region? Minor Role 62 30
No Role 21 10.1
In your opinion, do socio-economic
disparities, such as access to resources and Yes 123 59.4
opportunities, play a role in contributing
to tensions between different ethnic and No 84 40.6
religious groups in Abeokuta?
How do religious beliefs and practices Promote
impact intergroup relations and contribute Understanding and 81 39.1
to either the escalation or de-escalation of Tolerance
ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta? Incite Hostility and 62 30
Divisions

37
 No Impact 64 30.9
Source: Field Work, 2023.

Table 3 delves into the influence of political, socio-economic, and religious factors on the

occurrence of ethno-religious conflicts in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. This data provides

insights into how these multifaceted factors are perceived by the community and their roles in

exacerbating or mitigating conflicts.

Firstly, when considering the role of political interests or affiliations in exacerbating

ethnoreligious tensions, 54.6% of respondents believed that political interests do indeed play a

significant role in fueling these tensions, while 45.4% held the opposite view. This division in

perceptions underscores the complex interplay between politics and ethnoreligious conflicts,

where some residents perceive a strong connection, while others do not.

Regarding the role of historical events or grievances, a considerable portion of respondents

believed in their significance. Specifically, 30.4% of respondents perceived historical events and

grievances to play a significant role, while 29.5% attributed a moderate role to them. However,

30% saw them as having a minor role, and 10.1% believed they played no role. These diverse

opinions indicate that historical factors are a topic of substantial debate among residents

regarding their contribution to ethnoreligious conflicts.

In terms of socio-economic disparities, the data demonstrates that a majority of respondents

(59.4%) believed that these disparities, such as unequal access to resources and opportunities, do

indeed contribute to tensions between different ethnic and religious groups in Abeokuta.

Meanwhile, 40.6% held the view that socio-economic disparities do not play a significant role in

these tensions. This finding highlights the perceived link between socio-economic factors and

ethnoreligious conflicts in the region.

38
Lastly, respondents were asked about how religious beliefs and practices impact intergroup

relations and their role in the escalation or de-escalation of ethnoreligious conflicts. The data

reveals that 39.1% believed that religious beliefs and practices promote understanding and

tolerance between groups. However, 30% of respondents felt that these beliefs incite hostility

and divisions, while 30.9% believed they had no significant impact. These contrasting views

emphasize the complexity of the relationship between religion and ethnoreligious conflicts and

suggest that religious factors can have both positive and negative effects on intergroup relations.

In summary, Table 3 provides a glimpse into how residents of Abeokuta perceive the roles of

political, historical, socio-economic, and religious factors in the occurrence of ethnoreligious

conflicts. It highlights the diversity of perspectives within the community and underscores the

need for nuanced approaches to understanding and addressing these conflicts. Further analysis

and interpretation are essential to gain a deeper understanding of the dynamics at play.

Table 4: Implications of ethnoreligious conflicts for national security in Nigeria (n=207)

Variables Frequency Percentage
In your opinion, how do ethnoreligious Positively 72 34.8
conflicts in Nigeria impact the overall Negatively 105 50.7
sense of national security and stability? No impact 30 14.5
High Risks and
62 30
How do you perceive the potential risks or Threats
threats posed by ethnoreligious conflicts Moderate Risks
134 64.7
to the safety and security of communities and Threats
across different regions in Nigeria? Low Risks and
11 5.3
Threats
How does the occurrence of Promote Trust and
41 19.8
ethnoreligious conflicts impact the trust Cooperation
and cooperation among different ethnic Erode Trust and
135 65.2
and religious groups, which are vital for Cooperation
national cohesion and security? No impact 31 15
In your perspective, what role does Very important 164 79.2
effective conflict resolution play in
mitigating the implications of Somewhat
32 15.5
ethnoreligious conflicts for national important
security in Nigeria? Not important 11 5.3
Source: Field Work, 2023.
39
Table 4 provides valuable insights into the perceived implications of ethnoreligious conflicts for

national security in Nigeria, as well as the potential risks posed by these conflicts and their

impact on trust and cooperation among different ethnic and religious groups. Additionally, it

explores the role of effective conflict resolution in mitigating these implications, based on the

responses of the respondents. Firstly, when considering how ethnoreligious conflicts impact the

overall sense of national security and stability in Nigeria, 50.7% of respondents expressed the

view that these conflicts have a negative impact. In contrast, 34.8% believed that ethnoreligious

conflicts impact national security positively, and 14.5% perceived no significant impact. This

divergence in opinions reflects the complexity of assessing the consequences of these conflicts

on a national scale.

More so, regarding the potential risks or threats posed by ethnoreligious conflicts to the safety

and security of communities across different regions in Nigeria, the data shows that 64.7% of

respondents believed these conflicts pose moderate risks and threats, while 30% perceived high

risks and threats. Only 5.3% thought they posed low risks and threats. This suggests that a

majority of respondents view ethnoreligious conflicts as having a significant impact on

community safety and security.

In terms of the impact of ethnoreligious conflicts on trust and cooperation among different ethnic

and religious groups, which are vital for national cohesion and security, 65.2% of respondents

believed that these conflicts erode trust and cooperation. In contrast, 19.8% felt that they

promote trust and cooperation, and 15% believed they have no significant impact. These findings

highlight the challenges posed by ethnoreligious conflicts in fostering unity among diverse

groups.

40
In addition, when assessing the role of effective conflict resolution in mitigating the implications

of ethnoreligious conflicts for national security in Nigeria, a significant majority of respondents

(79.2%) considered it to be very important. Only 15.5% regarded it as somewhat important, and

5.3% deemed it not important. This underscores the recognition of the vital role that conflict

resolution mechanisms play in addressing the security implications of ethnoreligious conflicts at

the national level.

In summary, Table 4 presents a multifaceted perspective on how respondents perceive the

implications of ethnoreligious conflicts for national security in Nigeria. It underscores the

varying opinions regarding the impact of these conflicts on security and the importance of

effective conflict resolution mechanisms in managing their implications. These insights

contribute to a deeper understanding of the complex dynamics surrounding ethnoreligious

conflicts in the Nigerian context.

4.1 Discussion of the Findings

The discussion of the findings in this study provides valuable insights into the prevalence,

causes, contributing factors, and implications of ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta, Ogun

State, Nigeria. To further understand the significance of these findings, it is essential to compare

and contrast them with existing empirical studies on similar topics in Nigeria.

One of the key findings in this study is the prevalence of ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta,

with 39.6% of respondents reporting personal experiences or witnessing such conflicts within the

past year. This finding aligns with previous studies conducted in Nigeria, which have

consistently documented the presence of ethnoreligious conflicts across various regions. For

instance, Agbiboa (2015) highlighted the pervasive nature of religious conflicts in Nigeria,

41
emphasizing the need for strategies to address these tensions. Therefore, the prevalence of

conflicts observed in this study corroborates the broader trend of ethnoreligious tensions in

Nigeria. In the context of the theory, the prevalence of ethnoreligious conflicts observed in this

study aligns with the notion in the Social Identity Theory that individuals tend to categorize

themselves and others into social groups based on shared characteristics, such as ethnicity and

religion. These group identities become salient in situations of intergroup conflict and

competition, leading to the development of in-group favoritism and out-group bias (Tajfel &

Turner, 1979). In the context of Abeokuta, where various ethnic and religious groups coexist, the

salience of these identities can contribute to conflicts, as individuals may perceive their in-group

as threatened or disadvantaged.

Furthermore, the study examined the role of various factors in contributing to ethnoreligious

conflicts. The data revealed that respondents perceived political interests and affiliations as

significant contributors to these tensions. This finding is consistent with the findings of Akinola

(2016), who emphasized the role of political factors in exacerbating ethnoreligious conflicts in

Kaduna State, Nigeria. It suggests that the intertwining of politics and ethnoreligious conflicts is

not unique to Abeokuta but is a shared characteristic across Nigeria. Also, the role of political

interests and affiliations in exacerbating ethnoreligious conflicts is consistent with the Social

Identity Theory's concept of social categorization. According to the theory, individuals not only

categorize themselves based on social identities but also seek to achieve a positive social identity

by enhancing the status and favorability of their in-group (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). In the case of

politics, individuals may align themselves with political groups that are perceived as representing

their in-group's interests, leading to intergroup competition and conflict. Akinola (2016) and

42
Agbiboa (2015) emphasize the role of political factors in heightening ethnoreligious tensions,

corroborating the theory's predictions.

Another significant factor identified in this study was the role of socio-economic disparities in

contributing to tensions between different ethnic and religious groups. The majority of

respondents believed that these disparities played a role in ethnoreligious conflicts. This finding

resonates with existing research, such as the work of Bakare (2017), which emphasized the

importance of addressing socio-economic inequalities as a means of reducing ethnoreligious

tensions in Nigeria. It underscores the need for comprehensive policies that address both the

economic and social dimensions of these conflicts. When socio-economic disparities exist, they

can fuel feelings of relative deprivation among certain ethnic or religious groups, leading to

intergroup tensions. Bakare (2017) highlights the importance of addressing socio-economic

inequalities to mitigate ethnoreligious conflicts, aligning with this aspect of the theory.

Moreover, the study explored the impact of ethnoreligious conflicts on the sense of security and

peace within Abeokuta. A substantial portion of respondents perceived a moderate to high

impact of these conflicts on security. This finding aligns with the broader literature on the

consequences of ethnoreligious conflicts for peace and security in Nigeria. For instance,

Momodu (2020) highlighted the security implications of ethnoreligious conflicts in Nigeria,

emphasizing the need for proactive measures to ensure stability. Therefore, the findings of this

study reinforce the idea that ethnoreligious conflicts have far-reaching effects on the well-being

and security of communities. On the impact of ethnoreligious conflicts on the sense of security

and peace within Abeokuta is consistent with the theory's understanding of intergroup dynamics.

Intergroup conflicts, such as ethnoreligious conflicts, can create a sense of insecurity and threat,

particularly when social identities are highly salient (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).

43
Lastly, the study investigated the role of effective conflict resolution in mitigating the

implications of ethnoreligious conflicts for national security in Nigeria. The majority of

respondents considered effective conflict resolution to be very important in this context. This

finding is in line with the recommendations of scholars like Ibrahim (2017), who stressed the

significance of conflict resolution mechanisms in achieving national integration and security in

the face of ethnoreligious tensions. It underscores the importance of investing in conflict

resolution strategies to address the security challenges posed by these conflicts. The theory posits

that conflict reduction strategies, such as promoting a common identity that transcends divisive

group boundaries, can lead to improved intergroup relations and reduced conflict.

In a nutshell, the findings of this study on ethnoreligious conflicts in Abeokuta, Ogun State, align

with existing empirical studies on similar topics in Nigeria. They confirm the prevalence of

conflicts, the role of political and socio-economic factors, the impact on security, and the

importance of conflict resolution mechanisms. These findings provide valuable insights for

policymakers and stakeholders seeking to address ethnoreligious conflicts and promote national

security and cohesion in Nigeria.

44
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary

The study examined the prevalence, root causes, contributing factors, and implications of

ethnoreligious conflicts in Ogun State, Nigeria. It has been organized into five chapters. Chapter

one introduces the research topic, statement of the problem, research questions, and objectives.

Chapter two comprises the literature review and theoretical framework. The third chapter

explains the research methodology, including sampling techniques, data collection methods, and

analysis procedures. In chapter four, data collected from primary sources are analyzed,

presented, and interpreted, as well as the discussion of the findings. The fifth and final chapter

provides a summary, conclusions, and recommendations based on the study's findings.

5.2 Conclusion

This study has examined the prevalence, root causes, contributing factors, and implications of

ethnoreligious conflicts in Ogun State, Nigeria. The findings underscore the undeniable

prevalence of these conflicts, with a significant proportion of respondents reporting direct

experiences or witnessing such clashes within the past year. This stark reality underscores the

persistent challenge that ethnoreligious tensions pose to the local and national landscape.

Furthermore, the study's revelations regarding the substantial role of political interests and

affiliations in fueling these conflicts align with a growing body of research highlighting the

nexus between politics and ethnoreligious tensions in Nigeria. This underscores the need for

political actors and institutions to adopt more inclusive and conflict-sensitive approaches in their

engagement with diverse communities. Moreover, the recognition of socio-economic disparities

45
as a critical driver of tensions between ethnic and religious groups in Abeokuta amplifies the

urgency of addressing these underlying inequalities. Addressing these disparities should be at the

forefront of any strategy aimed at reducing the triggers of conflicts and promoting social

cohesion. Also, the unanimous agreement among respondents on the paramount importance of

effective conflict resolution mechanisms highlights a potential path forward. Implementing and

strengthening conflict resolution initiatives at both local and national levels can serve as a vital

tool in mitigating the implications of ethnoreligious conflicts for national security in Nigeria.

5.3 Recommendation

Based on the findings of this study, several recommendations emerge as essential steps towards

mitigating ethnoreligious conflicts and enhancing national security in Nigeria:

1. There is an urgent need for political leaders and institutions to adopt more inclusive and

equitable governance practices. By ensuring that all ethnic and religious groups have a

voice in decision-making processes and access to resources, the government can help

reduce the sense of marginalization that often fuels conflicts.

2. Strengthening and expanding conflict resolution mechanisms at both the local and

national levels is critical. These mechanisms should be accessible, transparent, and

trusted by all communities. Initiatives that promote dialogue, mediation, and

reconciliation can help prevent the escalation of conflicts.

3. Efforts should be made to address socio-economic disparities, particularly in resource

allocation and access to opportunities. This includes equitable distribution of resources,

education, and employment opportunities across different ethnic and religious groups.

46
4. Encouraging interfaith dialogue and promoting religious tolerance through educational

programs can help reduce religious-based conflicts. These initiatives can foster

understanding and respect among different religious communities.

5. Improving community policing and security measures can help deter conflicts and

respond effectively when tensions arise. This includes building trust between

communities and law enforcement agencies.

6. Media outlets should exercise responsible journalism by avoiding the spread of hate

speech and promoting unbiased reporting. Media can play a role in promoting peace and

unity by providing accurate and balanced information.

47
 REFERENCES
Adebayo, A. A. (2019). Ethno-Religious Conflict and National Development in Nigeria: A Focus
on Christian-Muslim Relations. Journal of Peace, Conflict and Development, 27, 56-71.
Agbiboa, D. E. (2015). Religion, ethnicity and violent conflict in Nigeria. African Affairs,
114(454), 1-22.
Akinola, G. (2017). Ethnicity, Religion, and Politics in Nigeria: Implications for National
Development. Journal of Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 7(2), 1-11.
Akinola, G. A. (2016). Ethno-religious crises and implications for national security: A study of
Kaduna State, Nigeria. International Journal of Peace and Conflict Studies, 3(1), 11-26.
Akinyele, R. T. (2017). Ethno-Religious Conflict in Nigeria: Implications for National Security.
Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 4(2), 1-10.
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Addison-Wesley.
Anifowose, R. (2013). Ethnic Politics and Democracy in Nigeria. Cambridge University Press.
Anifowose, R. (2014). Ethnicity and Political Conflicts in Nigeria. Journal of Ethnic and
Cultural Studies, 1(1), 1-14.
Anugwom, E. E. (2018). Ethnic Diversity, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria. Africa
Review, 10(1), 53-65.
Appleby, R. S. (2000). The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation.
Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Bakare, S. (2017). Ethno-religious crisis and internal displacement in Nigeria. Journal of Ethnic
and Migration Studies, 43(9), 1521-1540.
Bukar, B. (2016). Ethno-Religious Conflict and Sustainable Development in Nigeria. Arabian
Journal of Business and Management Review, 6(6), 1-7.
Coser, L. A. (1956). The Functions of Social Conflict. The Free Press.
Deutsch, M. (1973). The Resolution of Conflict: Constructive and Destructive Processes. Yale
University Press.
Durkheim, E. (1912). The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. London: George Allen & Unwin.
Falola, T. (2019). Nigeria: A Cultural Perspective. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Freud, S. (1927). The Future of an Illusion. London: Hogarth Press.
Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, Peace, and Peace Research. Journal of Peace Research, 6(3), 167-
191.
Haynes, J. (2016). Religious Institutions and Conflict Transformation: Lessons from the Field.
Journal of Peace Research, 53(5), 665-678.

48
Ibrahim, A. (2017). Ethnoreligious Conflict and National Security in Nigeria. Journal of Peace,
Conflict and Development, 23, 70-82.
Ifemeje, S., & Obi, O. (2020). Ethno-Religious Conflict in Nigeria and Under-Development:
Law to the Rescue. International Journal of Business & Law Research, 8(1):50-55.
Ikelegbe, A. (2015). Ethno-religious conflict and electoral violence in Nigeria: Implications for
democracy. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 50(6), 765-778.
Lederach, J. P. (1997). Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies. United
States Institute of Peace Press.
Momodu, A. S. (2020). Security Implications of Ethno-Religious Conflict in Nigeria. Journal of
Peace, Conflict and Development, 30, 111-130.
Mustapha, A. R. (2016). Ethnicity, governance and development in Nigeria. Journal of
Contemporary African Studies, 34(2), 163-179.
Mustapha, A. R. (2016). Ethno-Religious Conflicts in Nigeria: Causal Analysis and Proposals for
New Management Strategies. African Journal of Political Science and International
Relations, 10(2), 1-11.
Mustapha, A. R. (2016). Ethno-Religious Conflicts in Nigeria: Causal Analysis and Proposals for
New Management Strategies. African Journal of Political Science and International
Relations, 10(2), 1-11.
Nwankwo, I. B. (2015). Security Implications of Ethno-Religious Conflicts in Nigeria. Journal
of Political Science and Leadership Research, 1(2), 14-26.
Nzor, E. (2019). Communal Conflicts: Using Alternative Dispute Resolution Approach to
Restore peace. Retrieved from http://leadership.ng/2019/09/15/dispute-resolution-
approach-to-restore-peace
Nzor, E. (2019). Communal Conflicts: Using Alternative Dispute Resolution Approach to
Restore peace. Retrieved from http://leadership.ng/2019/09/15/dispute-
resolutionapproachtorestorepeace
Obadan, M. I. (2016). Ethnoreligious Conflicts in Nigeria: Causes and Consequences. Journal of
International and Global Studies, 7(1), 1-20.
Obasanjo, O. (2015). Ethno-Religious Conflicts in Nigeria: Causes and Remedies.
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 6(6 S3), 495-503.
Ogundiya, I. S. (2017). Ethnoreligious Conflicts and the Challenges of Sustainable Development
in Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 59(3), 209-219.
Okafor, O. (2018). Nigeria: Ethnic and Religious Conflicts. In Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace,
& Conflict (3rd ed., pp. 1246-1255). Elsevier.
Olaniyan, R. (2019). Ethno-Religious Conflicts and Nigeria's Security Challenges: A Review.
Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 6(1), 67-78.
49
Olusakin, J. (2014). State, society and ethno-religious conflict in Nigeria: A case study of Jos.
Journal of Peace, Conflict and Development, 21, 61-80.
Oluwatoyin, M. (2018). Ethno-Religious Conflict in Nigeria: Implications on National Security.
International Journal of Research in Social Sciences, 8(5), 72-80.
Omotola, S. (2016). Ethno-Religious Conflict and Economic Development in Nigeria. In P. O.
Adewumi, & O. O. Akande (Eds.), The Political Economy of Conflict and
Underdevelopment in Africa (pp. 153-171). Palgrave Macmillan.
Onuoha, F. C. (2015). Religion and Ethno-Religious Conflicts in Nigeria: Implications for
National Security. International Journal of Politics and Good Governance, 6(6), 1-14.
Onuoha, F. C. (2018). Drivers of ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria. African Security Review,
27(3), 248-261.
Onuoha, F. C. (2019). Ethno-Religious Conflicts in Nigeria: A Threat to National Security.
Journal of Social Sciences, 47(1), 101-114.
Onuoha, F. C. (2020). Ethnicity and Conflict in Nigeria: Implications for National Unity and
Security. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 7(2), 16-32.
Osaghae, E. E. (2017). The political economy of ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria. The
Journal of Modern African Studies, 55(4), 557-584.
Pew Research Center. (2018). The Global Religious Landscape. Retrieved from
https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/
Suberu, R. T. (2016). Ethnoreligious Conflicts and Governance in Nigeria. In O. F. Falola & T.
Bekoe (Eds.), Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular
Ideologies (pp. 19-37). University Rochester Press.
Suberu, R. T. (2017). Managing Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria: The Role of the Federal Character
Principle. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations, 11(5), 101-
111.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin
& S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47).
Brooks/Cole.
Ukiwo, U. (2014). Understanding Ethno-Religious Conflicts in Nigeria: Drivers, Implications
and Challenges. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 49(6), 734-748.
Ukiwo, U. (2017). Ethnoreligious Conflicts in Nigeria: Challenges and Opportunities. African
Security Review, 26(1), 84-97.
Uzodike, U. O. (2016). Religious conflicts in Nigeria: Issues, challenges and prospects. Journal
of Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 6(1), 42-56.

50
Uzodike, U. O. (2017). Causes and Consequences of Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria: Lessons from
Plateau and Kaduna States. International Journal of Politics and Good Governance, 8(8),
54-72.

51