D.

Numerals
• Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth century
AD.
 Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek
numerals, but it lacks individual characters for multiples of 100.
 UNIT FOUR
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE
BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURIES
4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty
 The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that they were descendants of
the last king of Aksum and hence, they were legitimate to take over state
power from the “illegitimate” rulers of the Zagwe dynasty. As the claim has no
historical evidence, the name “Restoration” is put in quotation mark.
 Similarly, the name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation marks because the
claim of descent from King Solomon of Israel is legendary. The claim has been
elaborated in the Kibre Negest (“Glory of Kings”) that associated Ethiopia
with the Judeo-Christian tradition.
 The Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of
Menilek I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. As a result,
Ethiopian monarchs from Yikuno-Amlak to Emperor Haile-Silassie I claimed
descent from Menilek I.
4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious
Processes
4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal Prison’
of Amba Gishen
After Yikuno-Amlak (1285), a political instability caused by constant power
struggles. The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s five
sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299.
It has been partly resolved in 1300 during the reign of Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-
1314) due to establishment of a ‘Royal Prison’ of Amba Gishen, located in present
day southern Wollo.
According to this rule, all male members of the royal family were confined at
the Amba.
It continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-
Ghazi's force in 1540.
4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian
Kingdom
From 1270 -1636, the medieval monarchs had no permanent capital.
Initially, the center of the Solomonic dynasty was in Amhara (today’s South
Wollo) around Lake Haiq.
However, it gradually shifted southward to the districts of Menz, Tegulet,
Bulga, Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains.
Amde-Tsion(1314-44)was the first "Solomonic" King, who embarked on a
policy of a wider and rapid territorial expansion.
he expanded his territory into Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7, Agaw (Awi) of
Gojjam around 1323/4; Bete-Israel (located between Dambiya and Tekeze
River) around 1332; and the Red Sea Coast.
Amde-Tsion gave Enderta (in today’s northeastern Tigray) to his wife Bilen-
Saba.
Amde-Tsion's army faced stiff resistance from among Ifat and Shewa, which
might have cooperated with the rebellious army at Enderta, led by Yibeka-Igzi
in 1320s. However, Bahr-Sagad, the son of Amde-Tsion, became the governor
of Tigray.
 In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to today’s Eritrean region. After controlling
the whole region, he appointed a governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir,
which later on changed to Bahire-Negash.
In the southeast, Muslim sultanates paid tributes to the Christian Kingdom. In
the south, Gurage speaking areas and a few of the Omotic kingdoms like
Wolayta and Gamo were brought under the influence of the Christian state.
Amde-Tsion was in full control of all the trade routes and sources of trade of the
Ethiopian region in the early 1330s.
The consolidation and territorial expansion of the Christian Kingdom continued
during the successors of Amde-Tsion.
 His main motives of expansion were:-economic and political: to control the
trade routes and territorial seizures.
4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of Zara-
Yaqob
A. Evangelization
It was an expansion of Christianity.
Early Christians played an important role in the spread of Christianity in several
areas.
For example, Abba Iyesus-Mo'a (Haik Estifanos), opened new opportunities of
learning for Christians.
Abune Tekle-Haymanot (thirteenth century) played a key role in reviving
Christianity in Shewa, which was followed by the evangelization of areas in
southern Ethiopia including medieval Damot.
He baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity.
 By the direction from Bishop Yaqob, spread Christianity to different areas of
Shewa such as Kil'at, Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and
Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya.
 II. Religious Movements
A. The Ewostatewos Movement
13th century witnessed development of monasticism and religious movements.
Abba Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in
present day Eritrea).
• His teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath on Saturday.
• Due to opposition, he fled the country to Egypt.
• His followers such as Bekimos, Merkoryewos and Gebre–Iyasus returned home
from Armenia led by Abba Absad to continue it.
• Soon, it spread to Enfranz, northern Tigray, and Hamessen.
• The King and the Abun opposed the movement.
• Anti-Ewostatewos group emerged led by Aqabe-Se’at Sereqe Birhan in Hayq
Monastery
• They were supported by the Abun and the monarch.
• The Clergy removed Ewostatewos from churches services and a country.
B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame.
He established a rigid monastic organization.
Rose in the fifteenth century and continued until the sixteenth century.
It emphasized on poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and independence from
secular authorities.
When summoned to the royal court, Estifanos was initially able to convince the
emperor (probably Atse Takla Maryam, r. 1430-33) that he posed no threat to royal
power or the unity of the Church.
 Later, Zara-Yacob took harsh measures against the Estifanosites for their opposition
of the veneration of St. Mary.
Naod appears to have been more favorably inclined towards the Estifanosites and to
have been instrumental in their reintegration into the EOC during the period of
Metropolitan Abune Yeshq.
III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to stabilize and
consolidate the Orthodox Church.
Some of his reforms were:
• He settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy to create church-state union.
• He made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in the
Ethiopian church.
• Ewostatians agreed to receive Holy orders from the Ethiopian prelates.
• Further, he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.
• He ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesday. and Friday.
• He allowed them to get Father Confessors.
• The king encouraged the establishment of a library in every church.
• This was followed by revival of religious literature.
• Some parts of Te’amre Maryam were translated from Arabic to Geez.
4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates
A number of strong sultanates had emerged since the fourteenth century.
Trade was one of the major factors that resulted in the rise and development of
those sates.
Trade served not only as a major source of livelihood but also acted as a major
agent that resulted in the formation of Muslim Sultanes and remained a major
source of conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim sultanates.
One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade routes and
became a center of resistance against the Christian Kingdom until the second
half of the sixteenth century was the Sultanate of Adal.
The Rise of Adal
The most known Muslim Sultanate during this period was Ifat (1285-1415).
After its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of campaigns against its
neighboring sultanates thereby extending its hegemony over these areas. It also
resisted the expansion of the Christian Kingdom.
However, one branch of the Walasma family, which realized that Ifat was
becoming an easy target to the Christian Kingdom due to its location, moved
further to the southeastern lowlands and established new and vigorous Muslim
Sultanate of Adal in the highland districts around Harar in 1367.
The political center of Walasma Dynasty was Dakar, near Harar in 1367.
• The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar.
• Due to Oromo population movement, its center shifted to Awsa in 1576/7 in
Afar.
Trade and the Expansion of Islam
• Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the Ethiopian region
through Muslim merchants and preachers.
• Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the Muslim Sultanates
while at the same time it formed the base of the economy of those states.
• The most known Muslim Sultanates during this period were Ifat (1285-1415)
and Adal (1415-1577).
• The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and the old city-states of Mogadishu,
Brava, and Merca were used as ports for their hinterland.
• For the trade in the northeast, Massawa served as an outlet.
• With the revival of trade, different towns and trade centers emerged along the
route from Zeila to the interior.
Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates
• Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the medieval period.
The ambition to control trade route and commodities that passed through Zeila
led to conflict.
The first conflict b/n the Christian Kingdom and Ifat took place in 1328.
Haqaddin I confiscated the goods, captured, and imprisoned the king's
agent.(Amde Tsion’s agent). Amde-Tsion wage a campaign against Haqaddin I;
defeated and took him prisoner and eventually replaced him by his brother
Sabradin.