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Description of the Module

Subject Name Women’s Studies

Paper Name Women, Governance and Politics
Module Name Women’s Participation in Nationalist Movement:
Extremist Phase
Module Id
Pre-requisites The Reader is expected to have a basic understanding of
the 19th century feminist movement, literature and
nationalist movement in India.
Objectives To make the Reader understand how the nationalist
movement in extremist phase made way for women in the
public sphere, and analyze the changing nature and
patterns of women’s political participation in India during
the nationalist movement.
Keywords Personhood, Emboldened, Feminist Movement and
literature, Self Reliance.

1.1 Women’s Participation in Nationalist Movement

Studies on women's role in the nationalist movement or of the implications social or

political-of their momentous entry into the public sphere are scant. Important works on
the national movement mostly fail to examine the significance of women's participation
in the freedom struggle. The history of national movement would be incomplete without
mentioning the contributions of women. Women shouldered critical responsibilities in
India’s struggle for freedom. The sacrifice made by the women of India occupies the
foremost place. They fought with true spirit and unafraid courage and faced various
tortures, exploitations, and hardships to earn us freedom. When most of the men freedom
fighters were in prison, the women came forward and took charge of the struggle. The list
of great women whose names have gone down in history for their dedication and undying
devotion to the service of India is a long one.

1.2 Women’s Participation in Nationalist Movement: Extremist Phase

The closing decade of the nineteenth century and early years of the twentieth century
witnessed emergence of a new and younger group within the Indian National Congress
who were sharply critical of moderate policy of loyalty to British and advocacy of the
constitutional means. The younger group alias extremists demanded for more vigorous
political actions and methods than those of the meetings, petitions, memorials etc. If we
focus over the social composition of moderate leadership, we can underline two specific
features; firstly the moderate leaders were very successful in their professions so politics
was only a part time affair for them. Secondly, almost all of them were English educated
people. So, they were not sharing social base with common people. On the other hand,
the new, extremists, emerged appealed to a wider circle of the lower middle class,
students and sections of peasants and workers. Instead of prayers and petitions, self
reliance and constructive work became the new slogan, self help, passive resistance, use
of vernaculars, utilization of traditional popular customs like village fair came to be
recognized as the best way of bridging the gulf between have and have not’s.

With the beginning of the extremist phase, the nature and focus of the national movement
took a major shift. In this phase, women’s interests and concerns started taking a concrete
shape. Unlike the late 19th century, when women organizations were mostly formed by
men, in this phase, many such organizations were established by women themselves.
Four reasons can be underlined behind this phenomenon:

a) Feminist Movement.
b) Feminist Literature.
c) Swadeshi Movement.
d) Organizations established by women.

Unlike the western Feminist movement, India’s movement was initiated by men, and
later joined by women. The efforts of these men included abolishing sati, abolishing the
custom of child marriage, abolishing the disfiguring of widows, introducing the marriage
of upper caste Hindu widows, promoting women’s education, obtaining legal rights for
women to own property, and requiring the law to acknowledge women’s status by
granting them basic rights in matters such as adoption. The nineteenth century was a
period that saw a majority of women’s issues come under the spotlight and reforms began
to be made. Much of the early reforms for Indian women were conducted by men.
However, by the late nineteenth century, they were joined in their efforts by their wives,
sisters, daughters, protégées and other individuals directly affected by campaigns such as
those carried out for women education. Emboldened women gained greater autonomy
through the formation of independent women’s own organizations. Likewise, women
writers by actively entering the scene and shifting attention from social perspective to
personal ones provided a new direction for both social and fictional development. They
focused on women’s freedom, their rights to health and were in general critical of those
practices which denigrated women.

The work of women writers is different from the work of their male predecessors. There
is a shift from married or abandoned women to questions which relate to the formation of
female self. Women are beginning to be seen as active agents of the making of their
selves (an unfinished story, Swarnkumari Devi) and as an individual endowed with
psychological perceptions (Sattnianadhan’s novel). The novels reflect upon moral values,
the question of right and wrong and to say about religious strictures which confine
women with their rigid practices. Tarabai Shinde made fun of the reformist zeal and
labeled it as male self indulgence. She advocated speeding up of processes of enabling
women so that they could define their own directions. By beginning to focus attention on
questions like choice and freedom, Swarnakumari Devi and Karupa Bai Sattnianadhan
drew attention to the personhood of women. Not only this affects the work of later male
writers and their construction of womanhood but also called attention to the intellectuals
being a woman. In this line Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain went a step further and created an
imaginary utopian world which offered comment on both the reality and aspirations of
women. Belonging to an orthodox muslim family, she was able to learn both English and
Bengali through sheer determination. Besides playing a dominant role in the women’s
movement in writing fiction, Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain also wrote two fictional works-
Padmaraga in 1903 and Sultana Dreams in 1905. Both of them have stronger gender
statements. Moreover she founded an education institution for the Muslim girls in
Bhagalpur (Bihar) in the year 1909. Later in the year 1911, she also founded Sakhawat
Memorial Balika Vidyalaya in Calcutta. There are many other female writers in the line,
the writing of whom made woman emboldened enough to become a part of mainstream
of life and National Movement.

In 1890’s the women constantly participated in congress activities. Among them women
activists like Pandita Ramabai ( who was awarded by the medal of Keiser- i- Hind for
community service in 1919. On 26th October, 1989, in recognition of her contribution to
the advancement of Indian women, the Government of India issued a commemorative
stamp.) and female professionals like Dr. Kadambini Ganguly who organized the
women’s conference in Calcutta on the partition of Bengal in 1905, were notable.

The early twentieth century, further active political female participation occurred with the
increase in nationalism, mass strife for self rule including the boycott of British goods
and events such as the arrest of extremist leader B.G. Tilak led to the strike in bombay.
Women joined the agitation, organized Swadeshi meetings, boycotted foreign articles and
donated money. Swarnakumari Devi founded ‘Sakhi Samiti’ with the aim of educating
widows to be self-reliant. She also started organizing Mahila Shilpa Melas which served
three major purposes: Fund raising for Sakhi Samiti; Making women self reliant; and
Promoting indigenous cottage industry as a mark of Swadeshi. These fairs created a new
role for women in the national movement and also made self-reliance of women and
national interest as complementary to each-other. Further, Sarala Debi Chaudharani
stressed upon the need of a permanent women’s organization. This stand of hers was
widely opposed by her male counterparts. But in reply to her opponents, she blamed them
for still living in the ‘shade of Manu’ who could not accept women’s independent voices
and actions. [Sarala Devi, ‘A Women’s Movement, Modern Review, October, 1911] She
founded ‘Bharat Stree Mahamandal’ which mainly focused on women related social and
political issues but also enabled and trained women in putting their demands to the
government.

During this phase, on the one hand, INC with it extremist policies wanted to involve
masses in the national movement, on the other, women through participation in
organizations like Sakhi Samiti and Bharat Stree Mahamandal were quite prepared to
adopt the new role of active participants in the national movement. However, women’s
active participation during this phase in the national movement - especially in the
programmes of Swadeshi and boycott - was not a nationwide feature rather region
specific. Since Bengal was the major sufferer of the hostile policy of British, as a part of
which it had undergone partition, the outrage against the British Rule was much stronger
in the region and so women’s participation in Swadeshi Movement in Bengal was
remarkable. For example, about five hundred women assembled in Jenokard Village in
the district of Murshidabad to protest against partition of Bengal and also to advocate use
of Swadeshi goods. Many women belonging to nationalist families formed support
groups for the movement. Besides, middle class women contributed their jewelry and
money for the cause of Swadeshi.

Though Bengal stood first in women’s participation in Swadeshi Movement but in other
parts also there were few instances of women’s participation. In Maharashtra, one
hundred twenty high caste Brahmin women took part in a meeting on Swadeshi presided
over by Parvati Bapat, where they adopted a resolution to boycott the foreign goods.
Similarly in Punjab, women organized a Ladies Meeting at the Industrial and Agricultural
Exhibition of 1909 where they spoke for promoting Swadeshi at Lahore.

Thus, during the extremist era, the Swadeshi Movement provided a new opportunity to
women outside the elite circle to participate in the national movement. It cannot be
denied that during this phase women moved ahead from their symbolic presence to
substantial presence. Referring to this changing nature of women’s participation, Forbes
has rightly commented:

The activities of these Bengali women sympathetic to the Swadeshi

movement were quite different from their representative roles in the INC.
There the delegates appeared as the equals of men, but their true
significance was symbolic … In the protest movement against the partition
of Bengal, women did not do the same things as men. Instead they used
their traditional roles to mark a range of political activities. While the
public and the private continued to exist as distinct categories, usual
definitions of appropriate in each sphere were redefined and given
political meaning. [Forbes, 1998]

Even the wives of Governor Generals and British administrators also contributed in the
emancipation of women during those days like lady Dufferin, lady Curzon, lady Harding.
Lady Dufferin founded a national organization with its regional offices in order to
provide medical help to women. Later in 1914, this organization gave way to formation
of Indian Woman Medical services. Similarly, lady Curzon, in order to give training to
maids established Victoria Memorial scholarship fund in 1903. In 1916, it was the efforts
of lady Harding which were culminated into the formation of Lady Harding Medical
College in Delhi to provide medical education to women.

Anjuman-e-khawateen-e-Islam, a Punjab-based Muslim women organization was

formed in 1914. It’s founder member was Amir-u-Nisha. In 1914 Annie Wood Besant’s
influence increased in the Congress. Under her mediation the door of Congress was
opened for the Extremists in 1915 resulted into famous Lucknow Session of 1916. Annie
Besant also advocated emancipation of Indian women. In fact, many Indian women
joined her Home Rule Movement. According to her, the Home Rule Movement was
rendered tenfold more effective by the involvement of large number of women, who
brought to it the uncalculating heroism, the endurance, and the self sacrifice of the
feminine nature (Meera Desai, p. 135). She became the first chairperson of the Women’s
Indian Association formed in the year 1917. It was the first national women’s
organization founders of which were Margret Kugins and Dorothy Jinarajadasa. These
along with Malati Patwardhan, Ammi Swaminathan, Mrs. Dadabhai and Mrs. Angujmal
were its secretaries. The organization had its monthly magazine called Stri Dharma. Its
main works were to build up education, religion, politics and equity bases society. W.I.A.
joined itself with self respect movement in Madras. Dorothy De La Hey helped in
establishing Madras’s first Women’s College known as Queens Mary College. It was
opened by government in 1914 as the Madras College for Women. But in 1917 it was
renamed Queen Mary College after the Queen Empress. It was the third oldest Women’s
college in the country, the second oldest in the south and the oldest in Madras city. Under
Dorothy De La Hey the college was not only to play a major role in the emancipation of
woman in the south but also encouraged many of its brighter students to join its neighbor,
Presidency College, for higher studies. Another forerunner of women’s participation in
the National Movement was Sarojini Naidu. She worked as an active politician and
freedom fighter. In 1917, she led the delegation to meet Mr. Montagu for women’s
suffrage and played a major role in decision making in whole of the National movement.

It is thus significant to underline here that the extremist phase resulted into double
advantage for women. One, increase in participation of ordinary women in Swadeshi
movement; the other, substantial role of women in INC in place of mere symbolic role .It
was the extremist period which provided army of trained female volunteers to Gandhi to
launch national movements like NCM ,CDM, QIM .Thus, one can unequivocally claim
that there was a major shift in the nature of women’s participation in the national
movement during the extremist phase.

1.3 Summary

 The lives and conditions of the large majority of women, or their response to
changing historical forces have consistently been unexplored and thus
marginalised in history.
 The issues of child marriage, Sati, denial of remarriage to widow, widow tonsure,
polygamy and restrictions on women’s education dominated during extremist
phase of national movement.

 Women who participated in the extremist era of national movement revolted

against their traditional roles and thus exhibited their radical approach.

 Extremist Movement expended the base of national movement and to some extent
enlarged the scope for women’s participation.

 A large number of women took part in the Swadeshi Movement especially in

Bengal.
 References

 Aparna Basu, 'The Role of Women in the Indian Struggle for Freedom", in

B.P. Nanda (ed.). Indian Women: From Purdah to Modernity, Delhi, Nehru

Memorial Museum and Library (NMML) and Vikas/Radiant Publishers,

1976/1990.
 Charles H. Heimsath, Indian Nationalism and Hindu Social Reform, Princeton,
NJ Princeton University Press, 1964.

 Geraldine Forbes, Women in Modern India, Cambridge, Cambridge University

Press, 1889.

 Jana Matson Everett, Women and Social Change in India, New Delhi, Heritage
Publishers, 1995.

 Kumar, Raj Rameshwari Devi and Romila Pruthi. Annie Besant: Founder of
Home Rule Movement, Pointer Publishers, 2003.

 Manmohan Kaur, Women in India's Freedom Struggle, Delhi, Sterling Publishers,

1985.

 Radha Krishna Sharma, Nationalism, Social Reform and Indian Women, New
Delhi Janaki Prakashan, 1981.

 Radha Kumar, History of Doing, New Delhi, Zubaan, 1993.

 Sandip Bandopadhyay, "Women in Bengal Revolutionary Movement", Manushi,

No. 65, July-August, 1991.

 Susie Tharu and K. Lalitha, (ed.), Women Writings in India, Vol. I, New York,
The Feminist Press, 1991.

 Usha Bala, Indian Women and Social Change in India, New Delhi, Heritage
Publishers, 1995.

Learn More
GLOSSARY

 Extremist Movement: The period of time when voices of dissents emerged

within INC against ideologies and methods of moderates was known as the era of
extremism in the Indian National Movement. The extremists or the aggressive
nationalists believed that success could be achieved through bold means. The
Extremists had no faith in the British sense of justice and fair play. They pointed
 out the forceful means by which the British had taken control of India and
believed that political rights will have to be fought for. They had the spirit of self-
reliance and self determination. The methods used by the extremists were not
cooperating with the British Government by boycotting government courts,
schools and colleges, promotion of Swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods,
introduction and promotion of national education.

 National Movement: The period of time i.e. 1885-1847 is known as the Indian
National Movement which is divided into three phases: Moderate, Extremist and
Gandhian era.

INTERESTING FACTS

 In Bengal, Swarnakumari Devi's Sakhi Samiti (1886), a women's association,

was concerned with traditional women's handicrafts.

 Annie Wood Besant founded the Theosophical Society of India. She was the
President (First Woman President) of Indian National Congress for one term at
Calcutta in 1917. She also edited ‘New India’ and ‘Commonwealth’.

 Sarojini Naidu was known as “Cuckoo of India”. She was a distinguished poet;
renowned freedom fighter. Her father was principal in Nizam College.

 Sarla Debi Chaudhurani together with her husband Rambhuj Dutt Chaudhari (an
Arya Samaji leader) founded‘Hindu Sahayak Sabha’ in Lahore in 1906. Later
branches of this Sabha were founded inMultan, Jhang, Sialkot, Lyallpur and
Gujranwala.

DID YOU KNOW?

 Most of the accounts of women's role in the national movement are descriptive
not critical or analytical.
 Apart from a few autobiographies of women leaders, mostly from elite groups, we
know little about the lives, the beliefs or the social background of the mass of
women who entered the movement in the different regions, as virtually no work
has been done in this area, except in the last few years.
 Analysis of the records of women's organisations has already yielded valuable
insights into the extremist phase of national movement. Rewarding sources such
as the journals of women's organisations which were mouthpieces and/or forums
in which debates on women's issues were conducted; women's autobiographies:
collections of speeches and essays by women leaders (e.g. Besant, Naidu,
Cousins); regional literature, reflecting variations in social perception and the
response of specific societies and communities to the movements; proceedings of
 local women's associations etc. certainly need further analysis for understanding
role of women in national movement.

 Sarla Devi Chaudhurani was the founder of the first women organization
in India, the Bharat Stree Mahamandal in Allahabad in 1910. The organization
opened several offices
in Lahore,Allahabad, Delhi, Karachi, Amritsar ,Hyderabad,
Kanpur, Bankura, Hazaribagh, Midnapur and Kolkata to improve the situation of
women all over India. In 1904 she opened a swadeshi shop called Lakkhir
Bhandar. For her efforts in promoting swadeshi trade, the Indian National
Congress gave her a gold medal.

WEBLINKS

 www.womensweb.in

 www.britannica.com/.../Indian-National...

 www.historydiscussion.net/...india/extre..

 www.cwds.ac.in/.../womenandindiannat..

 https://archive.org/.../panditaramabaisa

 www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/..

 odisha.gov.in/e-magazine/... /74-76.pdf