INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTIC

FINAL TERM LESSONS

SYNTAX

> formation of words/phrases to create or arrange sentences. (the sentence itself)

> Determiner, Noun, predicate(verb).

>The way in which linguistic elements (such as words) are put together to form constituents
Connected or orderly system : harmonious arrangement of parts or elements– Merriam Webster

> Have to consider the types of sentences. ( simple,compound,complex,etc.)

> It must be parallel from start to it’s end.

>The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.- Oxford
Dictionary

Example: Happily, the boy jumped.

The boy jumped happily.

The boy happily jumped.

It creates different meanings, depending on the arrangement of words.

DICTION

> choices of utilization of words.

> choice of words especially with regard to correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. Vocal expression
(enunciation). – Merriam Webster.

>Diction is a word choice and style of expression, and can refer to a speaker's or writer's voice or the
words they use.

Differences:

> Syntax just follows its pattern (determiner, noun and predicate) even sometimes it's incorrect.
While, the diction chooses carefully what to use not just following the pattern.

> Syntax isn't technical, it's just identifying or considering the (noun, predicate & determiner [verb]).
The diction needs technicality.
LESSON. 1 PARTS OF SPEECH

1. NOUN

- The Latin word ñōmen means name.

- Names a person, place, thing and idea.

Types of Noun:

 Proper Noun Names a specific, unique person, place, or thing.

"John" (a specific person's name)

 Common Noun Refers to a general category or type of person, place, or thing.: "city" (any
city, not a specific one)

 Concrete Noun Represents a tangible, physical object or substance.

"book" (a physical object)

 Collective Noun Refers to a group of people, animals, or things.

"family" (a group of relatives)

 Countable Noun can be counted and has a plural form.

"apple" (one apple, two apples, etc.)

 Uncountable Noun Cannot be counted and does not have a plural form.

“water" (you can't count water, but you can measure it)

 Abstract Represents an intangible concept or idea.

"happiness" (a feeling or emotion)

2. PRONOUN

 takes the place of a noun in a sentence.( He is used if you're unsure what gender the person
is.).

Types of Pronoun

 Demonstrative Pronoun Points out a specific person, place, or thing.

"this", "that", "these", "those”

  Indefinite Pronoun Refers to a person or thing without specifying which one. "someone",
"something", "anyone", "anything", "nobody", "nothing”

 Distributive Pronoun Refers to individual members of a group."each", "every", "either",

"neither”

 Interrogative Pronoun Used to ask questions.

"who", "what", "which", "whom", "whose”

 Reflexive Pronoun- Refers back to the subject of the sentence.

"myself", "yourself", "himself", "herself", "itself", "ourselves", "themselves”

 Possessive Pronoun Shows ownership or possession.

"mine", "yours", "his", "hers", "its", "ours", "theirs

 Personal Pronoun Replaces a person's name in a sentence.

"I", "you", "he", "she", "it", "we", "they”

3. VERB

 Indicates an action, state of being or occurrence in a sentence. It tells what noun and
pronoun is.

Types of Verb

 Helping Verb (Auxiliary Verb) Used to help form the tense, mood, or voice of another verb.
"will", "would", "shall", "should", "can", "could", "may", "might”.

 Modal Verb Expresses modality, such as possibility, necessity, or obligation.

"can", "could", "may", "might", "shall", "should", "will", "would”

 Irregular Verb Does not follow the usual pattern of forming the past tense and past
participle. "go", "take", "be", "have”

 Transitive Verb Takes an object directly.

"write", "paint", "buy", "sell”

 Intransitive Verb Does not take an object directly.

"sleep", "laugh", "cry", "smile”

 Regular Verb Forms the past tense and past participle by adding -ed.

"walk", "talk", "listen”

  Linking Verb Connects the subject to additional information.

"be", "seem", "appear", "become”

 Action Verb Expresses physical or mental action.

"run", "jump", "think", "read”

4.Adjective

 Words that describe or modify nouns or pronouns.

Types of Adjective

 Quantitative Adjective Describes the quantity or amount of something.

"three", "five", "many", "few”

 Qualitative Adjective Describes the quality or characteristics of something.

"happy", "big", "blue", "hot"

 Demonstrative Adjective Points out a specific person, place, or thing.

"this", "that", "these", "those"

 Interrogative Adjective Used to ask questions about something.

"what", "which", "how many"

 Possessive Adjective Shows ownership or possession.

"my", "your", "his", "her", "its", "our", "their"

 Distributive Adjective Refers to individual members of a group.

"each", "every", "either", "neither"

 Emphasizing Adjective Adds emphasis to a statement.

"very", "extremely", "highly", "incredibly"

 Compound Adjective Made up of two or more words that work together to describe
something.

"well-known", "full-time", "high-speed”

5. Adverb

 Words that describe or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Types of Adverb

 Manner Adverbs Describe how something is done.

"quickly", "loudly", "wisely", "politely"

 Time Adverbs Describe when something is done.

"yesterday", "soon", "already", "never"

 Place Adverbs Describe where something is done.

"here", "there", "everywhere", "nowhere"

 Frequency Adverbs Describe how often something is done.

"always", "usually", "sometimes", "rarely"

 Degree Adverbs Describe the extent or degree of something.

"very", "extremely", "highly", "slightly"

 Focusing Adverbs Emphasize a particular point or aspect.

"only", "just", "mainly", "particularly"

 Viewpoint Adverbs Express a particular attitude or perspective.

"frankly", "honestly", "personally", "clearly

 Modal Adverbs Express degrees of certainty, possibility, or obligation.

"probably", "possibly", "necessarily", "obviously"

 Intensifier Adverbs Emphasize or intensify the meaning of another word.

"incredibly", "extremely", "remarkably", "exceptionally”

6. Preposition

 Words that show relationships between words or phrases.

Types of Preposition

 Words of LocationDescribe physical or spatial relationships.

"in", "on", "at", "by", "with", "under", "above"

 Words of Direction Describe movement or direction.

"to", "from", "up", "down", "in", "out", "through"

 Words of Time Describe time relationships.

"at", "on", "during", "before", "after"

  Words of Manner Describe the way something is done.

"by", "with", "in", "like"

 Words of Agent Describe the doer of an action.

"by", "with"

 Words of Instrument Describe the tool or means used to perform an action.

"with", "by"

 Words of Measure Describe quantities or measurements.

"by", "with", "in"

 Words of Accompaniment Describe companions or associates.

"with", "accompanied by"

Some common prepositions include:"about", "above", "across", "after", "against", "along",

"among", "around", "at", "before", "behind", "below", "beside", "between", "by", "down", "during",
"for", "from", "in", "inside", "into", "like", "near", "of", "off", "on", "onto", "out", "outside", "over",
"past", "since", "through", "throughout", "till", "to", "toward", "under", "underneath", "until", "up",
"upon", "with", "within", and "without".

7. Conjunction

 Words that connect words, phrases, or clauses.

Types of Conjunction

 Correlative Conjunctions

Both...and,Either...or,Not only...but also,Whether...or

 Subordinating Conjunctions

Because, Since,After, Although, If,Unless, Until,While

 Coordinating Conjunction

For, And, Nor, But, Or , Yet , Si (Fanboys)

8. Interjections

 Words that express emotions or feelings.

Types of Interjection

 Primary interjections These words or sounds can only be used as interjections and have no
other meanings. Examples include "ouch", "hmm", "oops", and "woo".

 Volitive interjections These interjections are used to express emotions like anger, joy,
surprise, or disgust. They can also be used to get someone's attention or to express
excitement. Examples include "shh" to tell someone to be quiet, "shoo" to tell someone to
go away, and "boo" to scare someone.

 Secondary interjectionsThese words already have other meanings and belong to a certain
word class but can also function as interjections. Examples include "damn", "oh my God",
"oh boy", and "congrats".

 Emotive interjections These interjections are used to express emotions or reactions to

something. Examples include "wow" to express surprise, "yay" to express excitement, "grr"
to express anger, "eww" to express disgust, and "ahh" to express fear.

NOTE:

Articles - Words that modify nouns and indicate whether they are specific or general.

Example: "the", "a", "an”

A gerund is a verb form that ends in "-ing" and functions as a noun. It is formed by adding the suffix
"-ing" to the base form of a verb.

Subject: "Singing is my favorite hobby."

Object: "I love eating ice cream."

Complement: "My favorite thing is reading."

Modifier: "The man sitting on the couch is my brother.”

LESSON 2. LEARNING A LANGUAGE: THE MODE AND PROCESSES

A language could be learned through the following channels of communication:

1. Listening

2. Speaking
3. Reading

4. Writing

1. LISTENING

Listening is the process of making conscious use of the sense of hearing. The skill of listening is
measured by one's ability to understand and comprehend the meaning of a word or words which
may be spoken and heard.

Foreign studies disclosed that seventy percent (70%) of a person's waking hours is approximately
devoted to the following communication channels, namely:

a. Listening

-31%

b. Speaking

-21%

c. Reading

11%

d. Writing

-7%

The allotment of percentage to a person's communication channels undoubtedly affirms what an old
proverb expresses: Man was created with two ears and with only one mouth so that he could listen
and learn twice as much as he could speak.

During her/his formative years, a child practically learns more by listening. In almost all phases of
her/his growing years, a child obtains information by listening. She/he learns how to speak and how
to read principally by listening. The listening skill, therefore, is the fundamental talent that serves as
the child's lifelong gate pass to other channels of communication.

TYPES OF LISTENING
 1. ACTIVE LISTENING

This mode of listening exemplifies the conscious and attentive way of utilizing the sense of hearing.
The listener actively participates in trying to understand what is being heard.

2. PASSIVE LISTENING

This mode of listening exemplifies the inactive or submissive way of using the sense of hearing. The
listener is inert and typically passive with an attitude indicative of seeming disinterestedness.

3. SERIOUS LISTENING

Serious listening is further classified into two categories namely: (1) Critical listening and (2) Social
listening

4. CRITICAL LISTENING

This is a mode of listening whereby the listener exercises crucial and discretionary judgment in
assessing what is heard. The listener takes the crux of seriously critiquing what she/he hears.

Critical listening is further classified into three levels:

a. Attentive listening;

b. Reflective listening; and

c. Reactive listening;

A listener exercises attentive listening when she/he shows eamestly her/his attention to the
speaker. Reflective listening is manifested when the listener empathizes with the person affected by
what is heard. Reactive listening is exemplified when the listener becomes responsive to stimulus in
accordance with the level of excitation caused by the speaker.

• Social Listening
  This is a mode of listening whereby the listener socially enjoys what she/he hears; hence,
she/he shows at will nonverbal signals of appreciating what is being heard.

Social listening is further classified into three levels,namely:

a. Appreciative listening;

b. Conversational listening; and

c. Courteous listening.

Appreciative listening is manifested by a listener who shows nonverbal signs indicative of one's
appreciation for what is heard. Conversational listening refers to the process of participative
listening whereby the speaker engages with his listener by conveying her/his message in actual
conversation. Courteous listening is characterized by a listening mode that transpires from the
speaker's polite and gracious way of interacting with her/his listener.

2. SPEAKING

-Speaking is the second channel of communication that refers to one's proficiency in the art of
talking. The skill of speaking identifies one's ability to utter words or sentences appropriately with
the primary purpose to convey a message or an idea.

One who has the ability to speak better has a greater chance or opportunity to get employed and
be promoted. A good speaker delivers her/his message clearer and better thereby availing himself of
getting the attention she/he deserves and of being easily understood by her/his employer.

The development of one's speaking skill calls for the enhancement of correct pronunciation by
observing proper phonetic symbols.

The three essentials of good pronunciation are the following:

 1. Enunciation refers to the mode of utterance of speech sounds. It embraces the proper
pronunciation of word sourords in accordance with the phonemic standards. Characterizes
the sounds of the words of a language a oh showing the sound-distinction of the following
pas of words:

piece - fish

taught- thought

tin-thin

press- fresh

ban - van

pan - fan

2. Intonation basically refers to the speech patterns of rising and falling tone of the voice. It is a
style in producing tones pursuant to a given standard of pitch Hence, it presents the proper
variations of pitch of words, phrases, clauses or sentences.

Thus, the four pitch levels are the following:

Level 1 - low pitch (below normal)

Level 2 - normal pitch (normal)

Level 3-high pitch (above normal)

Level 4 - very high above pitch (a degree higher than the above normal)
RHYTHM of a language refers to the flawless manner of pronouncing and enunciating the words in
the sentence with regular recurrence of stressed syllables without phonemic jerkiness. Rhythm also
responds to the cadence of stressing the content words and unstressing the function words. The
stressed syllables are pronounced slower, a bit louder, and a bit higher in pitch level; the unstressed
syllables, a bit weaker and quicker.

Content words are words with lexical meanings. They are in forms of nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs, demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those) conjunctive adverbs (where, when, why,
how); and interrogative pronouns (who, what).

Function words have no meaning in themselves unless they are used with content words in
sentences. Examples of function words are articles, prepositions, conjunctions, personal pronouns,
linking verbs, and auxiliary verbs.

In the art of speaking, the content words should be stressed with reasonable force of utterance and
function words should not be stressed. They are pronounced a bit weaker and quicker with the least
force of utterance.

3. READING

Reading is an act of recognizing printed or written symbols which serve as stimuli for the recall of
meanings built up through past experiences, and the construction of new meanings through
manipulation of concepts because of the reader's prior knowledge. In other words, reading is the art
of knowing and understanding the meaning of printed words or written symbols. (Bernardez, 2009)

LEVELS OF COMPREHENSION

1. Literal Comprehension - refers to the understanding of expressing facts and ideas. It draws
answers from the what, the who, the when, and the where questions.

2. Interpretative Comprehension refers to the understanding of implied ideas commonly inferred

from the write-up or information.
3.Critical Analysis - refers to the evaluation of something, not only of what is directly expressed but
also of what may be inferred or derived from the situation.

4. Application refers to the process of putting ideas together and of applying what one has learned
from the selection or learning situation.

Comprehensive reading calls for an intensive mode of reading.

The PQRST Study Plan corresponds to the following steps:

P-Previewing the selection. This initial step directs the reader to study the significance or implication
of the title of the selection. It deals with how the subheadings and other components of the
selection may relate to the title.

Q- Questioning process. This step encourages the reader to step-up her questioning attitude. She
figures out possible and appropriate questions the answer of which shall be drawn from the content
of the selection. Actually, in the reading process, the P and the Q steps go hand in hand. The answers
to the questions posed shall be needed in the R and S steps.

R-Reading session. In this process, the reader tries to answer the questions he jotted down during
the P and Q steps. Herihis answers should be in complete sentences.

S - Summarizing the selection. In this step, the reader makes concise answers to each of the
questions she/he presented in her/his Q process. The concise answers should be arranged in such a
way that when the answers shall have been completed, the summary of the selection shall all be in a
logical arrangement.

T-Testing the reader's understanding. The reader, under this step, tries to test himself by answering
the Q's previously presented without glancing at the answers under R and S.

The PQRST Study Plan in reading is a sequel to the usual SQ3Rs Reading Concept (Survey Question
Read, Recite, and Review.) that was taken up in the Developmental Reading I.

3Rs. This acronym means "Read, Recite and Review." This reading process logically demands that
after reading, recitation has to follow. Then the seemingly forgotten details and facts should be
reviewed. If the need arises, the same process, 3Rs, should be repeated.
Critical Reading. This reading method calls for a more serious and deeper understanding task. This
process of reading involves other reading techniques beyond mere comprehension. The reader
analyzes what she/he reads and figures out what message may be implied. In other words, the
reader infers, interprets, and finds out the implication of the selection.

Thus, this mode of reading requires the following processes:

1. Analytical Reading; and

2. Interpretative Reading.

Analytical reading.

This is the process of reading by analysis. It is a reading method of understanding the message of
selection by unfolding the events into parts.

Interpretative reading.

This is a reading process of giving the meaning of what is analyzed. To a greater extent, the reader
aims not only to know what happened in a story but also to project or to speculate on what would
be the possible effect of an episode or on what was the reason why an important incident or
incidents took place or will occur.

Bottom-up theory

The bottom-up is a theory on reading comprehension that responds to the process of decoding or
translating words or written symbols into simple and plain language. It works out on or deals with
the meanings of sentences made up of separate parts or elements. This theory on reading
comprehension may be referred to as the mechanical decoding of forms. Hence, a statement may be
analyzed "word by word" or "thought unit by thought unit". This explains that this process of reading
comprehension is also referred to as a linear approach.

This reading comprehension process may likely be utilized in the analysis and interpretation of any
piece of literary selection, as in interpreting or in analyzing the messages of a poem as well as in
studying the structural forms or elements of a narrative.
Bottom-up theory is based upon the behavioral theory that the brain is likened to a clean sheet of
paper or tabula rasa which absorbs or receives a message for the first time and the interpretation of
such a message is only based upon the initial symbol that the mind understands without the aid of
any form.

TOP-DOWN THEORY

The top-down theory of reading comprehension utilizes the process of reconstructing the meaning
of sentences or paragraphs rather than decoding or translating them.

The top-down process applies when the reader uses empirical knowledge or experiences in
predicting the outcomes of events as read or in making inferences by analogy. In other words, the
reader, in this theory, engages in synthesizing the meanings of the statement rather than analyzing
or interpreting the series of written symbols.

This reading comprehension process may likely be utilized in summarizing any piece of literary
selection as in assembling separate parts into a whole. It responds to the combination of separate
elements into a whole. In this process, the reader "uses prior knowledge to make predictions about
the data to be found in the text," as in figuring out the significant implication of what is read.

Interactive-and-Compensatory Theory

This dimensional process of reading refers to the simultaneous application of bottom-up and top-
down theories.

Tatlonghari (1994) averred that Stanovich (1980) made mention of the interactive-and-
compensatory theory as the third theory of the reading processes.

Primarily, this reading theory contrives that the reader makes use of different reading strategies in
understanding the selection text. The interpretation of messages may be done by the reader on the
basis of his own schematic analysis and at the same time on the basis of his actual or vicarious
experiences.

attention to the following questions:

1. In what particular time or period of history the story was written?

2. Who was the author? What were her interests? Was she involved in any movement where she
triumphed or
met disappointment? 3. Who is the leading character?

LESSON 3. TREE DIAGRAMMING

SYNTAX

It is a branch of linguistics which deals with the arrangement and interrelationship of words in
phrases, clauses and in sentences. Such interrelaship is closely and syntactically related to grammar.

Tree diagramming is a visual representation used in sentence analysis to show the hierarchical
structure of a sentence.

It's commonly employed in linguistics particularly in syntax to break down.

S= NP VP

NP= (Det) (AP) N pronoun (PP)

AP= (AdvP) A (PP)

PP= (P) (NP)

VP = (V) (NP) (AP) (PP)