THE GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION

Religion- it source of identity and pride of many people. CONCEPT

Globalization provided religions a fertile milieu to spread and Managed Globalization- refers to “all attempts to make
thrive. globalization more palatable to citizens.
As Scholte (2005) made clear: “Accelerated globalization of According to this regionalization and the development of
recent times has enabled co-religionist across the planet to interregionalism would indeed be global in nature. As held et
have a greater direct contact with one another. Global al. (2005) claimed “the new regionalism is not a barrier to
communications, global organizations, global finance, and the political globalization on the contrary, entirely compatible
universal Christian church to be given concrete shape as never with it-if not an indirect encouragement. Globalization “goes
before. back when first put a boat into the sea” (Sweeney, 2005). We
Important means of dissemination of religious ideas can understand globalization as “the increased flows of goods,
A. - Information technologies services, capita, people and information across boarders
B. - Modern transportation (Jacoby and Meunier, 2010)
C. - Mass media CONCEPTS
a.) Information Technologies Region- (Mansfield and Milner 1999)- it is a group of
- this makes pieces of information and explanations about the countries in the same geographically specified area.
different religious ready at the disposal of any person Regionalization- (Hurrell (2007)- it is the societal integration
regardless of his or her geographical location. and often undirect process of social and economic interaction.
b.) Modern Transportation Regionalism- (Ravenhill, 2008- it is the formal process of
- it has helped religious of different forms to cross intergovernmental collaboration between two or more states.
geographical boundaries and be present everywhere.
c.) Mass Media The motivation for the recent regionalization in Asia, as well
- it allows for connections among people, communities, and as other regions in the world, cannot be isolated from one
countries all over the globe. another. It is a complex mixture of factors. One of the reasons
behind regionalism is the concern of security, which is to
Globalization has also allowed religion or faith to gain ensure peace and stability.
considerable significance and importance as a non-territorial
touchstone of identity. Being the source of identity and pride,
religion has always been promoted by its practitioners so that HIGHLIGHT SUMMARY
it could reach the level of globality and be embraced by as Religion- it is a source of identity and pride of many people.
many people as possible. Important means of dissemination of religious ideas
A. Information technologies- this makes pieces of
Though religion is strengthened and fortified by globalization, information and explanations about the different religious
it represents a challenge to globalization’s hybridizing effects. ready at the disposal of any person regardless of his or her
Religion seeks to assert its identity in the light of geographical location.
globalization. As a result, different religious identities come to B. Modern transportation- it has helped religious of
the fore and assert themselves. Such assertions of religious different forms to cross geographical boundaries and be
identities constitute a defensive reaction to globalization. present everywhere.
C. Media- allows for connections among people,
The challenges of globalization to religion link automatically communities, and countries all over the globe.
to the challenges of religion of globalization. In other words, Globalization and Regionalization
while religion takes caution against the norms and the values Managed Globalization- refers to “all attempts to make
related to globalization, it challenges the latter since religion globalization more palatable to citizens.
does not approve its hybridizing effects. Definition of Terms:
Region= (Mansfield and Milner (1999)- it is a group of
GLOBALIZATION and REGIONALIZATION countries in the same geographically specified area.
Regionalization= (Hurrell (2007)- it is the societal integration
The regionalization of the world system and economic activity and often undirected process of social and economic
undermines the potential benef ts coming out from a interaction.
liberalized global economy. This is because regional Regionalism= (Ravenhill 2008)- it is the formal process of
organizations prefer regional partners over the rest. Regional intergovernmental collaboration between two or more states.
organizations respond to the states' attempt to reduce the
perceived negative effects of globalization. Therefore,
regionalism is a sort of counter-globalization.
In a 2007 survey, the Financial Times revealed that majority
of Europeans consider that globalization brings negative
effects to their societies. Many policy makers and scholars
think that globalization must be regulated and managed. The
threats of an "ungoverned globalization" can be encountered
what Jacoby and Meunier called managed globalization.
ORIGINS and HISTORY of GLOBALIZATION
The previous discussions answered the questions "What is d. Events
globalization?" the next question "where did it start?" it is not Specific events are also considered as part of the forth view in
easy to answer as well because there are different views about explaining the origin of globalization. If this is the case, then
this. This book generally adheres to the perspective that the several points can be treated as the start of globalization.
major points of the beginning of globalization started after the Gibbon (1998), for example, argued that the roman conquest
Second World War. Nevertheless, it would mean no harm to centuries before Christ were its origin. In an issue of the
look at the five different perspectives regarding the origins of magazine the Economist (2006, January 12), it is considered
globalization. the rampage of the armies of the Genghis Khan into Eastern
This question is probably an easy one to answer. However, Europe in the 13th century.
many scholars gave and tried to formulate its definitions. This
resulted in different, sometimes contradicting views about Example:
concept. It cannot be contained within a specific time frame, Christopher Columbus discovered the America in 1942
all people, and all situations. Vasco de Gama= discovered Cape of Good
Views on Origins and History of Globalization Hope 1498 Ferdinand Magellan= Completed the
a. Hardwired circumnavigation of the globe in 1522.
b. Cycles
c. Epoch e. Broader, more Recent Changes Three notable changes
d. Events 1. The emergence of the United States as the global power
e. Broader, more Recent Changes post-World War II)
2. The emergence of multinational corporations (MNCs)
a. Hardwired 3. The demise of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold
According to Nayan Chanda, it is because of our basic human War
need to make our lives better that made globalization possible.
Three notable changes
Urges of People Toward a Better Life (Nayan Chanda) 1. The emergence of the United States as the global power
a. Commerce post- World War II)
b. Religion Through its dominant military and economic power after
c. Politics WWII, the United States was able to outrun Germany and
d. Warfare Japan in terms of industry. Both Axis powers and allies fall
behind economically as compared to the new global power.
Four Aspects of Globalization Because of this, United States soon began to progress in
a. Trade different aspects like in diplomacy, media, film, and many
b. Missionary work more.
c. Adventures
d. Conquest 2. The emergence of multinational corporations (MNCs)
Before MNCs came into being, their roots were from their
b. Cycles countries origin during the 18th to early 19th centuries. The
For some, globalization is a long-term cyclical process and United states, Germany, Great Britain had in their homeland
thus, finding its origin will be a daunting task. What is great corporations which the world knows today.
important is the cycles that globalization has gone through.
Subscribing to this view will suggest adherence to the idea 3. The demise of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold
that other global ages have appeared. There is also the notion War
to suspect that this point of globalization will soon disappear More recent than the first two would be the fall of Soviet
and reappear. Union in 1991. This event led to the opening of the major
parts of the world for the first time since the early 20th
c. Epoch century. Many global processes immigration, tourism, media,
Today's globalization s not unique if this is the case. The diplomacy, and MNCs - spread throughout the [planet. This
difference of this view from the second view (cycles) is that it paved way for the so-called "free" world. China, even though
does not treat epochs as returning. the government remains communist, is on its way to
becoming a major force in global capitalism. Moreover, China
Six Great Epochs of Globalization is also globalizing in terms of other aspects such as their
a. Globalization of Religion hosting the Olympics in 2008.
b. European colonial conquests
c. Intra-European Wars
d. Heyday of European Imperialism
e. Post - World War II period
f. Post - Cold War period
Lesson 2: The Self, Society and Culture
INTRODUCTION Self in Families
The family is the most prominent institution of the society.
Throughout history, the concept of the self has been a topic of Factors that will affect a person.
intense debate and discussion. With the emergence of social 1. The kind of family
sciences, new paradigms have shifted the focus from 2. The availability of resources
speculative debates about the relationship between the body 3. The kind of development that one will have
and soul (or mind) to exploring the self's interaction with the
external world. Gender and the Self
 Gender as a social construct, is subject to alteration,
The story of Tarzan, who grew up isolated from human change, and development.
society, serves as an example of how external influences  Gender forms a part of selfhood therefore one must
shape identity. Tarzan’s development, influenced solely by his be given the freedom to find, express, and live his
interactions with animals, underscores the idea that human identity.
growth and identity are deeply rooted in social and
environmental contexts.

This challenges the notion of humans being inherently special

due to a soul, instead, it suggests that our identity is largely a
product of our interactions with the world around us.

What is the Self?

5 Characteristics of the Self
1. Separate
2. Self-contained and independent
3. Consistent
4. Unitary
5. Private

Social Constructivist’s View of the Self

The Self is:
 Not a static entity
 In constant struggle with the external reality
 Is malleable or subject to influence
 In participation with social life,
 Is multifaceted

The Self and Culture

According to Marcel Mauss:
Two faces of the Self
Moi – a person’s basic identity
Personne – involves social concepts of what it means to live
in a particular institution, religion, nationality, etc.

The Self and the Development of the Social World

As men and women grow and develop, they are active

participation in the shaping of their self.
Language as both publicly shared and privately utilized
symbol system is the site where the individual and the social
make and remake each other.

Mead and Vygotsky on Language and Development

 A man develops with the use of language

acquisition and interaction with others.
 The human mind is something that is made,
constituted through language as experienced in the
external world and as encountered in dialogs with
others.
Mead specifically notes that children develop their sense of
self by assuming the roles of others through language and
role-play.
Vygotsky
A child internalizes real-life dialogs that he has had with
 others and applies this to his mental and practical problems
along with the social and cultural infusions brought by the
said dialogs.

LESSON 3: SELF AS COGNITIVE CONSTRUCT

WILLIAM JAMES  Social interaction and group affiliation are vital
 Father of American Psychology factors in creating our self-concept especially in
 The Self is composed of 2 aspects “I” and “ME” providing us with our social identity.
 There are times that we are aware of our self-
I – the thinking, the acting, and the feeling of self. concepts (such as: traits, behaviors, and feelings),
ME– the physical characteristics and psychological this is called self-awareness.
capabilities that make who you are.
According to Carver and Scheier
Three divisions of “ME” There are 2 types of self that we can be aware of:
1. Private Self- refers to your internal standards and
Material Self- This includes everything a person can call their private thoughts and feelings.
own, such as their body, clothes, family, and home. It’s the 2. Public Self- public image commonly geared towards
tangible aspect of the self. having a good presentation of yourself to others.
Social Self- This refers to how others perceive us. James
believed we have as many social selves as there are Self-awareness also presents us with at least 3 other self-
individuals who recognize us and carry an image of us in their schema:
minds. 1. Actual self – The beliefs about the attributes one has.
Spiritual Self- This encompasses our inner or subjective 2. Ideal self – The beliefs about the attributes one
being, including our thoughts, feelings, and beliefs. would like ideally.
3. Ought self – The beliefs about the attributes one is
CARL ROGERS obligated to have.
 Humanistic Psychologist
 Personality Theory  Our group identity and self-awareness also has a
Identity and Self-Concept great impact on our self-esteem.
Self – is the sense of our personal identity and who we are as  Self-esteem is defined as our own positive or
individuals. negative evaluation or perception of ourselves.
Identity-Composed of personal characteristics, social roles,
and responsibilities, as well as affiliations that define who one LEON FESTINGER
is.  Social Comparison Theory
Self-Concept- Is what basically comes to your mind when 1. Downward Social Comparison- We create a
you are asked about who you are. positive self-concept by comparing ourselves with
Note: Self, identity, and self-concept are not fixed in a one- those who are worse than us.
time frame. 2. Upward Social Comparison- comparing ourselves
Self-Schema- refers to our organized system or collection of with those who are better off than us. (it might be
knowledge about who we are. positive or negative)
-our self is affected and shaped by different factors such as Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory
family, hobbies, religion, and nationality. it states that we can feel threatened when someone
-other factors also include your interests, work, course, age, out-performs us, especially when that person is close to us.
name, and physical characteristics. - We usually react in three ways
First: We distance ourselves or redefine our relationship with
SIGMUND FREUD them.
 Austrian Neurologist Second: We reconsider the importance of the aspect or skill in
 Founder of Psychoanalysis which you were outperformed.
Three Elements of Personality Third: We strengthen our resolve to improve that certain
Id – Pleasure Principle aspect of ourselves.
Ego – Reality Principle
Superego – Moral Principle NARCISSISM
- is a trait characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-
G.H. MEAD admiration, and self-centeredness.
 Theory of Symbolic Interactionism
G.H. Mead argued that the self is created and developed
through human interaction.

There are three reasons why self and identity are social
products.
1. Society helped in creating the foundations of who we
are.
2. We need others to affirm and reinforce who we think
we are.
3. What we think is important to us may also have been
 influenced by what is important to our social and
historical context.

LESSON 4: The Self in Western and Eastern Thought

CONFUCIANISM Self as an Illusion:
Confucianism, also known as Ruism, is a philosophical and Buddhism teaches that the self is an illusion created by
ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius (551–479 ignorance and the desire to control things. This illusion is the
BCE). root cause of all suffering.
Confucianism can be seen as a code of ethical conduct, of
how one should properly act according to their relationship Overcoming Suffering:
with others; thus, it also focuses on having a harmonious life. By letting go of the self, and its cravings, and detaching from
Therefore, the identity and self-concept of the individual are worldly desires, one can overcome suffering and achieve the
interwoven with the identity and status of his or her state of Nirvana.
community or culture, sharing its pride and failures.
Self-cultivation and the concept of Chun Tzu are closely Summary:
intertwined, forming the core of Confucian ethical and  Confucianism and Taoism: Both philosophies
philosophical thought. situate the self within a larger context, emphasizing
that one should strive to be a better person for the
Self-Cultivation benefit of the community and in harmony with
Self-cultivation in Confucianism is the process of improving everything else.
oneself morally and intellectually. It involves continuous  Buddhism: Takes a different approach by removing
learning, reflection, and practice of virtues. the self, along with its connections and selfish ideas,
The cultivated self in Confucianism is what some scholars call from the center of attention entirely.
the “subdued self” wherein personal needs are repressed for
the good of many. The Distinction between Western Culture and Eastern
Culture
Examples of Virtues
 Ren (benevolence): Developing compassion and Western Culture
empathy towards others. Western culture is what we would call an individualistic
 Li (ritual propriety): Observing proper conduct and culture since its focus is on the person.
rituals to maintain social harmony.
 Yi (righteousness): Acting with integrity and justice. Examples:
 Zhi (wisdom): Gaining knowledge and  Americans talk more about their attributes when
understanding to make sound judgments. describing their self.
 Westerners may seem to have loose associations or
Becoming a Chun Tzu even loyalty in their group.
Chun Tzu was referred to as a man of virtue or  Competition is the name of the game.
noble character. - promotes fairness
 Straightforward in their communication and
TAOISM decision-making.
Taoism (also spelled Daoism) is a religion and
a philosophy from ancient China that has influenced folk and Eastern Culture
national beliefs. Taoism has been connected to the philosopher Asian culture is called collectivist culture as group and social
Lao Tzu, who, around 500 B.C.E. relations are more important than individual needs and wants.
In Taoism, “Tao” (also spelled “Dao”) is a fundamental
concept that represents the ultimate principle underlying the Examples:
universe. The term “Tao” translates to “the Way” or “the Path”  Eastern persons look after the welfare of their groups
and signifies the natural order and flow of the cosmos. and value cooperation.
Taoism rejects the hierarchical and strict nature of  Easterners are more compromising and tend to go
Confucianism, advocating for a simple lifestyle. around the bush when explaining things.
 Asians put more emphasis on hierarchy as the culture
Self in Taoism: wants to keep things in harmony and order.
The self is seen as part of the universe and a manifestation of
the “Tao”. The ideal self is selfless, living a balanced life with
society and nature, open to change, and free from prejudices
and egocentric ideas. This leads to spontaneous actions in
harmony with everything.

BUDDHISM
Buddhism originated in the 5th or 6th century BCE in what is
now modern-day India. It was founded by Siddhartha
Gautama, who later became known as the Buddha, meaning
“the Enlightened One.”
 IDEOLOGY AND CULTURAL PRACTICES
Objectives:
1. Know the ideology and cultural practices of gender and sex in the society
2. Define: Ideology
3. Understand the historical review of the production of the sexist ideology
4. Enumerates the mechanism and Production
5. Appreciate and understand the lesson from the chapter.
Topic 1- Introduction
In most society, news of pregnancy is often greeted with joy and celebration. Aside from the prospect
of increasing one kin, a women’s pregnancy is also taken as proof of a man’s virility and a reminder of a
woman reproductive role in society.
To determine the sex of the child she is carrying.
There’s a called a “Common Sense” to explain that baby boys kick harder while baby girl makes their
mother bloom.
In our daily lives, we take for granted such commonsensical explanations of reality and uncritically pass on
these beliefs as natural and therefore valid.
The study of gender ideologies is concerned with describing and explaining cross-cultural similarities and
differences in human views on women, men, and alternative gender identities. How we're expected to act,
speak, dress, groom, and conduct ourselves based upon our assigned sex.
The use of the term "ideology" reflects two aspects of research on this topic:
An ideology is a set of ideas, beliefs and attitudes, consciously or unconsciously held which reflects or
shapes understandings or misconceptions of the social and political world.
a) its roots in the feminist position that women are conceptualized as inferior to men to justify and
sustain social and cultural systems dominated by men; and
b) the culturally constructed (as opposed to 'natural') nature of gender. Key foci in this predominantly,
but not exclusively,
Anthropological area of research include:
(the study of human beings and their ancestors through time and space and in relation to physical character,
environmental and social relations, and culture)
a) the ideological gendering of private vs. public social domains.
b) the extent to which a nature-culture distinction organizes gender ideologies about women and men,
c) the nature of intra-societal organization of diversity in gender ideologies;
d) the ideological gendering of colonialism, nationalism, and international relations:
e) dialogue between "third world" and "first world" feminists on the universality vs. ethnocentrism of
first world feminists' supposed claims that women are universally ideologically subordinated to men;
and
f) theoretical and political debate over the appropriateness of binary as opposed to nonbinary concepts
of gender, with the latter providing more conceptual room for attention to alternative sexual identities
and social change in gender identities.
 PERSPECTIVE ON IDEOLOGY
 Where does ideology come from?
 What is ideology?
- An ideology is a reasonably coherent structure of thought shared by a group of people. It is a means of
explaining how society works and explaining how it ought to work. (Dobson, 1992)
- Some uses of the term see ideology as something negative, implying a distorted view of reality e.g. capitalist
ideology, and patriarchal ideology.
- Essentially an ideology is a belief or set of thoughts that guides people and/or groups.
 What are humans like and why do they act the way they do?
 What is the nature of society?
 What is the role of the individual in society?

 Advantage of Ideology
 Provides a sense of identity and belonging
 Promotes social change
 Offers a framework for understanding complex issues
 Disadvantage of Ideology
 Limited solutions
 Can lead to prejudice and discrimination
 Can lead to conflict and violence

Examples of Ideology
1. Political Ideology
- Liberalism - Communism
- Conservatism - Anarchism
- Socialism - Fascism
2. Social and Cultural Ideology
- Environmentalism - Multiculturalism
- Feminism - Humanism
- Individualism
3. Economic Ideology
- Capitalism - Globalism
- Socialism - Libertarianism

Sexist Ideology

 Is a social structure constituted by ritualized social practices, governed and made intelligible by a
coherent cultural framework that organizes us into binary gender relations of domination and
subordination.
 Sexism may be defined as an ideology based on the belief that one sex is superior to another. It is
discrimination, prejudice or stereotyping based on gender and most often expressed toward
women. Sociology has examined sexism as manifesting at both sexism at both the individual and the
institutional level.
Sexism is the use of language to discriminate against women and to belittle and trivialized those activities
associated with women. Sexism is defined as “the practices whereby someone foregrounds gender when
it is not the most salient feature”. It just like racism and other discriminatory forms of language, stems
from larger societal forces, wider institutionalized inequalities of power and conflict over who has rights to
certain positions and resources.
HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE PRODUCTION OF A SEXIST IDEOLOGY

It has been difficult to prove inequality or equality during pre-colonial as we have to rely on the
Spanish chroniclers for their description of what Filipino society was during that period.
Feminists have also pointed out that since all of the Spanish chroniclers were men, there is the male.
bias as well. For instance, Miguel Lopez de Loarca, a Spanish ethnographer had the following to say about
the women of the Pintados Islands (of the Philippines):
"The women are beautiful but unchaste. They do not receive punishment for it. They are well and
modestly dressed, in that they cover their private parts. The women are extremely lewd, and they even
encourage their own daughters to a lite of unchastity.
Another example of cultural differences is the story of human creation. Different Filipino tribes had
their own legends to account for the creation of woman and man. One of the more popular of these legends
is the story of how Malakas (Strong) and Maganda (Beautiful) came out together from a bamboo tree.
Unlike the biblical version of Adam and Eve.
The Philippine legend shows the equality of man and woman as they came out at the same time,
Nonetheless, it prescribes characteristics men and women must have. Ex. Men are strong while women are
beautiful.
The coming of the Spanish colonizers and the Catholic priests slowly undermined local legends and
propagated in their place the biblical version of creation. All though the Spanish period, the Catholic
Church, together with the Spanish Colonizers, introduces tales and wove stories of the role of women in
society.
The ideology of Mary not only shaped the consciousness of the Filipino women during the Spanish
period but also continued to affect the thinking of present-day women.

Embedded in this ideology are the three characteristics of ideal woman namely:
1. one has to be a virgin until one marries:
2. one has to bear children upon marriage; and
3. one has too withstood all the hardships in life and learn to sacrifice for children and husband.

Filipino literature during this colonial period depicts the value placed on virginity:
"...the most precious treasure of the Tagalog maidens is their honor... young women are like flowers;
they can with their fragrance be plucked only once.

The changing of our colonial masters brought on a new element in Philippine society. Where Spanish
colonizers refused to introduce education for the lower classes, the "benevolent."

Americans democratized education. As far as the Americans were concerned, it was easier to rule an
"educated people who were captivated by the wonders and difference of American democracy a and smitten
by such demonstration of benevolence.
The liberal tendency of the Americans paved the way for an improvement in women's status, More
women were going to school and in terms of political rights, they were eventually allowed to vote. But this
did not alter the ideology of domesticity.
It is quite clear that Spanish and American colonization were crucial contributors to the production of
sexist ideology. A colonized past is therefore an important part of the explanation of the creation and
dissemination of sexist ideology.
TOPIC 4: MECHANISM OF REPRODUCTION

There are different ways by which women are made to believe and live out their subordination. An
examination of such mechanisms is necessary to help us thoroughly understand the perpetuation of women's
subordination. Family, Schools, Mass Media, Church

1. FAMILY-the primary socialization agent. The first unit from whom the child gets important lesson in
social behavior. Aside from a whole meaning system attached to colors and decorations (pink-girl/boy-blue).
Girls behave or cry while it is but natural for boys to be brave and to rough it up.

2. SCHOOLS-were tasked with education and imparting to children the important knowledge that will
necessary for their future. It plays a complimentary and reinforcing role in the dissemination of values that
were considered necessary and important in society.

3. MASS MEDIA-broadcast and print media are more influential in shaping the minds of people. since
mass media has a broader reach, it is considered to be more crucial.

In the guise of selling products, advertisements actually reinforce existing beliefs. What are the
images of women in advertisements? FOUR CAN BE IDENTIFIED:
1. The housewife- she has to buy products to lighten her burden;
2. the loving mother and wife- always serving and thinking of her husband and children's needs;
3, the beautiful woman- she has to attract the attention of men or hold her husband's attention
through the use of this or that product, and
4. woman as sex object- where the woman's body is used as a come-on for men to buy products

4. CHURCH - was responsible for propagating early sexist Ideas. However, compared to the messages of
women as sex symbols in mass media, the Church takes on a puritanical stance.
THE SOCIAL FRAMEWORK AND WOMEN’S STATUS

Explores how the social framework, including social structures, cultural norms, and value systems,
influences the roles, expectations, and opportunities available to women in society.

Social Structures as Determinants of Women's Roles:

Comprised of social structures, cultural norms, and values, significantly shapes women's roles and
societal position, impacting gendered expectations and inequalities.

Influence of Social Traditions:

Deeply rooted in cultural practices and beliefs, social traditions wield substantial influence over
attitudes and behaviors in human groups, perpetuating power imbalances, reinforcing gender stereotypes,
and restricting women's access to opportunities and agency.

The Impact of Religion:

A potent influence in numerous societies, frequently molds and upholds specific perceptions of
women by impacting gender roles, expectations, and opportunities in areas such as education, employment,
and leadership positions.

The Role of Descent and Kinship Systems:

Descent and kinship systems, dictating family structures and inheritance norms, have a profound
effect on women's status; matrilineal systems can empower women, whereas patrilineal systems may restrict
their inheritance rights and social standing.

Marriage and Family Organizations:

Marriage and family structures, essential components of society, wield considerable influence over
women's lives, with traditional practices like dowry systems and arranged marriages perpetuating gender
disparities and constraining women's autonomy.

Constraints Arising from Gendered Division:

Gender-based division of labor, shaped by stereotypes, limits women's opportunities as they are
commonly confined to domestic duties, while men predominantly occupy roles in the public sphere of work
and leadership.

Seclusion and Segregation:

Practices such as seclusion and segregation of women, often rooted in cultural norms and religious
beliefs, can restrict women's mobility, access to education, and participation in public life.

Challenges of Social Change:

Social change poses challenges for women as it challenges traditional norms and structures, offering
opportunities for increased equality but also sparking resistance and conflict as entrenched power dynamics
are disrupted.

Ancient Economic Ideas

Ancient economic ideas were based on the Holy Thomas Mun
Scriptures and codes of laws. Such ideas centered on the ways  He provided ways of achieving favorable foreign
of making a living. The Bible and the Holy Men regulated trade.
economic practices and relationships.  He contributed to the idea of the balance of
payments.
Plato (Greek philosopher).  Foreign trade is favorable if exports are greater than
 Agriculture is very important, and he was in favor of imports.
specialization of production.
 An ideal state is where-the members are to be Physiocracy Rule of Nature
educated from childhood for their responsibility, and The Enlightenment in England and France greatly stimulated
they are to be chosen through competitive thinkers and philosophers to question the old doctrines and
examination. (The Republic) thoughts.
Philosophers claimed that people are poor because they
Aristotle (Greek philosopher) violated the laws of nature.
 He highlighted the value of management of
agriculture. Wealth came from the land
 Aristotle claimed that communal property is not In France, the first modern school of thinkers to call
feasible and that it destroys individual incentives. themselves economists emerged. They subscribed to the
concept of natural law as both basic and benevolent.
Xenophon
 He was in favor of capitalism. Physiocracy
 He proposed that the government should promote  Which means the rule of nature.
trade and shipping.  They stressed the importance of agriculture because
 He also encouraged the formation of more silver they claimed all wealth came from the land.
mining companies to increase general wealth  People could not exist without food and natural
 He was in favor of joint-stock companies, resources.
specialization, and division of labor.  The farmers therefore are the real producers.
 The farmers are the backbone of the whole national
Medieval Economic Thoughts economy
 Feudalism reached its peak during the Middle Ages
in Europe. Physiocrats
 Agriculture was the source of livelihood. The ideas of the Physiocrats were against those of the
 With the rebirth of trade and commerce in the Mercantilists considering money as the real wealth.
Mediterranean region, and its rapid subsequent They believed the real wealth of any nation is the products of
growth, the merchant class became wealthy and agriculture and not money in the form of gold and silver.
powerful.
 Guilds also funded the construction of public works, Laissez Faire Theory
and the splendid churches and cathedrals of  Laissez faire is a French term, and it was introduced
Medieval Europe. by the Physiocrats.
 During the later part of the medieval period, the  It connotes non-interference, liberty or freedom.
church became very powerful.  In economics, it means the government should not
intervene in economic affairs. Just let the forces of
St. Thomas Aquinas the market interact with one another.
He preached distributive justice and compensatory justice.
Distributive Justice - refers to fair distribution of goods If such economic freedoms are allowed to take their own
among the members of society. course, they believed businessmen, consumers, and the whole
Compensatory Justice - means just wage and price society would be better-off. Such theory was developed
further by the classical economists under the leadership of
The Economic Doctrine of Mercantilism Adam Smith, a Scotsman.
Economic ideas then were focused on the vital role of the
state in economic development.

Machiavelli, Bodin, and Serra

They influenced much of the growth of capitalism. They
claimed that it is the duty of the state to create and accumulate
wealth.

Serra
  He claimed that manufactured products could be sold
readily abroad rather than agricultural products.

DIFFERENT THEORIES
1. LAISSEZ FAIRE THEORY  He argued that a free market system is more
2. THE CLASSICAL THEORY beneficial for individuals and society than a
3. PRODUCTION IS THE REAL WEALTH government-controlled economy, such as
4. THEORY ON POPULATION mercantilism.
5. THE THEORY OF COMPARATIVE  This theory remains a key debate among
economist and political leaders, with some
Exploring LAISSEZ FAIRE THEORY favoring free enterprise and others
 Laissez faire is a French term introduced by supporting government intervention.
Physiocrats.  Smith’s ideas influenced not only thinkers
 It means non-interference, liberty, or in his country but also internationally,
freedom in economic affairs. including:
 The government should not intervene in the  Thomas Malthus, known for his population
economy, allowing market forces to operate theory.
naturally.  David Recardo, who developed the law of
 Physiocrats believed this approach would comparative advantage.
benefit both individuals and society.  Karl Marx, who drew from Smith’s
 They rejected government grants and writings.
subsidies to industries, viewing them as
corruption and favoritism. Exploring PRODUCTION IS THE REAL
 Quesnay, leader oh the Physiocrats, argued WEALTH
that prices of manufactured goods should  Adam Smith explained in his book how a
reflect labor costs. nation’s wealth is increased and distributed.
 Market prices should be based on the cost of  He believed the only source of wealth is
labor, not subsidies. production through labor and resources.
 Individuals should be free to pursue their  Wealth can be increased through the
own economic interest and choose their division of labor and the use of machinery.
occupations.  Improvements in transportation promote the
 Government should neither help nor hinder growth of commerce and industry.
individuals in their economic pursuits.  Smith outlined conditions for increasing
 The Physiocrats believed this system national wealth, including market size, labor
followed the natural laws and would benefit efficiency, and total population.
everyone.  Individual welfare depends on the ratio of
 The theory was later developed by classical total production to total population.
economist, including Adam Smith  In a free market, Smith claimed production
would be most efficient, with the best
Exploring THE CLASSICAL THEORY produces surviving through competition,
 Adam Smith is the real founder of the offering consumers better quality and lower
classical school of economics. prices.
 He was well-educated and associated with  Free competition also applies to wages and
intellectual elites like Quesnay and interest rates, determined by supply and
Rousseau. demand.
 Smith lived during the early Industrial  Smith focused on industrial production as
Revolution. the source of wealth, as it was more relevant
 In 1776, he published “Wealth of Nations”, to his time, while agriculture was less
explaining how national wealth is created emphasized.
and distributed.  He differed from earlier thinkers who
 Wealth of nations became a foundation text prioritized agricultural development.
in economics, often referred to as the “bible  Smith advocated for free competition but
of economics”. made some exceptions, such as promoting
  Smith, influenced by Physiocrats, believed shipping and supporting tariffs for equal
in the benefits of free competition. competition.
 He believed the government’s role should be
limited to defense, justice, education, public
works, and protecting foreign trade.

 Smith also acknowledged government’s role Exploring THE THEORY OF COMPARATIVE

in public finance, and his principles laid the ADVANTAGE
foundation for taxation policies.  David Recardo, a classical economist
developed the theory of comparative
Exploring THEORY ON POPULATION advantage.
 The industrial Revolution began in the late  The theory suggests that nations should
1700’s in a laissez-faire environment. export goods they produced most efficiently
 Adam Smith did not witness the full results and import goods that are more costly for
of the Industrial Revolution when he them to produced.
explained the benefits of free competition.  Ricardo used two-country, two-product
 Instead of benefiting individuals and example to explain the theory:
society, powerful capitalist emerged and  Japan has a comparative advantage in
exploited workers. producing calculators.
 The rural flannel weaving industry  The Philippines has a comparative
collapsed due to the more efficient factory advantage in producing rice.
system.  According to the theory, Japan should
 Many rural people moved to urban areas produce calculators and import rice, while
seeking jobs, causing social and economic the Philippines should focus on rice
problems. production and import calculators.
 Capitalists paid very low wages and forced  Comparative advantage is based on the
workers to work up to 17 hours, while the lesser time (hours or days) required to
government did nothing to help. produce a product.
 Poverty and squalor became widespread  Classical economists like Ricardo equated
among workers. the value of a product with the labor cost
 Thomas Malthus, a religious minister, saw involved in its production.
population growth and human misery,  Products that take more time to produce
claiming population explosion was the root have a higher price than those produced in
cause of society’s problems. less time.
 Malthus argued that population growth  The theory is applied in international trade,
outpaced food production, leading to where agricultural countries export raw
societal problems. materials and import finished products from
 He proposed late marriages and abstinence industrial countries.
to control population growth, which became  A problem arises because raw materials and
the Malthusian theory. agricultural products are priced low in
 Malthus’s dismal predictions did not occur global markets, while finished products are
in developed countries, where economic priced high.
growth and modern technology-controlled  Industrial countries control global markets
birth rates and increased food supply. and manipulate prices, often to the
 Less developed countries continue to face disadvantage of less developed,
the Malthusian problem with high birth agriculturally-based economies.
rates and low food productivity, leading to
hunger and malnutrition.
THEORY OF KARL MARX
- Karl Heinrich Marx, a renowned philosopher and - growth. Profit motives encourage private business
economist, was born in Trier in 1818 and died in participation, while Russian agriculture struggles due
1883. He is known for creating Marxism and to its economic system.
promoting class struggle. Marx's Communist
Manifesto emphasized historical materialism, the - Karl Marx's ideas significantly impacted the working
importance of production, and the economic basis of class's welfare, leading to increased unionization and
society. improved management policies. However, capitalists
- Marx's theory of class struggle leads to a bourgeoisie still exploit workers in less developed countries,
revolution, where the bourgeoisie wins and a non- particularly in less developed regions with over-
class society spreads. This process is a final step in supply and widespread poverty. Agricultural workers
historical transformation, with Marx's development face worse working conditions, particularly casuals.
of modern socialism and communism, as well as the
creation of Marxism. Promotion of Human Values

Theory of Karl Marx (Marxism) - Jean Sismondi, an Italian writer, disagreed with
Adam Smith's laissez faire theory, focusing on
- The economic ideas of Karl Marx were basically human welfare rather than material wealth. He
derived from the classical economists. He only rejected the laissez faire theory and argued that the
qualified his theory of value by emphasizing that state should intervene to prevent the unfair
labor must be socially necessary. distribution of wealth from unrestrained capitalism.
- Marx maintained that the workers are the real Sismondi's economic ideas were influenced by his
producers of goods. And yet, he claimed the benefits objections to capitalism and his outrage at the misery
of production go to the capitalists and not to the caused by the existing system.
workers. - Friedrich List, a German economist, argued that
- Using the process of "dialectics" of Hegel, Marx economic development is not about wealth
stated that there is a class conflict between the accumulation but about the development of
workers and the capitalists. He said that the workers productive forces such as natural resources, science,
constitute the "thesis" which is the positive, and the arts, government laws, education, peace, order,
capitalists the "antithesis" which is the negative. morality, and harmonious relationships among
The opposition of the two groups would result to a industries and occupations. He highlighted influential
new system called "Synthesis". factors like Chistian religion, monogamy, and
- Karl Marx said that social equilibrium existed at the parliamentary legislation.
beginning, when society was still rudimentary, and - List disagreed with classical economists on free trade
this led to the development of his theory of scientific based on comparative advantage, arguing it favors
social progress. But as new concepts and methods of England due to its higher industrialization stage. He
operation were presented, the established order was supported free trade among developed nations,
upset. Man developed a hunger for wealth and suggesting that industries should be protected with
power. Material possessions were of immense tariffs during early industrialization, and once viable,
importance to man. A class conflict sprang out laissez faire could be practiced.
between the capitalists and the workers as a result. - Henry George's book, Progress and Poverty,
The goal of the latter group has been to amass wealth analyzed the distribution of factors of production in
at the workers' cost. California during the 1870s, focusing on rent as the
- Marx predicted capitalism's downfall due to its root cause of poverty. He believed that land value
limitations in class struggle, but it has expanded and increased due to community growth and societal
become stronger. Capitalistic societies have high progress, and wealth could be achieved by
living standards, while free enterprise economies purchasing land near a fast-growing city center.
show potential for - Henry George views rent as an unearned income due
to increased land rents due to population growth and
business growth.
- Businessmen pay rents, increasing production costs.
Consumers pay these costs, leading to higher prices
and depressed economic conditions for the poor.
HENRY GEORGE THEORY

Henry George proposed that government taxes should increase rent and land value, with only unearned
incomes taxed for landowners. He believed all revenues could finance government expenses, eliminating the need for
additional taxes. George predicted a paradise for society, promoting full employment and eradicating wages due to
rapid labor demand. The theory of single tax gained popularity, but limited applications failed. Henry George's tax
crusade failed due to landowner power, population growth, and poverty due to business cycles.

MODERN THEORY OF EMPLOYMENT

Employment is determined by labor supply and demand. High wages lead to unemployment, as producers
are reluctant to manufacture goods if they fear losing. The classical theory of employment suggests higher wages
cause unemployment. However, during the great depression in the 1930s, widespread unemployment occurred, and the
theory failed. John Meynard Keynes, an English economist, argued that high wages could not be the cause of
unemployment.

KEYNESIAN THEORY OF EMPLOYMENT

Keynesian theory asserts that employment levels are linked to the balance between aggregate supply and
demand. Increased consumer spending stimulates demand, leading businesses to invest and hire more workers, driven
primarily by profit expectations. To address economic downturns, Keynes advocated for government spending on
public works, which created jobs and boosted incomes. This, in turn, stimulated private sector investment and further
employment, facilitating recovery from the great depression and establishing Keynes as a key figure in modern
economics.

INNOVATION THEORY

Innovation theory Joseph Schumpeter is the author of the innovation theory. He placed emphasis on the role
of the innovator in economic development. The innovator is the economic leader or the entrepreneur who has the
courage and imagination to handle old systems, and be able to transform theory into practice. An innovation can be
any change initiated by the entrepreneur which leads to a faster and better development of an industry. Such change
may be in the form of an invention, method of production or marketing strategy. Because of innovations introduced by
few dating entrepreneurs, the industry concerned became profitable. In Schumpeter's theory, the entrepreneur
serves as the key figure in economic progress, acting as the planner, organizer, coordinator, and executor of
economic activities. However, in less developed countries, the presence and impact of innovators may be limited due
to conservative investment practices and a prevalence of family-owned businesses focused on safer investments like
real estate.

SOME GROWTH MODELS

The paragraph discusses various economic growth models, particularly focusing on the Ricardian growth
theory. Economic models differ in complexity, each designed based on local conditions such as climate, natural
resources, and manpower. While many models originated from Western countries, they have been adapted for other
nations with varying degrees of success, Japan could modify Western models to fit its own local economy. The
Ricardian growth model, developed by David Ricardo, highlights land as the central factor in economic development,
especially for agricultural nations. Ricardo's theory of diminishing returns explains that land scarcity limits growth as
it leads to reduced productivity. To mitigate this, Ricardo suggested importing food. In agricultural economies,
expanding farmland is critical, whereas developed countries have improved agricultural productivity through
technology. Japan, despite limited land, has notably enhanced its productivity, achieving the highest rice yield in the
world.

The Harrod Model. This model was developed by sir Harrod of England and Professor Domar of
America. The key factor is physical capital like machinery, buildings, and equipment. The model shows the
relationship the input and output. The input is capital, and its efficiency is reflected in its output. The rate of growth in
the economy can be measured through the GNP or real per capital income The Kaldor Model. The author of this
economic growth model is Nicholas Kaldor. The key factor of this is Technology. He pointed out that technology is
embodied in physical capital. He further stated that technical progress comes from investment.